大智度論 白話全本 · 冊1Dazhidulun — Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa · Complete Vernacular · Vol. 1

The Four Heavenly Kings Rejoice and Wish to Offer Four Bowls to the Bodhisattva

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘If a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises prajñāpāramitā is able to produce merits such as these, then the Four Heavenly Kings all rejoice greatly and think: We should present four bowls to this bodhisattva, just as the Four Heavenly Kings of old presented bowls to the earlier Buddhas.’

The Previous Chapter Has Already Said This; Why Say It Again?

Question: The previous chapter has already said this completely; why is it said again now?

Answer: Although the previous chapter praised prajñāpāramitā, the matter had not yet been said in full, and the listeners were not weary of it, so it is said once more. Furthermore, that first chapter only praised the power and function of prajñāpāramitā; now it praises the practitioner who is able to produce merits such as these, making the Four Heavenly Kings and others rejoice and offer bowls. Furthermore, because the bodhisattva is able to fulfil all kinds of vows and practices, the Buddha comforts him and encourages and spurs him on, saying that there is such a recompense and that in the end it will not be in vain. Furthermore, prajñāpāramitā has two fruits: the first is becoming a Buddha and ferrying beings across; the second is that, though one has not yet become a Buddha, one already enjoys worldly recompense—becoming a wheel-turning sage king, becoming Śakra, becoming the Brahmā king who rules the three-thousand great-thousand world, with worldly blessings and pleasures and offerings all complete in every respect. Now worldly recompense is shown to beings, and that is why this matter is spoken of. Furthermore, when worldly people wish to accomplish a great undertaking, there are often all kinds of factors that ruin and disturb it; the bodhisattva is not like this—once his mind within is settled, outer affairs follow and come about smoothly. For causes and conditions of all these kinds, this chapter is spoken.

When the Bodhisattva Increases the Six Perfections, Why Do Gods and Humans Rejoice?

Question: When the bodhisattva increases the six perfections, on the basis of what causes and conditions do the gods and humans rejoice?

Answer: The gods were all able to be born in heaven because of the ten wholesome deeds, the four meditations, and the four immeasurable minds; and these merits all come about only by relying on the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. If a Buddha appears in the world, the ranks of the gods increase and the asuras decrease; if no Buddha is in the world, the asuras become many and the gods become few—this is because their deeds of merit are mixed and not pure enough.

King Śibi Cuts His Flesh to Ransom the Dove: How Śakra Tested for a Decided Great Mind

If the Buddhas appear in the world, they are able to cut off the gods' net of doubt and able to accomplish great matters. It is like Śakra Devānām Indra, when his life was about to end: his mind was full of terror, and he wished to seek a Buddha to save him, but though he searched everywhere he could not find where a Buddha was. Although he saw renunciants practising in quiet places in the mountains, forests, rivers, and marshes, none of these people could cut off his net of doubt either. At that time the god Viśvakarman said to Śakra Devānām Indra: ‘King Śibi's ascetic practice is extraordinary and rare in the world! All the wise say: This man will soon become a Buddha!’ Śakra Devānām Indra said: ‘This is hard to settle! How can we know it is true? Like fish roe, the blossoms of the āmra tree, and bodhisattvas who have first aroused the mind—these three are many at the start, but those that truly come to fruition are extremely few. Now I shall test him!’ So Śakra changed himself into a hawk and turned Viśvakarman into a dove; the dove flew to King Śibi's side seeking rescue, and the king cut the flesh from his own body to exchange it for the dove's life, going so far as to place his whole body on the scale, giving his body in place of the dove. At that moment the great earth shook. When Śakra Devānām Indra and the others saw this, their minds greatly rejoiced; they scattered all kinds of heavenly flowers and praised it as something that had never been before; they thought: With a great mind as decided and unmoving as this, becoming a Buddha will not be long!

Furthermore, ordinary people have only the fleshly eye and no wisdom, and toil their bodies seeking wealth to support themselves; if even such people all rejoice on hearing that the bodhisattva increases the six perfections and will soon become a Buddha, how much more the gods!

The Gods of the Higher Realms No Longer Suffer from the Asuras; Why Do They Also Rejoice?

