Practice · DānaVolume TwoPart VI · The Śūraṅgama ReversePaper 20 of 31

The Fifty Skandha-Māras as a Dāna Typology

中文主題：五十陰魔之 dāna 教誡

Author: Shi Huijing 釋慧鏡

Date: Spring 2026

Version: 1.0

ID: DANA-P20

Abstract

This paper repositions the "Fifty Skandha-Māras" of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra (T0945, vols. 9–10) as a typology of dāna (giving) structure inverted by māra at the depths of meditative absorption. Through textual analysis of the sūtra and the commentaries of Zhijian (真鑑), Jiehuan (戒環), Ouyi (蕅益), and Hanshan (憨山), the paper argues that the manifestation of the fifty māra-states is the reverse-encoding of dāna's three wheels (donor, recipient, gift-object) into mechanisms of fraud and extraction within subtle meditative attainments. Particularly, the meditative experiences of "becoming a servant offering the four necessities" and "a layperson receiving monastic reverence" within the skandha-māra-realm reveal how the dāna structure is hijacked to establish corrupt master-disciple lineages. Through dialogue with modern scholars Robert Sharf, Reiko Ohnuma, and James Benn, the paper recovers the ethical guard-rail function of the fifty māras' teachings. Ultimately, the paper demonstrates that the sūtra's own architecture places the teaching on this māra-typology (dharma-giving) as far surpassing material giving of seven treasures filling the cosmos, thereby completing Part VI's three-layer construction of Śūraṅgama dāna (ethics-layer, meditative-layer, and māra-layer).

I. Introduction: The End-Time Warning on Māra-Activities and the Part VI Triptych

In the Śūraṅgama Sūtra's system of practice, the analysis of "māra-activities" (魔事) following entry into meditative attainment has often been read as either a cosmological catalogue of spirits or a psychological inventory of hallucinations. However, when viewed through the lens of dāna (giving), the appearance of the fifty skandha-māras is not a random catalogue of meditation oddities but an exceptionally precise demonstration of inverted dāna.

Before illuminating the five-skandha māra-realms, the Buddha issued a severe end-time warning:

"You are still unaware of the subtle māra-events arising in the cultivation of śamatha and vipaśyanā; when māra-realms manifest, you cannot recognize them, cleanse your mind yet fall into heretical-views. Or your own skandha-māra, or heavenly māra, or attachment to spirits, or encounter with mountain demons; without clear understanding in your mind, you take the thief for your child. Furthermore, within you, taking a little as fulfillment -- as the Bhikṣu of the Fourth Dhyāna who falsely claims sagely attainment: having exhausted his heavenly retribution, the signs of decline now appear; he defames the arhat, brings future existence upon his own body, and falls into the avīci hell."¹

This passage establishes the foundation for this paper: the depths of meditation are a terrain easily misread. When practitioners "take the thief for their child" in samādhi, the most critical danger lies in mistaking māra-disguised "right experience" for sagely attainment. And the social manifestation of this "false-sagely-attainment" is the establishment of an inverted dāna structure — using counterfeit sagely status to attract undeserved offerings, transforming dāna (which should point toward liberation) into a vessel sustaining māra-activities.

This paper serves as the closer of Part VI, "Śūraṅgama Reverse-Giving Doctrine," completing a three-layer structure with its predecessors. P18 examined the "ethics-layer," analyzing how non-stealing (adattādāna-viramaṇa) functions as the foundation of dāna, revealing the logic of "abandoning theft = practicing giving." P19 examined the "meditative-realization layer," analyzing the reverse-encoding structure of dāna within the twenty-five gateways of perfect penetration, demonstrating how dāna is immanent within the realization of each gateway. P20 now enters the "māra-layer," revealing what inverted typology emerges when the dāna structure is hijacked by māra at the depths of meditation.

From P18's "non-stealing" to P19's "perfect penetration" to P20's "māra-activities," dāna progresses through three layers: ethical baseline → realization dimension → trap-mechanism, mapping the Śūraṅgama's total architecture on right and wrong regarding "giving."

Zhijian, in his Zhengmai Shu, established a fundamental framework for the fifty skandha-māras:

"The preceding section aided comprehension at the point of concluding delusion, aided entry at the point of urging abandonment; this section aids cultivation at the point of discerning māra, aids realization at the point of non-regression. ... While ānanda only knew to request samādhi, the subtle māra-realms arising within samādhi exceeded his capacity to recognize, hence he did not inquire. Since the Buddha has illuminated great samādhi, the victory and defeat of māra's army is truly the hinge of great samādhi's completion or destruction -- the stakes are immense, hence the deep compassion moves without waiting for inquiry."²

Zhijian's seven characters — "the victory and defeat of māra's army is truly the hinge of great samādhi's completion or destruction" — reveal dāna's central position within meditation: the completion or destruction of samādhi lies not in the meditative state itself, but in the giving-receiving relations arising within it — whether grasping at offerings, craving for disciples, or guiding donors with deviant view (邪見). These are dāna's structure turning right or wrong.

Jiehuan further clarified in his Yaojie:

"Māra, translated, means 'slayer' or 'one who takes,' for he slays wisdom-life and takes wholesome dharmas. Five categories open: skandha-māra, kleśa-māra, death-māra, heavenly māra, and ghost-māra. Combined, only skandha-māra and heavenly māra remain. ... For those who have not yet aroused [bodhicitta], he goes along with them, so there is no enemy. Only for those rightly practicing — who oppose and do not follow — does he specifically cause disturbance; hence discernment is necessary."³

"Slaying wisdom-life, taking wholesome dharmas" reaches the core of dāna's teaching: māra does not want to kill your body, but to slay your wisdom-life — your correct understanding and practice of dāna. When dāna is inverted, the giver's wholesome action is taken (transformed into inverted giving), and the recipient's proper virtue is taken (self-perceiving virtue where none exists); both lives of wisdom are cut.

II. Primary Sūtra: The Architecture of the Śūraṅgama's Five-Skandha Māra-Realms

To understand how dāna is inverted within samādhi, one must first analyze the ontological structure of the fifty skandha-māras themselves. The Buddha divided māra-activities across five aggregate-domains, ten per aggregate, their architecture presenting a progressive movement from "purely internal" to "externally-attached."

