Subsidiary Afflictions: The Branches of Suffering

I. Introduction

1.1 Textual Positioning

S3-P08 unfolded the eleven wholesome mental factors — the fuel for practice. S3-P09 unfolded the six root afflictions and four indeterminate factors — the core contaminants in the engine and the gearbox. From this paper onward, we enter the fifth category of mental factors: subsidiary afflictions.

If root afflictions are the core contaminants in the engine — ignorance, craving, aversion, pride, doubt, and wrong views — then subsidiary afflictions are the exhaust fumes and derivative malfunctions produced as the contaminated engine runs. Each of the twenty subsidiary afflictions can be traced back to one or more root afflictions as its essential nature. They are not independent new problems but positional variants and homogeneous outflows of the fundamental ones.¹

The Śatadharmaprakāśamukha lists twenty subsidiary afflictions: fury, resentment, concealment, vexation, jealousy, miserliness, deceit, flattery, harmfulness, arrogance, shamelessness, lack of propriety, restlessness, torpor, faithlessness, laziness, heedlessness, deluded mindfulness, distraction, and wrong knowing.² The Cheng weishi lun encapsulates them in a single verse:

"Subsidiary afflictions are: fury, resentment, concealment, vexation, jealousy, miserliness, / deceit, flattery with harmfulness, arrogance, shamelessness and lack of propriety, / restlessness and torpor, faithlessness together with laziness, / heedlessness and deluded mindfulness, distraction and wrong knowing."³

The commentary states:

"They are exclusively positional variants and homogeneous outflows of afflictions — hence they are called subsidiary afflictions."⁴

"Positional variants" — the same root affliction manifesting differently under different circumstances and at different intensities. "Homogeneous outflows" — effects of the same character naturally streaming from root afflictions. These two characterizations define the essential nature of subsidiary afflictions: they are not new sources of contamination but branch-level manifestations of existing ones.

The Verses on the Eight Consciousnesses references subsidiary afflictions at three points regarding consciousness-specific configurations:

The second verse on the first five consciousnesses: "Universal, object-specific, eleven wholesome, / the two medium, eight major, craving, aversion, delusion"⁵ — the first five consciousnesses associate only with the two medium and eight major subsidiary afflictions; the ten minor are too coarse and require discrimination to arise, which the first five cannot perform.

The first verse on the seventh consciousness: "Four afflictions and eight major arise together"⁶ — manas associates only with the four root afflictions plus the eight major subsidiary afflictions; not even the medium two, because manas is morally obscured-but-indeterminate, not unwholesome, and shamelessness and lack of propriety pervade only unwholesome minds.

The second verse on the sixth consciousness: "Root, subsidiary, faith, and the rest — all connected in totality"⁷ — the sixth consciousness can associate with all root afflictions, all subsidiary afflictions, and all wholesome factors; it is the grand intersection of all mental qualities.

These three verses reveal a core fact: the distribution of twenty subsidiary afflictions across the eight consciousnesses is not uniform but follows precise functional logic.

1.2 The Problem

When practitioners face afflictions, the most common strategy is one-by-one suppression: anger arises, push it down; distraction arises, pull attention back; laziness arises, whip oneself into action. But Yogācāra theory of subsidiary afflictions reveals a deeper structure: these twenty problems are not twenty independent enemies but leaves on a single tree.

If you only prune leaves without uprooting the trunk, the leaves will grow back. Fury, resentment, vexation, jealousy, and harmfulness all take aversion as their essential nature — suppress fury and it returns as resentment; suppress resentment and it returns as vexation. The root is the same. Similarly, concealment, deceit, and flattery take craving and delusion as their nature; miserliness and arrogance take craving — the source unchanged, only the face different.

This is the principle of "cut the root, not the branches": the Cheng weishi lun's judgment that all twenty are "positional variants and homogeneous outflows" means that when root afflictions are severed, subsidiary afflictions cease of their own accord. This is not theoretical speculation but doctrinal necessity — if fury's essential nature is simply a portion of aversion, then when aversion is severed, fury's existential basis vanishes.

Yet this does not mean subsidiary afflictions are unimportant. Quite the opposite: subsidiary afflictions are the forms of affliction practitioners encounter first. You do not begin practice by perceiving "I have fundamental ignorance" — you perceive "I just lost my temper at him" (fury), "I can't stop replaying what she said" (resentment), "my mind keeps wandering during meditation" (distraction). Subsidiary afflictions are the clinical symptoms; root afflictions are the pathology. Practitioners need to recognize symptoms in order to trace them back to causes — this is the pedagogical purpose of the Śatadharmaprakāśamukha's enumeration of all twenty.

1.3 Scope and Structure

This paper covers the fifth category of mental factors in the Hundred Dharmas — the twenty subsidiary afflictions (ten minor, two medium, eight major) — and analyzes their three-tier structure, consciousness-specific configurations, real-versus-nominal ontological status, and śamatha-vipaśyanā remedial relationships.

§2 establishes scriptural foundations in two tiers: sūtras (Āgama, Saṃdhinirmocana, Śūraṅgama, Avataṃsaka, Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra) and treatises (Cheng weishi lun, Yogācārabhūmi, Bajishi guiju buzhu, Pañcaskandhaka). §3 unfolds the core argument in ten layers. §4 offers cross-disciplinary analogies. §5 provides Middle Way corrections. §6 concludes and previews S3-P11 (form dharmas).

II. Scriptural Foundations

A. Sūtra Sources — The Authority of the Buddha's Teaching

2.1 The Āgamas: Primitive Profiles of Subsidiary Afflictions

The precise twenty-fold classification of Yogācāra is a later refinement, but the psychological phenomena themselves were already identified in the Āgamas. The Buddha, across different teaching contexts and under different headings, pointed out these branch-level afflictions.

The Saṃyuktāgama "Mound Simile" sūtra (fascicle 38) assigns vivid metaphors to fury, resentment, and miserliness:

"The wool blanket refers to fury and resentment. The lump of flesh refers to miserliness." The verse says: "Fury and resentment are the wool blanket; miserliness is the lump of flesh; the five desires are the slaughterhouse."⁸

A wool blanket wraps tightly around things — just as fury and resentment envelop the mind. A lump of flesh clings heavily — just as miserliness grips and refuses to release. The Buddha was not performing psychological classification but using imagery to point at the felt texture of these mental states.

The Saṃyuktāgama (fascicle 39) goes further, directly characterizing anger as a "seed of suffering":

"Fury and angry resentment are called seeds of suffering."⁹

"Seeds of suffering" — fury is not merely a momentary emotional outburst; it is a seed that deposits habitual tendencies in the ālaya-vijñāna, generating future suffering.