Question: The heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings and the Heaven of the Thirty-Three are harassed by the asuras; but the gods higher up have no such trouble, so why do they also rejoice?

Answer: Although the gods of the higher realms have no trouble from the asuras, if no Buddha appears in the world, few people are born into their heavens; and even if some are born there, the five desires they enjoy are not refined. Why? Because they have cultivated only impure merit. The palaces, radiance, and lifespans of the gods of the form realm are likewise. Furthermore, those among the gods who have wisdom are able to know that the taste of meditative absorption and the five desires are all impermanent; only when a Buddha appears in the world can they be brought to attain the permanent bliss of nirvāṇa. Because both worldly bliss and the bliss of nirvāṇa are attained only by relying on the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, they rejoice. It is like a sweet fruit tree that has grown lush and ripe: people rejoice greatly, because the tree has all kinds of benefits—some people gain shelter in its shade, some pick its flowers, some eat its fruit. The bodhisattva is also like this: with the shade of separation from unwholesome dharmas he can screen off the scorching heat of suffering in the three evil paths, he can give the flowers of the wealth and bliss of humans and gods, and he can also enable the worthies and sages to attain the fruits of the three vehicles; therefore all rejoice.

There Are So Many Kinds of Offering; Why Single Out the Offering of Bowls?

Question: The gods have so many matters of offering; why speak only of offering bowls?

Answer: The Four Heavenly Kings are responsible for offering bowls; the other gods each make their own offerings. The offerings of the gods each have a fixed, constant rule. It is like when the Buddha was first born: Śakra Devānām Indra received the Buddha's body with heavenly cloth, the Brahmā king personally held a jewelled canopy for the Buddha, and the Four Heavenly Kings stood guard on the four sides. The gods of the Pure Abodes, in order to make the bodhisattva give rise to a mind of revulsion, conjured the forms of an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a śramaṇa. Again, when the bodhisattva left home, the Four Heavenly Kings ordered messengers to hold up the horse's hooves, and themselves attended and guarded the bodhisattva from the four sides. Śakra, lord of the gods, took the bodhisattva's hair and raised a hair stūpa outside the east gate of their heavenly city; he also took the bodhisattva's jewelled robe and raised a robe stūpa outside the south gate of the city; when the Buddha went to the tree, someone offered fine grass. The Vajra-holding Bodhisattva constantly guarded the bodhisattva with vajra in hand; the Brahmā king requested the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel. Offerings of all these kinds each have their constant rule. Precisely because of this, the Four Heavenly Kings offer the bowls.

As for the meaning of the four bowls, it is as has already been said above.

The Buddha Has Only One Body; How Does He Receive Four Bowls?

Question: The Buddha has only one body; why does he receive four bowls?

Answer: The powers of the four great Heavenly Kings are equal, and the Buddha cannot receive the bowl of one of them alone. Moreover, the Buddha also wishes them to see the Buddha's spiritual power, merging the four bowls into one, so that the Four Heavenly Kings rejoice and their faith becomes pure, and they have this thought: All the offerings we have made from the time the bodhisattva was first born until his becoming a Buddha now—their merit is real and will not be in vain.

The Four Heavenly Kings Live Only Five Hundred Years; How Can They Wait Until the Bodhisattva Becomes a Buddha?

Question: The lifespan of the Four Heavenly Kings is only five hundred years, while the bodhisattva becomes a Buddha only after passing through immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas; the Four Heavenly Kings of this present generation are not the heavenly kings of that future time, so why would they rejoice over this?

Answer: Because they belong to one and the same clan; it is like a noble clan whose bloodline is handed down for a hundred generations and is not reckoned another family just because the years are long. Or again there are practitioners of this kind who, seeing the bodhisattva increasing the six perfections, make a vow in their minds: When this bodhisattva becomes a Buddha, I will offer him a bowl. Precisely because of this vow, they are able to be born at that time. Furthermore, the Four Heavenly Kings live five hundred years; fifty years of the human world are only one day and one night where the Four Heavenly Kings are; they too take thirty days as a month and twelve months as a year; reckoning five hundred years by such years equals nine million years of the human world. A bodhisattva able to produce such merits may already be near becoming a Buddha, and the Four Heavenly Kings just born at that time will be exactly in time to meet him.