2.1 The Master-Key: The Five Aggregates' Owner

The Buddha clearly distinguished "master" from "guest":

"Ananda! Know that reliance on divine power alone makes one merely a guest; destruction and confusion arise from the five-aggregate owner within your mind. When the master is lost, the guest finds opportunity. Dwelling in dhyāna, awakening without delusion — then māra-events cannot touch you. When aggregates dissolve into illumination, those myriad deviant beings all receive [only] subtle ghost-breath."⁴

This reveals a critical point: māra-events are not orchestrated by external spirits but arise because the practitioner's own "five-aggregate owner" falls into delusion. In dāna's context, this means the recipient's greed, name-craving, or attachment to offerings is precisely what gives external māra the "opening" to exploit.

Hanshan, in his Tongyi, judged:

"Māra's nature is darkness; five aggregates' meaning is covering. By losing the one true, the color-and-mind five aggregates arose, covering the true mind -- this spans the awakening-field, transforming it into a māra-cave! ... If one returns from delusion to truth, one must dissolve this five-aggregate body-mind, to restore the one-true awakening-body. Because mind-delusion and mind-awakening decide, māra and Buddha are distinguished here! ... The moment one attaches, one falls into māra's class!"⁵

Hanshan's "the moment one attaches, one falls into māra's class" precisely marks the critical point where dāna shifts from right to wrong in meditation: when giving or receiving is motivated by a single thought of attachment — whether to offerings, disciples, or the name of sagely status — that single thought is the starting point of sliding from awakening-field to māra-cave.

2.2 Five Aggregate Domains and Their Dāna-Relevant Density

Color Aggregate: Solidifying Delusion, Dāna-Interference Still Shallow

The general portrait of the color aggregate is:

"Ananda! Know that when you sit in the dao-field and dissolve all thoughts, when thoughts are exhausted, all non-thinking realms become perfectly lucid, motion and stillness do not shift, memory and forgetting are one. Dwelling here, enter samāpatti. Like a clear-eyed person in vast darkness -- the refined nature is wondrously pure, yet mind-light has not yet arisen; this is called the color-aggregate domain."⁶

The color aggregate's "solidifying delusion" -- the physical body is the coarsest aggregate. The ten color-māras mostly manifest as luminous phenomena (passing through barriers, retrieving parasites, seeing buddhas, seeing in darkness) and intersect relatively shallowly with dāna. Yet the refrain "do not make it sacred" is established -- each māra-realm closes with this phrase, warning practitioners not to mistake experience for attainment.

Feeling Aggregate: Illusory Illumination, Dāna-Inversion Initially Manifest

The general portrait of the feeling aggregate is:

"Ananda! When a good person cultivates samādhi and the color aggregate is exhausted, they see all buddha-minds as manifesting in a clear mirror. If some attainment is perceived but not yet usable, like a person pinned down -- limbs and hands are intact, seeing and hearing unconfused, yet mind-contact with the guest-evil cannot move; this is called the feeling-aggregate domain."⁷

The feeling aggregate's "illusory illumination" -- the emotional layer. The ten feeling-māras (compassion, courage, memory, contentment, sorrow, joy, arrogance, lightness, emptiness, desire) all share the mechanism of "misreading one's own emotion as attainment." Among them, the seventh "great-arrogance-māra" and the ninth "emptiness-māra" directly intersect dāna.

In the arrogance-māra, the practitioner "considers themselves complete," and suddenly unprovoked great-arrogance arises. They regard the ten-directional buddhas as inferior, let alone śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. If they take this as attainment, a great-arrogance-māra enters their heart:

"They do not bow to stupas or image-halls; they destroy and discard sūtra-images, saying to donors: 'These are gold, copper, clay, or wood. Sūtras are mere leaves or folded flowers. The physical body is true and constant; not honouring it while reverencing these is truly inverted.' Those who deeply believe them follow them in smashing the images and burying the pieces in the earth, misleading sentient beings into the avīci hell."⁸

Here dāna's three wheels underwent a violent reversal: what should have been "donor → stupa / image / sūtra" giving was twisted into "donor → false-sagely body." The recipient, by destroying the gift-objects (stupas, sūtra-images), forced donors' faith toward their own physical body. This is a "recipient-identity hijack," internalizing dāna's sacredness as self-arrogance. Ouyi, in his Wenju, judged this as "both precept and wisdom lost" — because losing middle-way wisdom, one loses middle-way precept:⁹

"Six, using the bhikhu of no-hearing as a rhetorical launchpad to thoroughly illuminate five-aggregate māra-realms, showing that without middle-way wondrous wisdom, one also loses middle-way wondrous precept. Because lacking similar middle-way wisdom, one either falls into māra-realms and breaks precept, or falls into and breaks view."

In the emptiness-māra, the practitioner "turns toward eternal cessation, denying causality." If taken as attainment:

"An emptiness-māra enters their heart, slandering as hīna, saying 'a bodhisattva understands emptiness -- what precept or transgression exists!' Such persons regularly drink wine and eat meat in the presence of faithful donors, extensively practicing sexual impurity. Through māra-power, they hold their preceding followers without generating doubt or slander."¹⁰

Openly breaking precepts and consuming wine, meat, and sexual impurity before "faithful donors" — turning the dāna-offering-field into an "emptiness = no-transgression" stage. Donors' faith is held by māra-power "without generating doubt" — dāna becomes an entryway into shared evil-karma. Jiehuan's note: "Ultimately, at the root, it is only attachment to emptiness."¹¹ — the internal cause of inverted-reception of dāna is "attachment to emptiness."

The feeling-aggregate's tenth "desire-māra" is the first stage of "gathering followers:"

"If taken as attainment, a desire-māra enters the heart, constantly teaching desire as the path of bodhi, transforming white-robed laypersons to practice desire equally, saying those who practice sexual acts hold the dharma-substitute. Through spirit-power, gathering in the end-times the ignorant, the number reaching hundreds, and so to thousands, or five-, six-hundreds, filling ten-thousands."¹²

From hundreds to ten-thousands of followers gathered not through dharma-teaching but through "spirit-power." Dāna's social dimension (followers / lineages) is hijacked by the desire-māra. This together with the thinking-aggregate's "spirit-essence possessing persons to sit and teach" constructs the end-time saṅgha's collapse-typology.