In the Āgamas, comprehensive lists of afflictions already appear. The Saṃyuktāgama (fascicle 7, sūtra 186) lists in a single passage virtually every item later classified as a subsidiary affliction:

"Aversion, delusion, anger, resentment, reproach, attachment, jealousy, miserliness, deception, flattery, shamelessness, lack of propriety, pride... arrogance, heedlessness..."¹⁰

The Ekottarāgama (fascicle 6) provides an independent classification in the form of "twenty-one fetters":

"Beings whose minds are stained by twenty-one fetters should be understood as destined for evil destinies: the fetter of anger, the fetter of harmful intent, the fetter of sleepiness, the fetter of excitement, the fetter of doubt, the fetter of wrath, the fetter of envy, the fetter of vexation... shamelessness, lack of propriety, deception, craftiness, falseness... arrogance, conceit, jealousy..."¹¹

Wrath (fury), envy (jealousy), vexation, shamelessness, lack of propriety, deception (deceit), craftiness and falseness (flattery), arrogance, excitement (restlessness-and-regret) — these directly correspond to items later formalized as subsidiary afflictions. The Āgama classification framework differs from the Hundred Dharmas, but the observed psychological facts are consistent.

2.2 The Āgamas: The Causal Chain of Shamelessness and Lack of Propriety

Among all subsidiary afflictions, shamelessness and lack of propriety receive particularly prominent attention in the Āgamas — perfectly consistent with Yogācāra's classification of them as "medium subsidiary afflictions pervading all unwholesome minds."

The Ekottarāgama "Chapter on Shame and Propriety" declares with remarkable force that shame and propriety are the foundational forces sustaining human civilization:

"There are two wonderful dharmas that protect the world. What are the two? Shame and propriety. Monks! Were these two dharmas absent, the world would make no distinction between father, mother, elder brother, younger brother, wife, children, acquaintances, elders, and juniors — humans would be no different from pigs, chickens, dogs, cattle, sheep, and the rest of the six kinds of livestock. Because the world possesses these two dharmas, it distinguishes father and mother, brothers, wife and children, elders and juniors, and does not share a common level with livestock."¹²

The Saṃyuktāgama (fascicle 28, sūtra 749) provides a complete causal chain revealing the pivotal role of shamelessness and lack of propriety in the arising of the unwholesome path:

"When ignorance is the antecedent, unwholesome dharmas arise. At that time, shamelessness and lack of propriety arise in turn; once shamelessness and lack of propriety have arisen, wrong views arise; once wrong views have arisen, they give rise to wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, wrong concentration."¹³

Ignorance → shamelessness and lack of propriety → wrong views → the eightfold wrong path. This causal chain shows that shamelessness and lack of propriety are the first concrete products of ignorance and the immediate upstream of all wrong paths. The same sūtra immediately provides the positive counterpart:

"When clarity is the antecedent, wholesome dharmas arise. At that time, shame and propriety arise in turn; once shame and propriety have arisen, right views arise; once right views have arisen, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration arise in sequence."¹⁴

Clarity → shame and propriety → right views → the Noble Eightfold Path. S3-P08 argued that shame and propriety function as the moat protecting the castle of wholesome factors; here the Āgama causal chain provides the earliest scriptural support.

2.3 The Āgamas: The Five Hindrances — Restlessness-Regret and Torpor-Sleepiness

The major subsidiary afflictions of restlessness and torpor appear in the Āgamas in the form of the "five hindrances" (pañca nīvaraṇa), listed alongside sensual desire, ill-will, and doubt as the core forces obstructing the path.

The Saṃyuktāgama (fascicle 26, sūtra 707) provides the general definition:

"There are five obstacles, five hindrances, that afflict the mind, weaken wisdom, obstruct and divide, are neither clarity nor right awakening, and do not lead toward nirvāṇa. What five? The hindrance of sensual desire, the hindrance of ill-will, the hindrance of torpor-sleepiness, the hindrance of restlessness-regret, and the hindrance of doubt."¹⁵

Note: the Āgama "restlessness-regret hindrance" combines restlessness and regret (remorse) into one; the "torpor-sleepiness hindrance" combines torpor and sleepiness into one. Yogācāra later classified restlessness as a major subsidiary affliction (pervading all defiled minds) and remorse as one of the four indeterminates; torpor as a major subsidiary affliction and sleepiness as an indeterminate — refining the Āgama categories while preserving the core observation: restlessness and torpor are meditation's two great obstacles.

Sūtra 704 further identifies the direct connection between the arising of the five hindrances and improper mental engagement (ayoniśo-manaskāra):

"For one who engages improperly, the unarisen hindrance of sensual desire arises, and the already-arisen hindrance increases... the unarisen hindrances of ill-will, torpor-sleepiness, restlessness-regret, and doubt arise, and those already arisen increase."¹⁶

Sūtra 715 identifies the "nutriment" sustaining the restlessness-regret hindrance — four types of mental content that feed restlessness:

"What is the nutriment of the restlessness-regret hindrance? There are four things: thoughts about relatives, thoughts about crowds, thoughts about celestial beings, and thoughts about past pleasures. Whether self-recalled or prompted by others, they generate mental engagement; through improper engagement, unarisen restlessness-regret arises and already-arisen restlessness-regret increases."¹⁷

What feeds restlessness? Memories of family affairs, social situations, celestial matters, and past enjoyments. The Cheng weishi lun's statement that restlessness "arises from recollecting past pleasures"¹⁸ is fully consistent.

2.4 The Āgamas: The Seven Awakening Factors — The Fire Simile

The remediation of restlessness and torpor receives one of the most brilliant teachings in the Āgamas — the fire simile of sūtra 714, one of the Buddha's most essential instructions on dynamic meditation regulation.

The Saṃyuktāgama (fascicle 27, sūtra 714):

"Monks! When the mind is sluggish and hesitant, one should not cultivate the tranquility factor, the concentration factor, or the equanimity factor. Why? A sluggish, hesitant mind — these dharmas would only increase its sluggishness. It is like a small fire: if you want it to burn and pile on damp charcoal, will the charcoal not extinguish the fire?"¹⁹

When the mind is sluggish (tending toward torpor), do not apply tranquility, concentration, or equanimity — that amounts to piling damp charcoal on a small fire; the fire dies.