Some Buddhas Take Joy as Food and Use No Bowl; Why Say the Four Heavenly Kings Always Offer Bowls?

Question: As is said in the Mahāyāna sūtras: some Buddhas take joy as food and do not eat morsel food. And like the Buddha Heavenly King, whose clothing and bearing are no different from a householder's, and who has no need of food from a bowl—why then is it said ‘the Four Heavenly Kings always offer bowls’?

Answer: ‘Always’ is said with regard to Buddhas who use bowls; it does not mean that bowls are always offered even to those who do not use them. Furthermore, the Buddhas who use bowls are many and those who do not are few, so the majority is taken as the standard, and only then is ‘always’ said.

The Heaven of the Thirty-Three up to the Heaven Sovereign over Others' Transformations Also Rejoice, Wishing to Request the Turning of the Dharma Wheel

The sūtra goes on to say: ‘The Heaven of the Thirty-Three up to the Heaven Sovereign over Others' Transformations also all rejoice, thinking: We should serve and make offerings to the bodhisattva, decrease the asuras, and increase the ranks of the gods. In the three-thousand great-thousand world, from the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven, all rejoice greatly, thinking: We should request this bodhisattva to turn the Dharma wheel.’

The treatise-author explains: These gods pay homage and reverence with flowers, incense, and necklaces, and also make offerings by listening to the Dharma, praising, and so on; they also have this thought: If people cultivate pure merit, the asuras decrease and the Heaven of the Thirty-Three increases, and we gods increase along with it.

The Six Heavens Have Been Spoken Of Above; Why Speak Again of the Gods of the Trichiliocosm?

Question: The six heavens have already been spoken of above; why is it said again, ‘in the three-thousand great-thousand world, up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven, they rejoice and make offerings’?

Answer: What was spoken of earlier are the six heavens on a single Mount Sumeru; what is spoken of here are the gods of the three-thousand great-thousand world. Earlier only the desire realm was spoken of; now here the gods of both the desire realm and the form realm are spoken of, and it is said that they request the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel. Although above it was said that the gods of the Pure Abodes made all kinds of offerings, requests, and assistance, now requesting the turning of the Dharma wheel is spoken of because this matter is weightier.

The Tripiṭaka Speaks Only of Brahmā Requesting the Turning of the Dharma Wheel; Why Speak Broadly of the Gods Here?

Question: The Tripiṭaka only says ‘Brahmā requested the turning of the Dharma wheel’; why is it now said that ‘from the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven’ all come to request it?

Answer: The heavens of the desire realm are near, so they come first. The form realm is named Brahmā throughout; if one says the Brahmā king requested the Buddha, the other gods have already all been included. Also, because Brahmā is the first tier of the form realm, when the beginning is spoken of, what follows is spoken of along with it. Furthermore, whether or not there is a Buddha, beings have always known Brahmā and regarded Brahmā as the grandfather of the world, so Brahmā is spoken of especially for the sake of worldly people.

As for the characteristics of the Dharma wheel, it is as has already been said above.

Good Men and Good Women Rejoice, Wishing to Be the Bodhisattva's Parents, Wife, and Children

The sūtra goes on to say: ‘Śāriputra! When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā and increases the six perfections, all good men and good women each rejoice, thinking: We should be this person's parents, wife and children, relatives, and acquaintances.’

Question: Earlier it was already said ‘able to produce such merits’; why is it now also said ‘increases the six perfections’?

Answer: What was said earlier is the general mark; what is said now is the particular mark. Furthermore, the merits spoken of earlier are of all kinds and immeasurable, which would make the listeners weary; now only the six perfections are stated briefly, and all merits are gathered in completely. Furthermore, when speaking for the gods, it says ‘able to produce all kinds of merits’; when speaking for worldly people, it says ‘increases the six perfections’. How do we know this is so? By seeing that what follows speaks of ‘good men and good women’, this can be known.

Why Is ‘Good Gods’ Not Said of the Gods, and ‘Good Men and Women’ Said Only among Humans?