Thinking Aggregate: Integrating Delusion, Highest Dāna-Inversion Density

The general portrait of the thinking aggregate is:

"Ananda! When a good person cultivates samādhi and the feeling aggregate is exhausted, though not yet free from āsrava, the mind separates from the body like a bird leaving a cage; having achieved the capacity to ascend from this ordinary body through sixty saintly stages of the bodhisattva, obtaining a mind-born body moving without obstruction. ... This is called the thinking-aggregate domain."¹³

The thinking aggregate's "integrating delusion" — every thinking-māra is constituted by the pattern "heavenly-māra waits for its opening, sends essence to possess a person, who speaks dharma." All ten māras involve "craving X" — skillful means / experience / aim-correspondence / discerning analysis / spirit-resonance / tranquility / past-life knowledge / psychic power / deep emptiness / longevity — and after ghost-possession, all "sit on seats to teach," "covertly practice desire," "transform laypersons," "deplete family wealth," "gather followers."

The thinking-aggregate section is the densest area of dāna-intersection across the entire fifty māras. The following analyzes each māra directly relevant to dāna.

Thinking-Māra I · Strange-Ghost Māra: Terror and Wealth Depletion. The first thinking-māra is already "family wealth mysteriously depleted" — terrifying donors through omens, disasters, and prophecies of kalpa-fire and sword-warfare. This is the archetype of end-time dāna-fraud: using religious authority to manufacture fear, inducing non-volitional giving. Jiehuan judged: "Shaking their minds, breaking the buddha's discipline, covertly practising desire."¹⁴

Thinking-Māra V · Vengeful-Spirit Māra: Becoming a Servant Offering the Four Necessities. This is one of P20's most critical dāna text-samples:

"Enabling listeners to briefly see their body as a thousand years old, generating affection and attachment, unable to separate. Becoming servants, offering the four necessities without tiring. ...: 'I in past lives, in such-and-such a birth, first liberated such-and-such a person; at that time they were my wife, concubine, brother — now I come to liberate them again...'"¹⁵

Here, dāna's highest form — "the four necessities" (cattāro paccayā: food, robes, lodging, medicine) — is hijacked by māra. Donors, under spiritual manipulation, transform dāna's free choice into "becoming servants" — self-enslavement. Zhijian judged this "investing in their craving" (投其愛求) — donor's affection → recipient's counterfeit display → giving-inversion.¹⁶ Hanshan pointed out the root in "craving spirit-resonance, thereby inviting māra into the heart" and "possession has always a cause" — māra's possession is never accidental; the practitioner's samādhi-thought provides the invitation.¹⁷

Ouyi further identified the psychological mechanism: "a separate dharma-love arises, sticking like lacquer" — donors develop "dharma-love" toward the false-teacher (mistaking it for devotional reverence to the dharma); this love sticks like lacquer, turning dāna into karma-binding rather than free giving.

Thinking-Māra VIII · Spirit-Charm Māra: White-Robe Receiving Monastic Reverence. This is the blindest type of laity-monastic dāna-inversion:

"Claiming to be buddha, wearing white-robes, receiving bhikṣu-bows, slandering dhyāna-precepts, scolding disciples, exposing private matters, avoiding no slander. ... Praising sexual practice, not condemning, taking as dharma-transmission."¹⁸

A layperson (white-robed) claiming to be buddha, inversely receiving the prostration-offerings due to monastics. The original dāna hierarchy (monastics as fields of merit) is completely inverted. Zhijian directly judged this "destroying the teaching" (壞教).¹⁹ Ouyi noted that this directly targets the peak of the "self-claiming-sagely / receiving-offerings / gathering-followers" three-symptom complex.²⁰

Summing Thinking's Ten Māras: The Cross-Generational Chain of-Giving. The sūtra closes the thinking-māras with exceptionally severe language:

"Ananda! Know that these ten māras in the end-times, within my teaching, are those who ordain and practise; either possessing other bodies or manifesting their own forms, all claiming to have attained anuttarā-samyak-sambodhi; praising sexual desire and breaking the Buddha's discipline. The former evil-māra-teacher and the māra-disciple transmit lust to lust; thus these deviant essences enchant their heart-organs. For nine lives at the least, often exceeding a hundred generations, they make true practitioners all become māra-followers."²¹

"Within my teaching, are those who ordain and practise" marks these not as outsiders but as internal corruption. "The former evil-māra-teacher and the māra-disciple transmit lust to lust" describes a cross-generational master-disciple chain: dāna is no longer practice-support but a corrupt saṅgha's self-sustaining mechanism. Ouyi's passionate note on this passage:

"Alas! Reading the sūtra to this point, if one does not weep openly, mourn the past and grieve the present, and resolve to revive this decaying wind — such a one is truly a member of the māra-family!"²²

Forming Aggregate and Consciousness Aggregate: Deep Self-Deception, Dāna-Mirror-Reversal

The forming-aggregate's ten māras are mostly inverted non-Buddhist views, with lower direct dāna-intersection, though "claiming sagely attainment" remains the common thread.

The consciousness-aggregate's eighth is the dāna mirror-reversal:

"Observing life-intersubstitution, yet leaving worldly-labor fearing its exhaustion; thus sitting in a lotus-palace, extensively transforming seven-treasures, increasing precious-concubines, indulging those whose minds generate; such persons fall into true-non-true attachment, and become their companions."²³

At the deepest consciousness layer, the practitioner-embraces material enjoyment: "extensively transforming seven-treasures" = reverse-manifestation of dāna-objects; "increasing precious-concubines" = sexualizing assets. Originally dāna was to "abandon" self-grasping; here enjoyment is seen as "fulfillment." Hanshan's note on this passage reveals the most subtle dāna self-deception structure:²⁴

"Saying 'if my life ends, all beings' lives end; then who? Who transforms beings? Hence leaving worldly-labor, increasing desire-enjoyment, planning long-life dwelling. Using 'verifying truth and transforming beings' as excuse, thus generating delusion and indulging desire -- truly not verifying truth; hence: true-non-true attachment.'"

"Leaving worldly-labor to transform beings" -- this logic's dāna-variation is: "If I do not receive offerings, who maintains the? If I do not expand my following, who propagates the true dharma?" Hanshan judged this "true-non-true attachment" + "heavenly-māra-seed," one of P20's most critical warnings.

Hanshan further pointed out that the consciousness-aggregate's māra is no longer external ghost-possession but purely "view-māra" (constructed by wrong-view), judged as "self-made-deep-wrong" and "taking-dharma-from-outside-mind."²⁵ For dāna's implication: at samādhi's depths, dāna's no longer manifests as "inviting-possession" ghost-form but as the practitioner's own mind's subtle-grasping -- "self-made-deep-wrong."