"When restlessness arises, when restlessness hesitates, one should not cultivate the investigation-of-dharmas factor, the energy factor, or the joy factor. Why? A restless, hesitant mind — these dharmas would increase it. It is like a blazing fire: if you want it to die down and add dry kindling, would the fire not blaze higher?"²⁰

When the mind is restless, do not apply investigation, energy, or joy — that amounts to adding dry kindling to a roaring fire; the fire intensifies.

The correct approach:

"When the mind is sluggish and hesitant, one should cultivate the investigation-of-dharmas factor, the energy factor, the joy factor... It is like a small fire: if you want it to burn, add dry kindling."²¹

"When restlessness arises, cultivate the tranquility factor, the concentration factor, the equanimity factor... It is like a blazing fire: if you want it to die down, pile on damp charcoal."²²

The final line is key:

"The mindfulness factor assists all of them."²³

The seven awakening factors divide into two groups: investigation, energy, and joy counter torpor (add kindling to make a small fire burn); tranquility, concentration, and equanimity counter restlessness (add damp charcoal to calm a blazing fire). Mindfulness assists all — it is the thermostat, constantly monitoring the flame. This structure will combine with the Saṃdhinirmocana's śamatha-vipaśyanā theory in §3 to form a complete remedial framework.

2.5 The Āgamas: Heedlessness and Non-Heedlessness

Among the major subsidiary afflictions, heedlessness receives extraordinary pedagogical emphasis in the Āgamas. The Saṃyuktāgama (fascicle 31, sūtra 882) deploys over thirty similes in a single sweep to proclaim the status of non-heedlessness:

"Just as all grasses, herbs, and trees depend on the earth to grow, so all wholesome dharmas depend on non-heedlessness as their foundation... Just as the finest incense is red sandalwood, so among all wholesome dharmas, non-heedlessness is the root."²⁴

"Just as among all animal tracks, the elephant's is supreme, so among all wholesome dharmas, non-heedlessness is the most fundamental."²⁵

Earth, sandalwood, elephant tracks, the ridgepole, Mount Sumeru, the finest gold, moonlight, a wheel-turning monarch, Indra, up to the Tathāgata himself — over thirty similes, all converging on one conclusion: non-heedlessness is the root of all wholesome dharmas.

The Ekottarāgama (fascicle 4) directly defines non-heedlessness:

"What is non-heedlessness? It is guarding the mind."²⁶

Non-heedlessness is guarding the mind. The Cheng weishi lun defines heedlessness as arising "from laziness together with craving, aversion, and delusion, being unable to guard against the defiled and cultivate the pure"²⁷ — a composite of four factors with no independent substance. The Āgama teaching fully supports this: heedlessness is not an independent mental quality but the overall state of failing to guard the mind.

2.6 The Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra: Cross-Elimination in Śamatha and Vipaśyanā

The remediation of restlessness and torpor in meditation receives its most precise treatment in the "Chapter on Distinguishing Yoga" of the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra.

Maitreya asks the Buddha: among the five hindrances, which obstruct śamatha, which obstruct vipaśyanā? The Buddha answers:

"Restlessness and regret are obstacles to śamatha; torpor, sleepiness, and doubt are obstacles to vipaśyanā; sensual desire and ill-will obstruct both."²⁸

Restlessness obstructs śamatha (calming), torpor obstructs vipaśyanā (insight) — this aligns with intuition: a non-tranquil mind cannot achieve calm; a dull mind cannot generate insight. But the next teaching introduces an unexpected cross-pattern:

"At what point is the path of śamatha complete and pure?" "When all torpor and sleepiness have been properly eliminated — that is when the path of śamatha is complete and pure." "At what point is the path of vipaśyanā complete and pure?" "When all restlessness and regret have been properly eliminated — that is when the path of vipaśyanā is complete and pure."²⁹

The completion of śamatha requires eliminating torpor (the vipaśyanā obstacle); the completion of vipaśyanā requires eliminating restlessness (the śamatha obstacle) — this is cross-elimination. Why? Because śamatha and vipaśyanā are not parallel tracks but a unified path. The perfection of calming means not only that the mind can abide (having subdued restlessness) but that it maintains clarity within abiding (eliminating torpor). The perfection of insight means not only that the mind can observe clearly (having eliminated torpor) but that it is not carried away by what it observes (subduing restlessness).

The same chapter teaches the three aspects of calming, arousing, and equanimity:

"When the mind is restless or in danger of restlessness, mental engagement with disagreeable dharmas and immediate subsequent mental engagement — this is the calming aspect. When the mind is sinking or in danger of sinking, mental engagement with agreeable dharmas and mental engagement with mental images — this is the arousing aspect. When on the exclusive path of calming, or the exclusive path of insight, or the path of their joint operation, and one is stained by the two subsidiary afflictions, effortless mental engagement and mental engagement within the natural flow of mind — this is the equanimity aspect."³⁰

The operational logic of the three aspects perfectly matches the fire simile: restlessness → apply calming (like the sūtra's tranquility-concentration-equanimity group); sinking → apply arousing (like the sūtra's investigation-energy-joy group); balanced → apply equanimity (like the sūtra's mindfulness assisting all).

The same chapter also identifies five types of mental scattering — among which "internal mental scattering" directly involves torpor and meditative attachment:

"When one is stained by torpor and sleepiness, or by sinking, or by relishing a meditative attainment, or by the subsidiary afflictions of any meditative attainment — this is internal mental scattering."³¹

Torpor is not just "wanting to sleep." It includes sinking within concentration (the mind, though undistracted, loses its power of observation) and relishing meditative experience (attachment to the pleasant feelings of calm). These are extremely common but easily overlooked obstacles in meditation practice.

2.7 The Śūraṅgama Sūtra: Subsidiary Affliction Mapping in the Fifty Skandha-Demons

The Śūraṅgama Sūtra does not use Yogācāra classification terminology, but its descriptions of the fifty skandha-demons contain numerous psychological phenomena corresponding to subsidiary afflictions.

Among the ten demons of the feeling-skandha in fascicle nine, one passage closely resembles deluded mindfulness combined with torpor:

"Seeing the form-skandha dissolved and the feeling-skandha clearly manifest, yet with no new attainment ahead and having lost the former dwelling. Wisdom weakens, falling into an intermediate state with nothing visible anywhere. Suddenly a great thirst of desiccation arises in the mind, and at all times one sinks into memory without dispersal, taking this to be the mark of diligent effort."³²

"Sinking into memory without dispersal" — the mind plunges into some memory or state and cannot extricate itself, yet mistakes this condition for spiritual effort. This is a compound manifestation of deluded mindfulness (inability to clearly note) and torpor (incapacity). The sūtra's judgment: "This is called losing wisdom through cultivating the mind without discernment" — without right knowing (the opposite of wrong knowing), the pathological is mistaken for the healthy.