Question: From the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven, why is ‘good gods’ not said, while ‘good men and good women’ is said only among humans?

Answer: The gods all have the divine eye, the divine ear, and the knowledge of others' minds, and are able to know that they should make offerings to the bodhisattva, so there is no need to mark out their goodness separately. Worldly people see with the fleshly eye and cannot know clearly; among them only the good are able to know that they should make offerings to the bodhisattva, and because such people are few, the good are specially marked out. These good people have heard the Dharma either from the Buddha, or from the Buddha's disciples and bodhisattvas; or they have heard that the bodhisattva received the prediction that he would become a Buddha in the future, and also heard the Buddha praise his name, and therefore they know to cultivate the good.

Why Speak Only of the Goodness of Men and Women, and Not of Those with Both Organs or No Organ?

Question: Why speak only of the goodness of men and women, and not of the goodness of people with both organs or with no organ?

Answer: A person with no organ is said to lack the marks of one able to attain the path, so he is not spoken of. It is like the precepts, which do not permit him to leave home, because he lacks the marks of male or female. His mind is not settled, and he becomes angry over small matters; his fetters are many, so he is attached to worldly affairs; he also harbours much of the net of doubt and does not delight in the Dharma of the right path; although he can also do some small deeds of merit, his wisdom is shallow and cannot go deep; and his nature changes easily, so he is not spoken of—this is how it is said in the Dharma of the śrāvakas. As for the Mahāyāna, it is like the great ocean, which accepts everything; such a person with no organ sometimes also cultivates the good, but simply because they are too few, they are not specially spoken of. ‘Few’ means that among men and women such people are the fewest, and among such people those who cultivate the good are fewer still; it is like a fair-skinned person who, even though his beard, hair, and moles are black, still cannot be called a black person. A person with both organs has fetters that are many and mixed, acts both as a man and as a woman, and his mind is crooked and very hard to rescue; it is like dragging timber through a dense forest—the crooked pieces are hard to pull out. It is also like the asuras, who, because their minds are not upright, constantly suspect the Buddha, thinking the Buddha is helping the gods: when the Buddha teaches them the five aggregates, they insist there are six aggregates and will not believe in fewer; if the Buddha teaches the four truths, they insist there are five truths and will not believe in one fewer. People with both organs are also like this: their minds are much crooked, and they are not equal to attaining the path. Precisely because of this, only the good among men and women are spoken of.

What Is the ‘Mark of Goodness’: Enduring Abuse, and Seventeen Virtues

The mark of goodness is having a mind of kindness and compassion and being able to endure harsh words and abuse. As is said in the Chapter on Abuse of the Dharmapada: ‘One who can endure harsh abuse is alone called the highest among humans!’ It is like a fine good horse, fit for a king to ride. Furthermore, when the five kinds of wrong speech, and whipping, beating with staves, wounding, binding and tying, and so on, all cannot destroy his mind, this is called the mark of goodness.

Furthermore, good people also have virtues of all these kinds: their three kinds of action are without fault, and they like to draw near to good people; they do not disparage others' goodness and do not flaunt their own virtue; they accord with the multitude and do not speak of others' faults; they are not attached to worldly pleasures and do not pursue fame, but only believe in and delight in the joy of the path and virtue; their own conduct and deeds are pure, and they do not trouble or harm beings; in their minds they value the Dharma of what is true and think lightly of worldly common affairs; they love only uprightness and sincerity and do not go along with others in deceit; to let all beings obtain happiness, they would rather give up their own happiness; to let all beings be free of suffering, they would rather take it upon their own bodies in their place. Immeasurable virtues such as these are all named the marks of a good person. Such marks appear mostly in men and women, so it says ‘good men and good women’.

On What Basis Do Good Men and Women Vow to Form a Bond with the Bodhisattva?

Question: On the basis of what causes and conditions are good men and good women able to make such a vow?