2.3 Five-Aggregate Convergence: Claiming Sagely Attainment, the Great False Speech

Each of the five-aggregate's ten-māra passages closes with a convergent phrase. Using the color-aggregate as example:

"Ananda! These ten meditative-manifestation-states are all color-aggregate mind-interaction, hence these phenomena manifest. Sentient beings are stubbornly deluded, not measuring themselves, encountering these causes and conditions, deluded without recognizing, claiming sagely attainment. The great false speech is committed; falling into the avīci hell."²⁶

"Claiming sagely attainment, the great false speech is committed" -- falsely claiming sagely status to receive undeserved offerings is the common thread of the fifty skandha-māras and the core sin of dāna-fraud. This directly points to the bhikṣu pārājika fourth precept (the fourth root offense: claiming attainment one has not verified). The paper must make this connection explicit, preventing readers from treating "falsely claiming sagely attainment" as mere meditation-terminology.

III. Commentary Tradition: The Four Masters' Verdicts on Dāna-Relevant Māras

Against the sūtra-text structure, Zhijian, Jiehuan, Ouyi, and Hanshan provided deep commentary, precisely positioning these māra-states as dāna's corruption.

3.1 Zhijian's Zhengmai Shu: Mind-Filth as Cause, Recognizing as Antidote

Zhijian's opening to the fifty skandha-māras in the Zhengmai Shu establishes a fundamental framework:

"Knowing that moving-māra arises from samādhi-being-close, one is not startled at māra's commencement and prevents without harm; knowing that chaos-creation arises from the-master-being-deluded, one is unmoved at māra's culmination, guarding oneself only firmly."²⁷

"Moving-māra from samādhi-being-close, chaos-creation from master-being-deluded" -- this is the fifty-māras' total two-cause theory. For P20: dāna practiced to samādhi's depths (samādhi-being-close)moves māra, and whether chaos-creation (-receiving dāna) arises depends on the-master's-delusion-or-awakening, not on dāna itself.

Zhijian's verdicts on two dāna-relevant feeling-māras are particularly critical. On the arrogance-māra's "saying to donors":

"If finally without self-reproach, māra-possessed going mad, misleading self and others, beyond salvation. In recent times such persons abound across the world, destroying buddha-images as gold-copper-clay-wood, making oneself the living buddha ... truly māra's words, truly māra's people."²⁸

Zhijian explicitly marked "saying to donors" -- the feeling-aggregate's arrogance-māra operates by speaking to donors -- rejecting external-gift-objects (destroying stupas/images) while elevating one's own body to true-gift-object. This is the inversion of dāna's recipient and object.

On the emptiness-māra's "faithful donors":

"Having been māra-possessed, gradually unaware, losing original mind, misleading and entrapping many — their offences immeasurable. Ultimately at the root: only attachment to emptiness. In recent times some white-robed persons constantly teach great empty-space as original-nature, slandering all buddha-work as attached-to-form, yet saying all worldly matters are unobstructed."²⁹

"Faithful donors" explicitly names the dāna-recipients (donors); the emptiness-māra practitioner publicly breaks precepts before donors (drinking, eating meat), the prototype of-receiving dāna.

Zhijian's most important verdict at the fifty-māras' closing:

"When māra-realms manifest, if you can recognize them, mind-filth is washed away, not falling into heretical-views. Zhijian's explanation: 'Harm-creation seems from māra, but māra-causing is truly from mind-filth. As said before, each according to their long-cherished partial-loves — that is mind-filth. Now if you can recognize māra-realms, not only do you not fall into māra-deceit, you also wash away mind-filth, and not falling into deviant sects.'"³⁰

"Harm-creation seems from māra, but māra-causing is truly from mind-filth" — this is the best anchor for P20 §VI's convergence. Inverted-dāna's appearance is never accidental but the practitioner's eon-long craving for offerings and fame, manifesting in samādhi. Māra-realms are only mind-filth's mirror-image — not cause, but sign.

Zhijian's further explanation of "long-cherished delusional mind" (先習迷心):

"By 'cherished prior-habits' — each accumulates eon-long impregnation, the partial-love for evil seeds. Now in samādhi, when a realm-apparatus appears that resonates with the prior mind, it strikes their disease-root and arouses their chronic ailment; thereupon, in delight, they grasp and take refuge, falsely claiming ultimate verification."³¹

This further explains inverted-dāna's appearance mechanism: samādhi-realms resonate with the practitioner's "prior partial-love," thus "striking the disease-root and arousing chronic ailment" — this is the deep mechanism of dāna's corruption.

3.2 Jiehuan's Yaojie: Māra as Slayer of Wisdom-Life, Taker of Wholesome Dharmas

Jiehuan's unique structural division of the fifty māras divides the thinking-māra-ten into three layers:

"As in the feeling-aggregate, the ten kinds raised — sorrow and the rest — these are skandha-māras. The thinking-aggregate first raises ten kinds — these are heavenly-māras. Next it raises the supplementary attached ones — these are ghosts, piśācas, and goblins. The first set of texts all say 'covertly practising desire' — this is the māra-teacher and māra-disciple's lust-to-lust transmission. The next set of texts all say 'in their mouths they delight to speak' — this is the deviant essence enchanting their heart-organs."³²

Feeling-aggregate-ten = "skandha-māra" (self-arising); thinking-aggregate-ten = "heavenly-māra + ghosts" (externally attached). This division directly affects the dāna-perspective classification: inverted-receiving and follower-gathering mostly belong to thinking-aggregate heavenly-māra-possession — because only external-attachment can establish large-scale master-disciple lineages.

Jiehuan's point on "five-aggregate owner" is concise:

"Relying on divine power alone, speaking of all māras. Five-aggregate owner points to the mind. Aggregates-dissolving-into-illumination points to the one-awakening."³³

The master-key of the fifty māras is "five-aggregate owner = one's own mind." All fifty states are decided by "whether the-master is-deluded." In dāna's dimension: receiving-offerings and gathering-followers with a-deluded mind means even donors fall.

Jiehuan's note on the thinking-māra-V "four necessities" is particularly worth noting:

"He transforms a form of hundreds and thousands of years, borrowing past-life acquaintance to manifest spirit-resonance."³⁴

Māra uses "past-life acquaintances" (past master-disciple relations) as bait, making donors develop "dharma-love." This method of "borrowing past-life acquaintance" illustrates inverted-giving's mechanism: not coercion but "the inducement of free will" — donors believe they give freely, yet are bound by māra's "dharma-love sticking like lacquer."