Another passage corresponds to restlessness:

"When superior signs appear, one is excessively stirred, and limitless courage suddenly arises. The mind becomes fierce and sharp, one's aspiration equals the Buddhas, and one claims that the three incalculable aeons can be surpassed in a single thought."³³

A mind overexcited, agitated, and deluded about its own capacities — this is restlessness in its meditative form. The sūtra warns: "If one takes this as a saintly attainment, a demon of madness enters one's heart; upon seeing others, one boasts, and one's arrogance has no equal." Restlessness undetected is misjudged by wrong knowing as genuine attainment, then generates arrogance.

The critical point: the Śūraṅgama uses descriptive language rather than Yogācāra classification terminology. The following mapping table provides cross-reference³⁴:

2.8 The Avataṃsaka Sūtra: Subsidiary Affliction Obstacles Across the Ten Stages

The Avataṃsaka Sūtra's "Ten Stages" chapter maps subsidiary afflictions along the bodhisattva's path of cultivation.

At the second stage (Stage of Freedom from Defilement), the bodhisattva personally avoids distraction, heedlessness, fury, and resentment:

"This bodhisattva, even in jest, always speaks with careful deliberation — how much more so would they never utter words of distraction!"³⁵

"Abandoning danger, discarding pride, perfectly gentle, practicing according to instruction without heedlessness... Thus reflecting with non-heedlessness, personally upholding pure precepts and teaching others to protect them."³⁶

At the seventh stage (Stage of Far-Reaching), the bodhisattva "has never for even a moment been associated with the obstructive hindrances" and "the path of omniscience is constantly present, never disturbed by distraction."³⁷ At the eighth stage (Immovable Stage), a search for terms such as heedlessness, laziness, distraction, or wrong knowing yields no matches³⁸ — fully consistent with the Cheng weishi lun's statement that "at the eighth Immovable Stage, non-discriminating wisdom flows continuously; neither phenomenal activity nor afflictions can disturb it."³⁹

2.9 The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra: The Four Layers of Anger

The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra provides an exceptionally important analysis in its four immeasurables section — directly defining the progressive relationship among anger, resentment, grudge, and vexation:

"When the fetter of anger first arises, it is called anger. When anger grows and one deliberates and holds it in the mind without resolution, this is called resentment, also called grudge. When the mind is decided and has no fear or hesitation, this is called vexation."⁴⁰

A clear three-beat development: anger (initial arising) → resentment/grudge (growth, sustained rumination without resolution) → vexation (mind decided, erupting into harsh action). This maps precisely onto the Cheng weishi lun's characterizations: fury is "provoked outburst toward a presently disagreeable situation" (initial eruption), resentment is "preceded by fury, harboring ill-will without letting go, forming grudges" (sustained after fury), and vexation is "preceded by fury and resentment, pursuing and touching harshness, obstinate and violent" (harsh expression after fury and resentment).⁴¹

The same passage further observes:

"Even smaller than these are anger, resentment, grudge, and vexation. To break that which is 'small within the small' — this is called 'vast,' 'great,' and 'immeasurable.'"⁴²

Anger-resentment-grudge-vexation are "the small within the small" — sub-branches among afflictions. The "vast-great-immeasurable" power of the four immeasurables (loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, equanimity) is precisely the force that overcomes these sub-branches.

B. Treatise Sources — The Precision of Doctrinal Analysis

2.10 The Cheng weishi lun: Definitions of the Ten Minor Subsidiary Afflictions

Fascicle six of the Cheng weishi lun provides each dharma with a uniform format: definition, essential nature, and functional activity. The following summarizes all ten in order.⁴³

Fury (krodha) — the eruptive form of aversion: "Directed at a presently disagreeable situation, provoked outburst is its nature; it obstructs non-fury, and seizing weapons is its activity."[^51] Fury targets only present adversity (not past or future). Its essential nature is a portion of aversion.

Resentment (upanāha) — the sustained form of aversion: "Preceded by fury, harboring ill-will without letting go, forming grudges is its nature; it obstructs non-resentment, and burning torment is its activity."[^52] Resentment requires fury as its antecedent — if fury passes and one lets go, that is not resentment.

Vexation (pradāśa) — the expressive form of aversion: "Preceded by fury and resentment, pursuing and touching harshness, obstinate violence is its nature... uttering wild, crude, and base words, stinging others like wasps."[^53] Fury → resentment → vexation: a complete temporal unfolding of aversion.

Concealment (mrakṣa) — hiding one's own faults: "Regarding sins one has committed, fearing loss of profit and reputation, hiding is its nature."[^54] Takes delusion (or craving-plus-delusion) as its essential nature.[^55]

Deceit (śāṭhya) — fabricating virtue to gain benefit: "To obtain profit and reputation, feigning possession of virtue, duplicity is its nature; it obstructs non-deceit, and wrong livelihood is its activity."[^56]

Flattery (māyā) — distorting oneself to manipulate others: "To ensnare others, contriving unusual manners, treacherous crookedness is its nature; it obstructs non-flattery and prevents one from receiving proper teaching."[^57] Flattery's greatest danger: it severs the practitioner's connection to authentic teaching. You cannot receive genuine guidance while performing obsequiousness.

Concealment, deceit, and flattery form a "deception sequence": concealment is self-deception (hiding problems from oneself), deceit is other-deception (constructing a false image), flattery is relational deception (contorting oneself to please).

Harmfulness (vihiṃsā) — damaging sentient beings: "Toward sentient beings, having no compassion, damaging and tormenting is its nature."[^58] Takes aversion as its essential nature. The distinction from aversion: aversion is an internal attitude (rejection), harmfulness is external behavior (active damaging). "Non-harmfulness" in the eleven wholesome factors is its direct antidote.

Arrogance (mada) — self-inflation (distinct from pride): "Regarding one's own prosperity, deeply attached and intoxicated with conceit is its nature."[^59] The critical distinction from pride (māna): pride involves comparison ("I am better than you"), arrogance involves no comparison at all ("I am magnificent") — pure self-intoxication without reference to others. Pride takes self-view as root; arrogance takes craving as its essential nature.

Jealousy (īrṣyā) — intolerance of others' success: "Pursuing one's own fame and profit, unable to tolerate others' flourishing, envious hostility is its nature... those who are jealous, upon hearing or seeing others' success, deeply harbor grief and distress."[^60] Takes aversion as its essential nature. Note: jealousy's functional activity is "grief and distress" — it necessarily harms the jealous person, whether or not it harms the target.