Answer: Good men and good women know for themselves that their merit is thin and their wisdom slight, so they draw near to the bodhisattva, wishing to be ferried across to liberation; it is like a heavy stone which, though heavy, can cross the water by relying on a boat. Again, good men and good women hear that the bodhisattva attains the path not after passing through only one or two lives, but after going back and forth in birth and death through countless lives, and so they give rise to this thought: I will form a causal bond with the bodhisattva. Furthermore, the bodhisattva's accumulated virtue is deep, so wherever he is born, beings come to revere him, because the benefit they receive from him is great. If they see the bodhisattva give up his life and die, they give rise to this vow: I will be the bodhisattva's parent, wife, or kin. Why? Because they know that drawing near to good people can increase merit; it is like gathering many incenses together—the fragrance grows ever stronger.

The Wish-Fulfilling Jewels and the Prince: Three Times into the Nāga Palaces, and Three Nāgas Vow to Be Three Great Disciples

It is like when the bodhisattva in a former life was the crown prince of a king; seeing that the people of Jambudvīpa were poor and suffering, he wished to seek a wish-fulfilling jewel to relieve them, so he went into the great ocean and came to the palace of a nāga king. The nāga king, seeing the prince's majestic virtue to be extraordinary, immediately rose to greet him, invited him in and made offerings, and asked him: ‘How are you able to come from so far away?’ The prince answered: ‘It is because I pity the beings of Jambudvīpa that I have come to seek a wish-fulfilling jewel, in order to benefit them!’ The nāga king said: ‘If you can stay in my palace and receive my offerings for one month, I will give you the jewel!’ So the prince stayed for one month, praising for the nāga king the virtue of broad learning, and the nāga king gave him the jewel; this wish-fulfilling jewel could send down rain over one yojana. The nāga king said: ‘The prince has the marks of becoming a Buddha and will soon be a Buddha; I vow to be your disciple foremost in broad learning.’ Then the prince went to another nāga palace and obtained a jewel that could rain over two yojanas; he spent two months praising the power of spiritual penetrations. This nāga king said: ‘The prince will soon be a Buddha; I vow to be your disciple foremost in supernormal travel.’ The prince went on to another nāga palace and obtained a jewel that could rain over three yojanas; he spent three months praising wisdom. This nāga king said: ‘The prince will soon be a Buddha; I vow to be your disciple foremost in wisdom.’ After the three nāga kings had given the jewels, they all said: ‘When your life ends, the jewel must be returned to me.’ The bodhisattva agreed. The prince brought the jewels back to Jambudvīpa; one jewel could rain down food and drink, one jewel could rain down clothing, one jewel could rain down the seven treasures, benefiting beings.

Sumati Buys Flowers; Bodhisattva Wondrous Light and the Maiden Joyful Virtue

Again, it is like Sumati Bodhisattva, who, on seeing Dīpaṃkara Buddha, wanted to buy five flowers from the girl Xuluosuo; the girl would not sell them. He then offered five hundred gold coins for those five flowers, and the girl still would not give them, but instead demanded: ‘Only if I may be your wife in life after life will I give you the flowers!’ Because the bodhisattva wished to make an offering to the Buddha, he agreed on the spot.