3.3 Hanshan's Tongyi: Forgetting Bodhicitta While Cultivating Wholesome Dharmas Is Māra's Work

Hanshan's core contribution to the Tongyi is revealing the most subtle self-deception structure of dāna's. He quoted the Avataṃsaka's pivotal phrase as the common diagnosis of the fifty māras:

"Forgetting bodhicitta while cultivating wholesome dharmas -- this is māra's work, all of this class!"³⁵

If dāna forgets bodhicitta, even "wholesome dharmas" are māra's work; receiving offerings and the four necessities fall within this category. This phrase provides P20's most core framework: the root of all dāna's lies not in dāna itself but in whether one has "forgotten bodhicitta."

Hanshan's general verdict:

"Note: this speaks of 'the deviant cannot overcome the right'! Māra depends on darkness; the samādhi-mind is empty-luminous, hence as blowing-on-light or cutting-water. Light and darkness as phases have nothing in common, hence cannot touch. Light breaks darkness as hot water melts ice. Because [māra] comes from outside, hence as a guest. The deviant cannot overcome the right, hence cannot destroy samādhi. Because your mind is deluded, hence they get their opportunity."³⁶

This passage reveals the ontological premise of inverted-dāna: the deviant cannot overcome the right — māra's power alone cannot destroy samādhi. Only under the condition of "your mind is deluded" does māra "get its opportunity." In dāna's context, "mind-delusion" is attachment to offerings and fame — precisely this attachment transforms pure dāna into inverted giving.

Hanshan closed the thinking-māras with the "worms within the lion's body" koan:

"Once when the Buddha dwelt in the world, māra sought to destroy the dharma; by the Buddha's spiritual power, none could. Māra vowed: 'After your parinirvāṇa, I will ordain within your teaching and destroy the dharma.' The Buddha shed tears: 'There is nothing I can do about you — like worms within a lion's body eating the lion's own flesh; know that end-time dharma-destroying bhikṣus are all māra-affiliated!'"³⁷

End-time dharma-destroyers are not outsiders but "bhikṣus who ordain within the teaching." Dāna-misappropriation (receiving offerings, claiming-sagely, gathering followers) is dangerous precisely because donors do not know that their giving-target is in fact "a worm within the lion's body."

3.4 Ouyi's Wenju: Tiantai Ten-Domains Classification and End-Time Dharma-Protection Cry

Ouyi used Tiantai's doctrinal-observation to classify the fifty skandha-māras, mapping the five-aggregate māra-realms to the Mohe Zhiguan's ten domains:

"Furthermore, Mohe Zhiguan extensively illuminates ten domains: one skandha-dhātu-entry, two kleśa, three illness, four karma-appearance, five māra-events, six samādhi, seven-views, eight self-uplift, nine two-vehicles, ten bodhisattva. ... This five-aggregate realm has kleśa, karma-appearance, māra-events, samādhi,-views, self-uplift, and two-vehicle domains, only lacking illness and bodhisattva."³⁸

Thus dāna's teaching gains a Tiantai framework: craving-offerings belongs to "kleśa-domain," gathering-followers to "māra-domain," claiming-sagely to "self-uplift-domain." The fifty skandha-māra-realms are the sum of seven domains.

Ouyi's key classification:

"Or your skandha-māra etc. -- generally, all fifty-fold realms are named skandha-māra, all arising from five aggregates. Specifically, color-aggregate's ten realms are merely within the aggregate, truly named skandha-māra. Feeling-aggregate's ten have external-māra-entering the mind, simultaneously encountering ghosts. Thinking-aggregate's ten additionally have heavenly-māra and attaching-spirits."³⁹

The critical distinction among the four-aggregate classification: only the thinking-aggregate's "heavenly-māra-possession" has the phenomenon of large-scale-sagely-attainment, receiving-followers' reverence, and defrauding-offerings. This explains why P20's dāna-typology focuses on the thinking-aggregate's ten realms.

Ouyi's personal note on the fifty-māras' closing passage is the most dharma-protective text across the entire commentary:

"Alas! Reading the sūtra to this point, if one does not weep openly, mourn the past and grieve the present, and resolve to revive this decaying wind — such a one is truly a member of the māra-family!"⁴⁰

As one of the four late-Ming masters, Ouyi witnessed-teachers gathering followers and-giving flourishing in contemporary monasteries. This passage moves from doctrinal-observation to a dharma-protective cry, providing P20's most powerful emotional anchor.

Ouyi further pointed to the end-time teacher-disciple danger:

"This requires close-association with enlightened-masters, receiving teaching ... Although having teacher-transmission, still needing protective-mantra. Knowing that end-time teachers, not being-familiar with this sūtra, and mantra-recitation not conforming to the pattern, how different from is barely."⁴¹

"End-time teachers rarely different from" -- Ouyi's critical conclusion on the contemporary follower-gathering scene. For P20's dāna-teaching: the legitimacy of receiving-gifts / receiving-followers must return to the dual test of "familiar-with-this-sūtra + mantra-according-to-pattern."

Ouyi further used four metaphors to classify māra-events:

"Four metaphors: one, wind-blows-light; two, knife-cuts-water -- these merely, showing no-harm; three, hot-water-melts-ice; four, light-darkness -- not only no-harm, but transforming māra-realm into buddha-realm!"⁴²

"Transforming māra-realm into buddha-realm" -- for P20's "-giving-counter-theory," this is the core observation: receiving-offerings / gathering-followers with awakening is not only harmless but can be transformed.

IV. Core Argument: Three Layers of Dāna-Inversion Typology in the Fifty Skandha-Māras

Based on the above analysis, this paper proposes that the fifty skandha-māras are not random māra-states but a complete dāna-inversion typology. This typology, along the practitioner's five-aggregate progression, shows how dāna's three wheels (donor, recipient, gift-object) are progressively hijacked.

4.1 Layer I: Feeling-Aggregate -- Reverse-Encoding of Recipient-Identity

In the feeling-aggregate section, dāna's inversion first occurs in the recipient's identity. Among the feeling-aggregate's ten māras, the arrogance-māra and emptiness-māra are the two cases.