Miserliness (mātsarya) — inability to give: "Attached to wealth and dharma, unable to wisely relinquish, secretive stinginess is its nature."[^61] Not limited to material possessions — it includes dharma-miserliness (learning good practices but refusing to share). Takes craving as its essential nature.

2.11 Definitions of the Two Medium and Eight Major Subsidiary Afflictions

Medium subsidiary afflictions — Shamelessness and Lack of Propriety⁴⁴:

Shamelessness (āhrīkya): "Not considering oneself or the dharma, dismissing the worthy and good is its nature; it obstructs shame and promotes unwholesome conduct."

Lack of propriety (anapatrāpya): "Not considering the world, esteeming what is violent and evil is its nature; it obstructs propriety and promotes unwholesome conduct."

"Not being ashamed of faults is their common characteristic" — but from different angles: shamelessness is the collapse of internal standards (self and dharma), lack of propriety is the collapse of external standards (the world and others' perceptions).

The eight major subsidiary afflictions — restlessness, torpor, faithlessness, laziness, heedlessness, deluded mindfulness, distraction, and wrong knowing — receive full definitions in the Cheng weishi lun.[^65]–[^73]

Three of these merit special attention for their relationship to the object-specific factors:

The Cheng weishi lun explicitly states: "Deluded mindfulness, distraction, and wrong knowing are subsumed under the object-specific factors when reversed; they are not separately listed among the wholesome."⁴⁵ They are not independent new qualities but good qualities corrupted. Mindfulness contaminated becomes deluded mindfulness; concentration contaminated becomes distraction; wisdom contaminated becomes wrong knowing.

The distinction between restlessness and distraction is precisely stated: "The former causes easy change of understanding; the latter causes easy change of object" — restlessness means looking at the same thing but constantly changing one's interpretation; distraction means constantly switching what one looks at.[^72]

2.12 The Three-Class Differential

The Cheng weishi lun differentiates the three classes by three criteria⁴⁶:

"These twenty, classified by kind, form three groups: the ten beginning with fury, arising individually, are called minor subsidiary afflictions; the two beginning with shamelessness, pervading all unwholesome minds, are called medium subsidiary afflictions; the eight beginning with restlessness, pervading all defiled minds, are called major subsidiary afflictions."

"Arising individually" — the ten minor never co-occur; they are mutually incompatible, coarse in character, each dominant when present.⁴⁷

"Pervading all unwholesome" — the two medium appear in every unwholesome mental moment.

"Pervading all defiled" — the eight major appear in every defiled mental moment (unwholesome plus morally obscured-but-indeterminate), and they can co-occur with each other and with the minor and medium.

Regarding ontological status[^77]: the ten minor and three major (heedlessness, deluded mindfulness, wrong knowing) are definitively nominally existent; shamelessness, lack of propriety, faithlessness, and laziness are definitively substantially existent; restlessness, torpor, and distraction are disputed (some hold them as nominal, others as substantial).

2.13 Consciousness-Specific Configurations

"Being exclusively defiled, they do not accompany the eighth consciousness. In the seventh consciousness, only the eight major are present... The sixth consciousness can have all. The ten minor, being coarse and fierce, are absent from the first five consciousnesses. The medium and major, being of interpenetrating character, can be present in the first five."⁴⁸

The eighth consciousness: no subsidiary afflictions (it is karmically matured and morally neutral).

The seventh consciousness: only the eight major (manas is morally obscured-but-indeterminate, not unwholesome, so the medium two cannot arise; the ten minor require the sixth consciousness's discriminative capacity).

The sixth consciousness: can have all twenty.

The first five consciousnesses: the ten minor cannot arise (fury, resentment, jealousy, etc., require discriminative judgment unavailable to the five sense-consciousnesses); the medium and major can arise (shamelessness and lack of propriety accompany any unwholesome mind; restlessness and torpor accompany any defiled mind, without requiring discrimination).

2.14–2.16 Supporting Treatise Sources

The Yogācārabhūmi (fascicle 8) lists the "eight entanglements" — shamelessness, lack of propriety, torpor, sleepiness, restlessness, regret, jealousy, and miserliness — selected by the criterion of "frequently arising in practice," cutting across the minor/medium/major classification.⁴⁹ Fascicle 55 provides the full list of twenty-three subsidiary-affliction natures (three more than the Cheng weishi lun's twenty), nine dependency-bases, correspondence rules, and the nominal-versus-substantial status of each.[^82]–[^84]

The Bajishi guiju buzhu clarifies the three-characteristic (三義) framework: "Possessing all three characteristics — occurring together within class, pervading both moral polarities, pervading all defiled minds — is called 'major'; possessing one is 'medium'; possessing none is 'minor.'"⁵⁰

The Pañcaskandhaka provides streamlined definitions of all twenty, with its characterization of wrong knowing being particularly notable: "not dwelling correctly within the present activity of body, speech, and mind" — emphasizing that wrong knowing is not merely theoretical misjudgment but incorrect operation in the very moment of bodily, verbal, and mental action.⁵¹

III. Core Argument

3.1 The Three-Tier Structure: Not a Checklist but an Ecosystem

The three tiers are not a grading of severity but a differentiation of pervasiveness. Imagine a tree: the ten minor afflictions are individual fruits on the tips of branches — only one ripens at a time, each with its own flavor (fury is sour, resentment is bitter, vexation is acrid). The two medium afflictions are the bark — whenever the tree is diseased (unwholesome mind), the bark is always present. The eight major afflictions are the contaminated soil — whenever the soil is polluted (defiled mind), everything growing from it carries the contamination, whether diseased trees or apparently normal but actually toxic ones (morally obscured-but-indeterminate minds).

Extending the vehicle metaphor from P09: minor afflictions are the different types of exhaust emitted under different operating conditions — sometimes black smoke (fury-resentment-vexation), sometimes noxious gas (jealousy-miserliness), sometimes invisible toxins (concealment-deceit-flattery); one type at a time, depending on the operating condition. Medium afflictions are a broken filter on the exhaust pipe — whenever the engine is doing unwholesome work, the filter is definitely broken. Major afflictions are the engine's fundamental lubrication failure — whenever the engine is contaminated, regardless of what work it does, there will be vibration (restlessness), sluggishness (torpor), and wear (distraction).

3.2 Developmental Sequences of the Ten Minor

The ten minor are not randomly listed but can be organized by essential-nature source and functional characteristics.

Group One: The Three Beats of Aversion — Fury, Resentment, Vexation. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra's four-layer definition provides the clearest structure⁵²: fury (eruption — the momentary blaze) → resentment (sustained — the fire no longer on the surface but smoldering within, repeated rumination) → vexation (expression — the internal resentment finally erupting in harsh action).