Again, it is like Wondrous Light Bodhisattva: the daughter of an elder, seeing twenty-eight kinds of marks on his body, gave rise to a mind of love and reverence and stood waiting beneath the gate. When the bodhisattva arrived, the girl took off the beryl bead from her neck and placed it in the bodhisattva's bowl, vowing in her mind: ‘I will be this man's wife in life after life!’ For two hundred and fifty kalpas after this, the girl accumulated all kinds of merit; later she was born within a lotus in the garden of the courtesan Joyful-to-See, and the courtesan Joyful-to-See raised her as her daughter; by the age of fourteen, this maiden Joyful Virtue was complete in every respect in women's handiwork and in worldly skill and ingenuity. At that time there was a king of Jambudvīpa named Lord of Wealth, whose crown prince was named Lord of Virtue and had a mind of great compassion; once he left the city and entered a garden to sightsee, with the courtesans leading the way in front, singing and chanting praises. Prince Lord of Virtue distributed all kinds of treasures, clothing, food and drink all along the way; like a nāga sending down rain, there was nowhere it did not reach. When the maiden Joyful Virtue saw the prince, she composed verses of her own to praise him and gazed at him with love, her eyes never once blinking, and she said of herself: ‘The affairs of the world—I understand them all; I wish to offer this body of mine to serve the prince!’ The prince asked her: ‘To whom do you belong? If you already belong to someone, this would not be proper for me.’ Then the courtesan Joyful-to-See answered the prince on her behalf: ‘The year, month, day, and hour of this daughter's birth are all the same as the prince's. This daughter was not born of me; one morning I entered the garden and saw this daughter born within a lotus, so I raised her and took her as my daughter. Please do not look down on this daughter because of me! This daughter is complete in the sixty-four arts, with none lacking; she is thoroughly versed in women's crafts, scriptures, and medical prescriptions; she always has a sense of shame and conscience, her heart is loyal and upright, she has no jealousy and no thought of sexual misconduct. Since my daughter's virtue and bearing are such as this, the prince ought to accept her!’ Prince Lord of Virtue answered the girl: ‘Sister! I have already set out the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and cultivate the bodhisattva path, begrudging nothing at all. The wealth of the kingdom, wife and children, elephants and horses and the seven precious things—whenever someone comes asking for them, I do not go against their wish; if someone comes asking for the sons and daughters you bear, or for your own self, I will also give them away, and you must not grieve or regret it because of this! At some time I may leave you to go forth from home, become a disciple of the Buddha, and practise in pure mountain forests; you must not be sorrowful either!’ The maiden Joyful Virtue answered: ‘Even if the fires of hell come and burn my body away, I will never regret it! Nor have I come with this body of marks and excellent features for the sake of lust and amusement; I have come to serve the true gentleman in order to encourage and assist anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi!’ The girl also said to the prince: ‘Last night I dreamed of the Buddha Wondrous Sun Body sitting beneath the tree of the path; we can go and pay homage to him!’ The prince, seeing that the girl was upright and handsome, and also hearing that a Buddha had appeared in the world, for these two causes and conditions rode in one carriage with her, and together they went to where the Buddha was. The Buddha taught them the Dharma; the prince obtained immeasurable dhāraṇī gates, and the girl obtained a tamed and subdued resolve. The prince then made an offering to the Buddha of five hundred jewelled flowers, in seeking anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. The prince reported to his father the king: ‘I have been able to see the Buddha Wondrous Sun Body and have gained great good benefit.’ When the king his father heard this, he gave up the wealth he loved and valued to the prince, and together with his ministers and the people of the land went to where the Buddha was. The Buddha taught them the Dharma, and the king obtained the dhāraṇī of the Lamp Without Darkness, which penetrates all dharmas. The king then reflected: ‘It is not possible to govern a kingdom and enjoy the five desires in the way of a householder and still attain the path!’ Having reflected thus, he set up Prince Lord of Virtue as king and himself left home to seek the path. Then, on the fifteenth day of a certain month, six kinds of treasures appeared for Prince Lord of Virtue, and his wife Joyful Virtue became the jewel-maiden. These causes and conditions are as told in full in the Inconceivable Sūtra.

From this it can be known that good men and good women vow life after life to be the bodhisattva's parents, wife, and kin.

The Gods Wish the Bodhisattva to Be Free of Sexual Desire and Always Live as a Pure Youth

The sūtra goes on to say: ‘At that time, from the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven, all rejoiced greatly, each thinking: We should find a means to make this bodhisattva keep far from sexual desire, and from the time he first arouses the mind always live in the youthful state, not coming together with sensual desire; if even receiving the five desires obstructs birth in the Brahmā heavens, how much more anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi! Precisely because of this, Śāriputra! only a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who has cut off sexual desire and left home should attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; it is not attained without cutting off desire.’

Question: Why do the gods make such a vow?

Answer: In the world the five desires are foremost, and there is no one who does not love and delight in them; and among the five desires, touch is foremost again, binding the human mind most of all; it is like a person fallen into deep mud, very hard to rescue. Precisely because of this, the gods find a means to make the bodhisattva keep far from sexual desire. Furthermore, if one receives the other desires, one does not yet go so far as to lose wisdom; only at the time of coming together in sexual desire are body and mind dazed and confused, with no awareness at all, deeply sunk in indulgence and drowning oneself! Precisely because of this, the gods wish the bodhisattva to keep far from it.