The arrogance-māra's mechanism is "recipient-identity hijack:" by destroying traditional dāna-objects (stupas, sūtra-images), forcing donors' faith toward one's own physical body. This is identity-theft -- stealing offerings that should belong to the buddha-dharma and redirecting them to the self. Zhijian judged "making oneself the living buddha" -- elevating the impermanent body to the status of worthy-of-offering.⁴³

The emptiness-māra's mechanism is "using-emptiness-to-break-precept:" using mahāyāna's "understanding-emptiness" to negate all precept-necessity, thereby finding-basis for-receiving-offerings. Zhijian pointed out the root in "attachment-to-emptiness" -- attachment to "emptiness" itself is a subtle form of existence.⁴⁴ Jiehuan noted: "Ultimately, at the root, only attachment to emptiness."⁴⁵

The desire-māra then opens institutionalized hijacking of "gathering-followers:" from hundreds to ten-thousands of followers. This large-scale lineage-construction is not the power of dharma-teaching but the result of "spirit-power" holding. dāna's social dimension is instrumentalized here.

The common feature of these three māra-states: the practitioner at the feeling-aggregate already possesses "self-considered-complete" self-perception. This self-inflation transforms dāna's recipient from "worthy-field of merit" (buddha-images, sūtra-images, sagely-monastics) to "worthy-of-offering physical-body." dāna's three wheels underwent their first violent reversal -- the recipient no longer merely offerings but actively constructs a mechanism forcing donors to give (destroying-images, promoting-emptiness, teaching-desire-as-the-path-of-bodhi).

4.2 Layer II: Thinking-Aggregate -- Institutional Hijacking of the Giving-Receiving Mechanism

Entering the thinking-aggregate, dāna's inversion expands from personal identity-delusion to socialized institutional hijacking. The thinking-māra's core mechanism is "heavenly-māra-waits-for-opening, sends-essence-to-possess-a-person, who speaks dharma" -- establishing master-disciple lineages through-sagely-images.

Jiehuan's three-layer division of thinking-māras — heavenly-māra (first set), and ghosts/piśācas (the supplementary attached set) — reveals a critical structure: inverted giving is not a single act of fraud but an organized, cross-generational mechanism.⁴⁶

The thinking-māra-V "becoming-servant-offering-four-necessities" is the classic sample of dāna-inversion. The four necessities (food, robes, lodging, medicine) were originally the highest offering-form of laypersons to monastics in saṅgha practice. Here, hijacked by māra, it becomes a mechanism of self-enslavement. Zhijian's diagnosis is precise: "investing in their craving" (投其愛求) — the donor's affection is precisely the object struck, turning dāna from free giving into karma-binding.⁴⁷

Hanshan's addition points deeper: "craving, inviting-māra-into-heart" and "possession has always a cause" -- māra-possession is never accidental; the practitioner's samādhi-thought provides the invitation. In dāna's context: the subtle craving for offerings (even in the name of "propagating dharma") is itself the cause inviting-giving.⁴⁸

The thinking-māra-VIII "white-robe-receiving-monastic-bow" is the of dāna-institutional-inversion: a layperson claiming to be buddha,-receiving monastics' prostration-offerings. Ouyi listed this as the peak of the eight-symptom-complex of "self-claiming-sagely / receiving-offerings / gathering-followers," directly striking the three-symptom complex's zenith.⁴⁹ Zhijian directly judged "destroying the teaching."⁵⁰

4.3 Layer III: Consciousness-Aggregate -- Mirror-Reversal of Giving-Receiving Purpose

At the deepest consciousness layer, dāna's inversion no longer manifests as fraud but as a subtle mirror-reversal.

In the consciousness-aggregate's eighth, at the near-nirvanic state, the practitioner-embraces material enjoyment:

"Thus at this moment sitting in a lotus-palace, extensively transforming seven-treasures, increasing precious-concubines, indulging those whose minds generate."⁵¹

"Extensively transforming seven-treasures" = reverse-manifestation of dāna-objects -- originally dāna was to abandon self-grasping; here enjoyment is seen as "fulfillment." "Increasing precious-concubines" further sexualizes assets into the enjoyment-system. Ouyi judged this "generating-thinking-cause, establishing blazing-worldly-effect; departing from perfect penetration, turning from nirvāna-city, birthing heavenly-māra-seed."⁵²

Hanshan's note on this state reveals the most subtle dāna self-deception structure:⁵³

"Saying 'if my life ends, all beings' lives end; then who? Who transforms beings? Hence leaving worldly-labor, increasing desire-enjoyment, planning long-dwelling. Using 'verifying truth and transforming beings' as excuse, thus generating delusion and indulging desire -- truly not verifying truth; hence: true-non-true attachment.'"

"Leaving worldly-labor to transform beings" -- this self-deception logic's contemporary dāna-variation is: "If I do not receive offerings, who maintains the? If I do not expand my following, who propagates the true dharma?" Hanshan judged this with four characters "true-non-true" -- seemingly for the true (transforming beings) but actually not true (self-serving greed).

V. Interdisciplinary Dialogue: With Modern Scholars

To clarify the contemporary significance of the fifty māras' teaching, this paper places it within contemporary Buddhist studies, dialoguing with three scholars.

5.1 Dialogue with Robert Sharf: From "Experience-Rhetoric" to "Ethical Guard-Rail"

Robert Sharf (1995) in "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" argued that māra-descriptions in mahāyāna meditation literature should be read as a meta-rhetoric rather than genuine psychological records. He held that these descriptions serve to construct a specific kind of practice-authority.

Concession: We acknowledge that the specific ghostly-details within the fifty māras (e.g., piśāca-soldiers, caṃcūra-spirits) carry strong cultural-shaping traces and should not be read as cross-cultural ethnographic-true records. Their historical formation was likely influenced by Chinese spiritualty.

Push-back: Yet Sharf's rhetoric-reductionism misses this text's ethical-functional dimension. Regardless of whether these māra-realms are phenomenologically-true, the role they play in the text is establishing an ethical guard-rail for dāna. It warns practitioners: when you pursue "offerings" and "followers," you may be in a dāna-inversion. We should thus recover its function as "ethical early-warning" rather than stopping at rhetoric-analysis.

5.2 Dialogue with Reiko Ohnuma: The Dark Twin of Dāna-Power Reversal

Reiko Ohnuma (2007) in Head, Eyes, Flesh, and Blood systematically analyzed body-gift narratives in Indian Buddhist literature, arguing that the dāna relation between monastic-recipients and lay-donors reversed in mahāyāna -- recipients' prestige depended no longer on precept-purity but on the ability to liberate beings.⁵⁴

Concession: This observation precisely captures the displacement of dāna-power-center. The thinking-māra's "becoming-servant-offering-four-necessities" pattern responds to this dāna-power-reversal structure.