An everyday illustration: someone cuts you off in traffic (adverse condition), and a flash of anger surges (fury) — fury is lightning, quick to come; if you let it go immediately, it remains just fury. But if you arrive at work still thinking "how could that person be so unreasonable," turning the event over and over (resentment) — resentment is a slow burn, not visible on the surface but continuously consuming energy. If by evening you are still complaining to your family with increasingly coarse language (vexation) — vexation is resentment overflowing. A minor traffic incident, fermented through fury → resentment → vexation, can ruin an entire day's equanimity.

The intervention point is at fury. If mindfulness intercepts at the moment of fury — "this is a portion of aversion activating" — resentment never arises, and vexation has no basis.

Group Two: The Three Layers of Deception — Concealment, Deceit, Flattery. Concealment is self-deception (hiding faults from oneself), deceit is other-deception (fabricating a virtuous image to mislead others), flattery is relational deception (distorting oneself to please). Their shared damage is the severance of authenticity.

Group Three: Jealousy and Miserliness — Toward Others and Toward Oneself. Jealousy is "intolerance of others' flourishing" (aversion-based); miserliness is "inability to wisely relinquish" (craving-based). The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra points to generosity as the simultaneous antidote: "Giving breaks the fetter of miserliness; compassionately regarding the recipient, it eliminates the torment of anger; jealousy's hostility ceases."⁵³

Group Four: Arrogance and Harmfulness — self-inflation and the damaging of beings, each with distinct characteristics.

3.3 Shamelessness and Lack of Propriety: The Entry Pass for Unwholesome States

P08 argued that shame and propriety are the moat of the wholesome castle — with them, unwholesome states cannot enter. P10 argues that shamelessness and lack of propriety are the entry pass for unwholesome states — without them, unwholesome states cannot enter the gate.

Sūtra 749's causal chain provides the clearest structural explanation: ignorance → shamelessness and lack of propriety → wrong views → the eightfold wrong path.[^92] Shamelessness and lack of propriety are the pivot between "fundamental confusion" and "specific wrongdoing." Without their "permission," ignorance does not convert into concrete unwholesome behavior.

3.4 Restlessness and Torpor: The Dynamic Balance of Meditation

Restlessness and torpor are the two obstacles meditators face most directly.

The fire simile provides the dynamic model[^94]: torpor → add investigation, energy, joy (add kindling to make a small fire burn). Restlessness → add tranquility, concentration, equanimity (add damp charcoal to calm a blazing fire). Mindfulness assists all — the thermostat constantly monitoring temperature.

The Saṃdhinirmocana's cross-elimination model adds depth[^95]: completing śamatha requires eliminating not just restlessness but also torpor — otherwise calm is merely dead water. Completing vipaśyanā requires eliminating not just torpor but also restlessness — otherwise insight is merely unbridled intellectual activity.

The monkey simile captures the persistent nature of these afflictions: "In defiled mental states, through the force of restlessness and distraction, there should be moment-to-moment change of understanding and object; or through the restraining force of mindfulness, like a monkey tied to a post, there is temporary stillness."[^96]

3.5 Faithlessness–Laziness–Heedlessness: The Reversed Causal Chain

The major subsidiary afflictions of faithlessness, laziness, and heedlessness form a causal chain that is the exact reverse of P08's wholesome chain of faith → diligence → non-heedlessness.

Wholesome chain (P08): Faith (deep conviction and mental purity) → diligence (courageous engagement) → non-heedlessness (sustained guarding).

Defiled chain (P10): Faithlessness (impure mind, no conviction) → laziness (idleness, promoting defilement) → heedlessness (complete collapse of guarding).

The Cheng weishi lun makes the causal link explicit: "Those who lack faith are mostly lazy"⁵⁴ — faithlessness's functional activity leads directly to laziness. The uniqueness of faithlessness deserves emphasis: it is the only defiled dharma whose "own characteristic is murky, and it further makes murky all other mental factors"⁵⁵ — like an extremely filthy substance that contaminates itself and everything around it.

3.6 Deluded Mindfulness, Distraction, Wrong Knowing: Corrupted Object-Specific Factors

The theoretically deepest of the major subsidiary afflictions are deluded mindfulness, distraction, and wrong knowing — the corrupted versions of the object-specific factors mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.

The practice implication: you need not "invent" new antidotes for deluded mindfulness — you need only restore mindfulness to its original function. When craving, aversion, and delusion are subdued, mindfulness naturally recollects clearly, concentration naturally focuses, wisdom naturally discriminates correctly — the object-specific factors return to their original state, and subsidiary afflictions vanish of their own accord.

3.7 Ontological Status: Real Versus Nominal

Definitively substantially existent (four): shamelessness, lack of propriety, faithlessness, laziness — they have their own independent natures and cannot be reduced to combinations of other dharmas.[^104]

Definitively nominally existent (thirteen): the ten minor, plus heedlessness, deluded mindfulness, and wrong knowing — they are positional variants of root afflictions without independent natures.[^105]

Disputed (three): restlessness, torpor, and distraction.[^106]

The practice implication: nominal dharmas are remedied by addressing their essential-nature sources (sever aversion and fury-resentment-vexation cease). Substantial dharmas require direct antidotes (shamelessness requires cultivating shame; faithlessness requires cultivating faith). The nominal-versus-substantial distinction indicates not "importance" but "remedial pathway."

3.8 Consciousness-Specific Configuration: Why the Minor Ten Cannot Arise in the Five Sense-Consciousnesses

"The ten minor, being coarse and fierce, are absent from the first five consciousnesses."[^107] The doctrinal basis: every minor subsidiary affliction requires some degree of conceptual discrimination. Fury requires judging "this is disadvantageous to me"; resentment requires recalling "what he did to me"; jealousy requires comparing "he has what I lack." These judgments are available only to the sixth consciousness — the first five consciousnesses have only direct perception, incapable of such complex mental operations.

Manas receives only the eight major: "In the seventh consciousness, only the eight major are present."[^108] Manas is morally obscured-but-indeterminate (not unwholesome), so the medium two (pervading unwholesome) cannot arise; manas lacks discriminative capacity, so the minor ten cannot arise. "Four afflictions and eight major arise together" — this is the totality of manas's mental content.

3.9 Cut the Root, Not the Branches: The Practice Strategy

"They are exclusively positional variants and homogeneous outflows of afflictions — hence called subsidiary afflictions."[^109] This judgment contains the most important practice strategy.

Remedy fury-resentment-vexation-jealousy-harmfulness → remedy aversion. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra confirms: "Through the power of loving-kindness, removing, relinquishing, and leaving these three — this is called being without anger, without resentment, without grudge, without vexation."[^110]

Remedy concealment-deceit-flattery → remedy craving and delusion. Remedy miserliness-arrogance → remedy craving. Remedy faithlessness-laziness-heedlessness → directly cultivate faith and diligence. Remedy deluded mindfulness-distraction-wrong knowing → restore mindfulness-concentration-wisdom.

But "cut the root, not the branches" does not mean ignoring the branches. Subsidiary afflictions are practitioners' first point of contact with affliction. From the branches one traces back to the root; only pruning branches never reaches the root. The branches are the entry point; the root is the target.

3.10 The Three-Paper Closed Loop: P08–P09–P10

P08 (wholesome mental factors) → P09 (root afflictions + indeterminates) → P10 (subsidiary afflictions): three papers constituting the complete map of mental qualities within the fifty-one mental factors.

Wholesome factors are the fuel, root afflictions the contaminants, subsidiary afflictions the exhaust. The remedial plan: improve the fuel (cultivate wholesome factors), simultaneously clear the contaminants (address root afflictions), and exhaust problems (subsidiary afflictions) naturally diminish. These are not three separate steps but three facets of the single process of "transforming consciousness into wisdom" — to be fully unfolded in P14.

IV. Cross-Disciplinary Resonances

The following seven analogies are all heuristic references (⚠️), offered to help contemporary readers approach Yogācāra doctrine through familiar frameworks. Analogies are not equations and cannot be used for reverse inference.

4.1 Restlessness and Torpor ↔ The Yerkes-Dodson Law ⚠️

The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908) states that cognitive performance follows an inverted-U relationship with arousal level.⁵⁶ Restlessness corresponds to excessive arousal; torpor corresponds to insufficient arousal. The seven awakening factors' dynamic regulation (add kindling / add damp charcoal) is precisely a search for the optimal arousal zone.

⚠️ Boundary: Yerkes-Dodson describes physiological arousal's effect on cognitive tasks; restlessness and torpor are afflicted mental-factor states. The former is a quantitative issue of functional level; the latter is a qualitative issue of contamination.

4.2 Deluded Mindfulness ↔ Mind Wandering ⚠️

Mind wandering — attention disengaging from the current task and drifting toward internal thoughts — occupies roughly 30–50% of waking hours (Smallwood & Schooler, 2015).⁵⁷ The phenomenology resembles deluded mindfulness closely, but the Cheng weishi lun classifies deluded mindfulness as "contaminated mindfulness" — not neutral attention drift but mindfulness distorted by affliction.

⚠️ Boundary: Mind wandering has been linked to creativity and future planning; deluded mindfulness is judged as purely defiled. One cannot use the positive aspects of mind wandering to defend deluded mindfulness.

4.3 Distraction ↔ Attentional Deficit and the Default Mode Network ⚠️

Distraction — the mind constantly shifting from one object to another — corresponds in neuroscience to attentional control failure.⁵⁸ The distinction between restlessness and distraction ("the former causes easy change of understanding; the latter causes easy change of object"⁵⁹) has parallels in attention research: restlessness resembles interpretive fluctuation regarding the same stimulus, while distraction resembles attentional switching between different stimuli.

4.4 Wrong Knowing ↔ Metacognitive Failure ⚠️

Wrong knowing (erroneous understanding as its nature) can be analogized to metacognitive failure — incorrectly evaluating one's own cognitive state. The Dunning-Kruger effect (1999) describes a specific form: those with insufficient competence tend to overestimate their abilities because they lack the very competence needed to assess competence.⁶⁰

The Śūraṅgama's "taking this to be the mark of diligent effort"⁶¹ and "denying cause and effect, entering emptiness" are concrete meditative manifestations — the practitioner making erroneous assessments of their own practice state.

4.5 Shamelessness and Lack of Propriety ↔ Moral Disengagement ⚠️

Bandura's moral disengagement theory (1999) describes how people commit immoral acts without changing their moral standards — through rationalization, dehumanization, diffusion of responsibility, and other mechanisms that temporarily disable moral self-regulation.⁶²

Shamelessness and lack of propriety function precisely as the collapse of moral self-regulation: shamelessness disregards self and dharma; lack of propriety disregards world and others. Sūtra 749's causal chain describes the complete path from source to consequence.

⚠️ Boundary: Moral disengagement theory's "morality" is socially constructed; Yogācāra's shame and propriety have dimensions that transcend social construction — shame is "regarding oneself and the dharma" (dharma here meaning the Buddha's teaching, a standard transcending social convention).

4.6 Concealment–Deceit–Flattery ↔ Self-Deception ⚠️

Trivers (2011) proposes from evolutionary psychology that self-deception evolved as a strategy for more effectively deceiving others.⁶³ The three-layer development of concealment, deceit, and flattery maps the three levels of self-deception: concealment (hiding faults from oneself), deceit (fabricating for others), flattery (maintaining a false relational image).

⚠️ Boundary: Evolutionary psychology treats self-deception as possibly adaptive; Yogācāra treats concealment, deceit, and flattery as purely defiled.

4.7 Jealousy ↔ Social Comparison ⚠️

Festinger's social comparison theory (1954) describes an intrinsic human drive to evaluate one's own abilities by comparing with others.⁶⁴ Jealousy (intolerance of others' flourishing) is the purely negative product of upward comparison. Smith & Kim (2007) distinguish malicious envy (wishing the other to lose) from benign envy (wishing oneself to also gain)⁶⁵ — Yogācāra's "jealousy" clearly corresponds to the former.

V. Middle Way Corrections

❌ Correction One: Subsidiary Afflictions Are Not "Bad Emotions"

Everyday "bad emotions" (anger, jealousy, laziness) overlap with but are not identical to subsidiary afflictions. Subsidiary afflictions are technical concepts with precise essential-nature attributions, nominal-versus-substantial distinctions, and consciousness-specific configurations. Reducing them to everyday emotional vocabulary loses the analytical precision of the Hundred Dharmas as a diagnostic tool.

❌ Correction Two: "Cut the Root" Does Not Mean Ignoring the Branches

"Cut the root, not the branches" is a priority ordering of practice strategy, not a dismissal of subsidiary afflictions. Subsidiary afflictions are the doorway through which practitioners first become aware of affliction. Ignoring subsidiary afflictions is not "going straight to the root" — it is not even entering the door.