Push-back: But Ohnuma treats this as a doctrinal innovation. The Śūraṅgama's fifty māras section reveals the dark twin of this reversal -- when the recipient's authority is no longer bounded by precept but relies solely on "demonstrated-power," this opens opportunity for māra's hijacking. dāna's power-reversal without wisdom-monitoringleads to māra-hijacking. Ohnuma's dāna-theory needs the Śūraṅgama's reverse-mirror to be complete.

5.3 Dialogue with James Benn: Essence-Extraction and Dāna-Energy Mechanisms

James Benn (2007) in Burning for the Buddha argued that Chinese Buddhist concepts of body, breath, and jing-qi entangled with Daoist internal-alchemy. The Śūraṅgama's thinking-aggregate description of "consuming essence" reflects Chinese essence-extraction anxiety.

Concession: The phrase "the autonomy-of-this-world heavenly māra, exploiting their empty illumination, feeds upon their essence" (自在天魔利其虛明食彼精氣) is indeed couched in Chinese indigenous vocabulary; its cultural context cannot be ignored.

Push-back: Yet Benn's historicist reading should not weaken the dāna-inversion typology structure -- even if borrowed from Daoist terminology, the "consuming essence" metaphor's functional role is describing-receiving-offering's energy-extraction mechanism. The contemporary self-justification of "must-expand-offerings-to-propagate-dharma" is isomorphic with this structure; hence the Śūraṅgama's section remains tool-relevant for contemporary diagnosis.

VI. Middle-Way Correction and Conclusion: From Mind-Filth to Dharma-Giving

After analyzing the dāna-inversion typology of the fifty māras, we must return to the Buddha's final correction: the true cause of māra-lies not in external-māra but in "mind-filth."

Zhijian's most important verdict at the Zhengmai Shu's fifty-māras closing:

"When māra-realms manifest, if you can recognize them, mind-filth is washed away, not falling into heretical-views. Zhijian's explanation: 'Harm-creation seems from māra, but māra-causing is truly from mind-filth. As said before, each according to their long-cherished partial-loves — that is mind-filth. Now if you can recognize māra-realms, not only do you not fall into māra-deceit, you also wash away mind-filth, and not falling into deviant sects.'"⁵⁵

This is a critical middle-way correction: the appearance of dāna is actually the practitioner's inner for offerings and fame mirrored in samādhi. Without this "mind-filth," māra simply cannot find an to latch onto in meditation. Hence the only path against the fifty māras is not fighting ghosts but "recognizing māra-realms" to wash away mind-filth.

Zhijian's further explanation of "long-cherished delusional mind" from the preceding text:

"By 'cherished prior-habits' — each accumulates eon-long impregnation, the partial-love for evil seeds. Now in samādhi, when a realm-apparatus appears that resonates with the prior mind, it strikes their disease-root and arouses their chronic ailment; thereupon, in delight, they grasp and take refuge, falsely claiming ultimate verification."⁵⁶

This means inverted-dāna's appearance is not accidental but the practitioner's age-long craving for offerings and fame manifesting in samādhi. Māra-realms are mind-filth's mirror — not cause, but sign.

Hanshan also pointed to the same conclusion from the ontological level:

"Because one-mind-delusion-awakening, hence māra and Buddha are distinguished here! ... Because mind-only-manifestation, hence awakening-harms-none; because mind-leaves-no-dust, the moment one attaches, one falls into māra's class!"⁵⁷

Awakening-harms-none -- when the five-aggregate owner awakens, māra-realms remain māra-realms but can no longer become māra-events. Māra-events require the-master's-delusion.

Ouyi, with the "light-darkness" metaphor from the four-metaphors, expressed the same meaning:

"Four, light-darkness, not only no-harm, but transforming māra-realm into buddha-realm!"⁵⁸

Transforming māra-realm into buddha-realm -- is this not the essence of dharma-giving? Taking the recognition and transmission of māra-realms and transforming them into conditions for others' awakening.

At the paper's close, we turn to a profound design in the sūtra-text's architecture. Immediately after the fifty māras' teaching concludes, the Buddhaed a passage of extreme contrast regarding dāna's merit:

"This is what former buddhas of the past illumination in śamatha, vipaśyanā, analyzed the subtle māra-events. When māra-realms manifest, if you can recognize them, mind-filth is washed away, not falling into heretical-views. ... [continuing] Ananda! If one person fills all ten-directional with seven treasures and offers them to the dust-countless buddhas, serving and with mind not wasted. ... What is the merit? Even counting has no boundary! ... If one person in the end-times can open this dharma-door to in a single thought, this person's karmic-obstacles dissolve at once ... their merit surpasses that of the giver, a hundred-fold, thousand-fold,-fold, such that calculation and cannot reach."⁵⁹

This design reveals Part VI's final core thesis: dāna's highest form lies not in matter (wealth-giving) but in dharma (dharma-giving). And the most valuable "dharma-giving" is precisely transmitting this "fifty māras' dāna-inversion typology" to end-time practitioners, preventing māra-hijacking.

The sūtra-text's architecture itself discusses dāna and māra-teaching-transmission together -- the teaching "dharma-giving > wealth-giving" emerges from the fifty māras section's conclusion. This is P20's convergence anchor: the highest form of dāna is transmitting this teaching, so later practitioners are not deceived by skandha-māras.

Thus, Part VI's triptych completes its closed loop:

P18 (ethics-layer): Established dāna's ethical baseline -- non-stealing as dāna's foundation.
P19 (meditative-realization layer): Revealed dāna's internal structure -- perfect penetration's reverse-encoding-into-giving.
P20 (māra-layer): Analyzed dāna's inversion typology -- the fifty māras' dāna-inversion.

These three layers jointly constructed the complete architecture of Śūraṅgama dāna: from the baseline "non-stealing" → middle "perfect penetration" → high "discerning māra." It tells us: dāna in its purest state is meditation's inner dimension, but in its most dangerous state is māra's vessel. Only by "recognizing" this typology can practitioners reclaim dāna from māra's hijack, returning it truly to awakening's tool.

Ouyi's dharma-protective cry and Zhijian's mind-filth verdict converge here:

"Alas! Reading the sūtra to this point, if one does not weep openly, mourn the past and grieve the present, and resolve to revive this decaying wind — such a one is truly a member of the māra-family!"⁶⁰

"Also washing away mind-filth, and not falling into deviant sects."

Washing mind-filth, reviving the decaying wind -- this is dharma-giving's core: not giving more money, but giving more "the ability to discern-giving."