❌ Correction Three: Restlessness Is Not "Having Energy"; Torpor Is Not "Being Tired"

Restlessness is affliction-driven agitation — not productive focus or meditative joy. Torpor is delusion-laden heaviness — not the body's legitimate need for rest. The distinguishing criterion: restlessness obstructs calming; wholesome diligence does not obstruct calming. Torpor obstructs insight; physiologically necessary rest does not obstruct insight.

❌ Correction Four: Nominally Existent Does Not Mean "Unimportant"

The ten minor are judged as nominally existent — meaning they have no independent ontological substance, not that they do not exist or do not matter. A "nominally existent fury" is genuinely operating, genuinely driving behavior, and genuinely depositing seeds in the very moment you are angry. "Nominal existence" is an ontological determination, not a phenomenological negation.

⚠️ Correction Five: Strict Boundaries for Cross-Disciplinary Analogies

All seven analogies are marked ⚠️. Three boundaries apply without exception: ①Modern theories do not modify sūtra-and-śāstra definitions; ②Analogies cannot be used to reverse-derive Yogācāra propositions; ③The two systems rest on fundamentally different presuppositions (Yogācāra presupposes rebirth and karmic fruition; modern psychology does not).

VI. Conclusion

6.1 Core Propositions Reviewed

Three-tier structure: Minor (individual arising), medium (pervading unwholesome), major (pervading defiled) — differentiation of pervasiveness, not gradation of severity. ✅

Minor ten developmental sequences: Fury-resentment-vexation as the three beats of aversion; concealment-deceit-flattery as the three layers of deception; jealousy-miserliness as intolerance toward others and attachment toward self; arrogance and harmfulness each with distinct characterizations. ✅

Dynamic meditation balance: The fire simile provides three factors countering torpor, three countering restlessness, and mindfulness assisting all; the Saṃdhinirmocana provides the deeper principle of cross-elimination. ✅

Wholesome-defiled mirror loop: P08 → P09 → P10 constitutes the complete mirror: faith ↔ faithlessness, diligence ↔ laziness, non-heedlessness ↔ heedlessness, mindfulness ↔ deluded mindfulness, concentration ↔ distraction, wisdom ↔ wrong knowing. ✅

Cut the root, not the branches: All twenty subsidiary afflictions are positional variants and homogeneous outflows — but the branches are the entry point for practice; the root is the target. ✅

6.2 Series Position

P10 is the fourth paper in the S3 mental-factor series. Together, P07–P10 complete the analysis of all fifty-one mental factors. From here, the remaining three papers — P11 (form dharmas), P12 (factors dissociated from mind), P13 (unconditioned dharmas) — unfold the final three of the Hundred Dharmas' five categories.

6.3 Next Step

Next, we enter the third of the five categories — the eleven form dharmas (S3-P11): the five sense faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body), the five sense objects (form, sound, smell, taste, touch), and form subsumed under the dharma-object domain. If the mind dharmas and mental-factor dharmas have unfolded "who is driving the vehicle and with what mental attitudes," the form dharmas will unfold "the road the vehicle travels and the scenery along the way" — but Yogācāra will tell you: the road and the scenery are also projected by consciousness.

References

I. Primary Buddhist Sources

1. Saṃyuktāgama (雜阿含經), trans. Guṇabhadra, Liu Song dynasty. T02, No. 0099《雜阿含經》Saṃyukta-āgamaT2, No. 99View on CBETA online reader ↗.
2. Ekottarāgama (增壹阿含經), trans. Gautama Saṅghadeva, Eastern Jin dynasty. T02, No. 0125《增壹阿含經》EkottarāgamaT2, No. 125View on CBETA online reader ↗.
3. Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra (解深密經), trans. Xuanzang, Tang dynasty. T16, No. 0676《解深密經》Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtraT16, No. 676View on CBETA online reader ↗.
4. Śūraṅgama Sūtra (楞嚴經), trans. Pāramiti, Tang dynasty. T19, No. 0945《大佛頂首楞嚴經》Śūraṅgama-sūtra (Chinese)T19, No. 945View on CBETA online reader ↗.
5. Avataṃsaka Sūtra (大方廣佛華嚴經, 80-fascicle version), trans. Śikṣānanda, Tang dynasty. T10, No. 0279《大方廣佛華嚴經》(八十華嚴)Avataṃsaka-sūtra (80-fascicle)T10, No. 279View on CBETA online reader ↗.
6. Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra (大智度論), Nāgārjuna, trans. Kumārajīva, Later Qin dynasty. T25, No. 1509《大智度論》Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa-śāstraT25, No. 1509View on CBETA online reader ↗.
7. Cheng weishi lun (成唯識論), Dharmapāla et al., trans. Xuanzang, Tang dynasty. T31, No. 1585《成唯識論》Vijñaptimātratā-siddhi-śāstraT31, No. 1585View on CBETA online reader ↗.
8. Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra (瑜伽師地論), Maitreya, trans. Xuanzang, Tang dynasty. T30, No. 1579《瑜伽師地論》Yogācārabhūmi-śāstraT30, No. 1579View on CBETA online reader ↗.
9. Pañcaskandhaka (大乘五蘊論), Vasubandhu, trans. Xuanzang, Tang dynasty. T31, No. 1612《大乘五蘊論》Pañcaskandha-prakaraṇaT31, No. 1612View on CBETA online reader ↗.
10. Bajishi guiju buzhu (八識規矩補註), Putai, Ming dynasty. T45, No. 1865《八識規矩補註》T45, No. 1865View on CBETA online reader ↗.

II. Modern Scholarship

1. Yerkes, R. M. & Dodson, J. D. "The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation." JCNP 18, 1908, pp. 459–482.
2. Smallwood, J. & Schooler, J. W. "The Science of Mind Wandering." Annual Review of Psychology 66, 2015, pp. 487–518.
3. Bandura, A. "Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration of Inhumanities." PSPR 3(3), 1999, pp. 193–209.
4. Trivers, R. The Folly of Fools. Basic Books, 2011.
5. Festinger, L. "A Theory of Social Comparison Processes." Human Relations 7(2), 1954, pp. 117–140.
6. Smith, R. H. & Kim, S. H. "Comprehending Envy." Psychological Bulletin 133(1), 2007, pp. 46–64.
7. Kruger, J. & Dunning, D. "Unskilled and Unaware of It." JPSP 77(6), 1999, pp. 1121–1134.

III. Sūtra & Śāstra Index

Cross-Reference Index

Footnotes

License: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Verification: All citations cross-checked against the CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripiṭaka Collection Source: GitHub — pointing-at-the-moon/dharma-research