References

I. Buddhist Primary Sources

T0945 Da Foding Rulai Miyin Xiuzheng Liaoyi Zhupusa Wanxing Shoulengyan Jing (Śūraṅgama Sūtra), trans. Pramiti (Tang), Taishō Tripiṭaka vol. 19, No. 945.
X12n0275 Zhijian (真鑑), Da Foding Rulai Miyin Xiuzheng Liaoyi Zhupusa Wanxing Shoulengyan Jing Zhengmai Shu (Zhengmai Shu on the Śūraṅgama), Wanxin Zuan Dazang Jing vol. 72.
X11n0270 Jiehuan (戒環), Shoulengyan Jing Yaojie (Yaojie on the Śūraṅgama), Wanxin Zuan Dazang Jing vol. 71.
X12n0279 Hanshan Deqing (憨山德清), Da Foding Rulai Miyin Xiuzheng Liaoyi Zhupusa Wanxing Shoulengyan Jing Tongyi (Tongyi on the Śūraṅgama), Wanxin Zuan Dazang Jing vol. 72.
X13n0285 Ouyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭), Da Foding Rulai Miyin Xiuzheng Liaoyi Zhupusa Wanxing Shoulengyan Jing Wenju (Wenju on the Śūraṅgama), Wanxin Zuan Dazang Jing vol. 73.

II. Modern Scholarship

Sharf, Robert H. (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience." Numen 42(2): 143-183.
Ohnuma, Reiko. (2007). Head, Eyes, Flesh, and Blood: Giving Away the Body in Indian Buddhist Literature. New York: Columbia University Press.
Benn, James Y. (2007). Burning for the Buddha: Self-Immolation in Chinese Buddhism. Brill.

III. Sūtra & Śāstra Index

Short	Full Name	T/X	Author/Translator
T0945	(Śūraṅgama Sūtra)	19, no. 945	Pramiti, trans.
X12n0275	(Zhengmai Shu)	72	Ming · Jiaoguang Zhijian
X11n0270	(Yaojie)	71	Song · Wenling Jiehuan
X12n0279	(Tongyi)	72	Ming · Hanshan Deqing
X13n0285	(Wenju)	73	Late Ming · Ouyi Zhixu

This paper is published under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. CBETA collation: All sūtra and śāstra quotes verified against CBETA Taishō / Wanxin digital editions. github.com/pointing-at-the-moon/six-practice-gates

Footnotes

Śūraṅgama Sūtra, ch.9, T19n0945, p0147a24-b03. The sūtra's original terms are "five-aggregate māra-realms" or "ten meditative manifestation-states"; "Fifty Skandha-Māras" is the conventional commentarial label. ↩
X12n0275, p0443c. Zhijian, Lengyan Jing Zhengmai Shu (Zhengmai Shu on the Śūraṅgama), fasc. 9. ↩
X11n0270, p0869a12-14. Jiehuan, Lengyan Jing Yaojie (Yaojie on the Śūraṅgama), fasc. 17. ↩
T19n0945, p0147b21-25. ↩
X12n0279, p0640a14-a23. Hanshan, Lengyan Jing Tongyi (Tongyi on the Śūraṅgama), fasc. 9. ↩
T19n0945, p0147c01-06. ↩
T19n0945, p0148b03-09. ↩
T19n0945, p0148c22-149a03. ↩
X13n0285, p0361c14-c19. Ouyi, Lengyan Jing Wenju (Wenju on the Śūraṅgama), fasc. 9. ↩
T19n0945, p0149a11-19. ↩
X11n0270, p0873a09. Jiehuan, Yaojie, fasc. 17. ↩
T19n0945, p0149a20-29. ↩
T19n0945, p0149b07-15. ↩
X11n0270, p0873c13-15. Jiehuan, Yaojie, fasc. 17. ↩
T19n0945, p0150a17-b03. "The four necessities" (cattāro paccayā: food, robes, lodging, medicine). This term appears only once within the fifty māras section. ↩
X12n0275, p0457c04. Zhijian judged this "." ↩
X12n0279, p0645a17-b03. Hanshan's note. ↩
T19n0945, p0150c07-25. "White-robed" here refers to laypersons; receiving monastic prostration is a inversion of dāna's power-structure. ↩
X12n0275, p0459a04. Zhijian directly judged "destroying the teaching." ↩
X13n0285, p0370a05-a08. Ouyi, Wenju, fasc. 10. ↩
T19n0945, p0151b01-09. ↩
X13n0285, p0370c14-c17. Ouyi's personal note. ↩
T19n0945, p0154a08-14. ↩
X12n0279, p0653c08-c14. Hanshan's note. ↩
X12n0279, p0654a21-b08. ↩ ↩²
T19n0945, p0148a27-b02. "Great false speech committed" directly points to bhikṣu pārājika 4 -- falsely claiming attainment. ↩
X12n0275, p0445c20. ↩
X12n0275, p0453a08-10. ↩
X12n0275, p0453c05. ↩
X12n0275, p0474b09. Zhijian, Zhengmai Shu, fasc. 10 closing. ↩
X12n0275, p0473a. ↩
X11n0270, p0873c23-0874a06. ↩
X11n0270, p0869c22-24. ↩
X11n0270, p0874c24. ↩
X12n0279, p0645c13-c17. Hanshan quoting the Avataṃsaka. ↩
X12n0279, p0639c23-a06. ↩
X12n0279, p0646c08-c14. ↩
X13n0285, p0362a18-a24. ↩
X13n0285, p0362a14-a18. ↩
X13n0285, p0370c14-c17. ↩
X13n0285, p0378a14-a23. ↩
X13n0285, p0362c08-c11. ↩
X12n0275, p0453a08-10. ↩
X12n0275, p0453c05. ↩
X11n0270, p0873a09. ↩
X11n0270, p0873c23. ↩
X12n0275, p0457c04. ↩
X12n0279, p0645a17-b03. ↩
X13n0285, p0370a05-a08. ↩
X12n0275, p0459a04. ↩
T19n0945, p0154a08-14. ↩
X13n0285, p0367c. Ouyi judged this "generating-thinking-cause, establishing blazing-worldly-effect." ↩
X12n0279, p0653c08-c14. ↩
T19n0945, p0154b14-23 + p0155a13-22. ↩
X12n0275, p0474b09. ↩
X12n0275, p0473a. ↩
X12n0279, p0640a14-a23. ↩
X13n0285, p0362c08-c11. ↩
T19n0945, p0154b14-23 + p0155a13-22. ↩
X13n0285, p0370c14. ↩

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