How to Make the Bodhisattva Keep Far from It: The Gods of the Pure Abodes Show Old Age, Sickness, and Death

Question: How is the bodhisattva made to keep far from sexual desire?

Answer: It is like when the Bodhisattva Śākyamuni was still in King Śuddhodana's palace and wished to leave the city to sightsee: the gods of the Pure Abodes conjured an old man, a sick man, and a dead man to make his mind turn in revulsion; they also made him see, in the middle of the night, the palace women on duty exposing foul discharges and impurity, with snot and spittle flowing and excrement and urine smeared on their bodies; when the bodhisattva saw this, he at once felt disgust. At times the gods also made women show themselves with evil minds and jealousy, not recognising kindness and virtue, with harsh speech and deceit, without any self-reflection at all; when the bodhisattva saw this, he gave rise to the thought: ‘Though the body looks like a person, that mind is loathsome!’ and so he abandoned them. All this was to make the bodhisattva, from the time he first aroused the mind, always practise the conduct of the youthful state and not come together with sensual desire. Why? Because sexual desire is the root of all fetters! The Buddha said: ‘Rather cut the body with a sharp knife than come together with a woman! Though cutting with a knife is painful, it does not lead to falling into the evil paths; but the causes and conditions of sexual desire bring the sufferings of hell again and again through immeasurable kalpas.’ If a person merely receives the five desires, he cannot even be born in the Brahmā world, how much less attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi!

Someone says: ‘Although the bodhisattva receives the five desires, because his mind is not attached, it does not hinder his cultivation of the path.’ In response to this claim, the sūtra says: ‘Receiving the five desires, one cannot even be born in the Brahmā world. The Brahmā world is where beings from beginningless time have all been able to be born; if a person who receives the five desires cannot attain even the Brahmā world he ought to attain, how much less anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, which he has never attained yet still wishes to attain!’ Precisely because of this, the bodhisattva should live in the youthful state and cultivate the pure life, and then he will attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. The bodhisattva who cultivates the pure life, because he is not attached to the world, is able to accomplish the bodhisattva path quickly; as for one who indulges in sexual desire, it is like glue and lacquer, very hard to get free of. Why? Because when the body craves and enjoys the pleasures of desire, the root of sexual desire sinks deep! Precisely because of this, in the precepts for those who have left home, the precept on sexual conduct stands first and is also listed as a grave precept.

Must a Bodhisattva Have Parents, Wife, and Children? The Three Kinds of Bodhisattva

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Must a bodhisattva-mahāsattva have parents, wife and children, relatives, and acquaintances?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘Some bodhisattvas have parents, wife and children, relatives, and acquaintances; some bodhisattvas, from the time they first aroused the mind, cut off sexual desire and practise the conduct of the youthful state, and until they attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi never transgress in sensual desire; some bodhisattvas, by the power of skilful means, receive the five desires and only afterwards leave home and attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

The treatise-author explains: Of these three kinds of bodhisattva, the first is like worldly people who first receive the five desires and only later give them up, leave home, and attain the path of awakening. The second is one whose great merit is firm, who cut off sexual desire when first setting out the mind and continues so until attaining the Buddha path. Such a bodhisattva has either a dharma-body or a flesh body; is either already free of desire or not yet free of desire. The third is the bodhisattva of the pure dharma-body, who has already attained the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas and abides in the six supernormal powers. In order to teach and transform beings, he engages in the same activities as beings and so gathers them in. Such a bodhisattva becomes a wheel-turning sage king, or a king of Jambudvīpa, an elder, or a kṣatriya, benefiting beings according to what they need.

The Conjurer Produces the Five Desires: The Bodhisattva Receives the Five Desires Without Truly Receiving Them

The sūtra goes on to say: ‘It is like a conjurer or a conjurer's disciple, skilled in the art of illusion, who conjures up the five desires and amuses himself with others among them. What do you think? Does this person truly and really enjoy these five desires?’

Śāriputra said: ‘No, World-Honored One!’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, by the power of skilful means, conjures up the five desires, takes pleasure among them, and by this brings beings to maturity—it is just like this. This bodhisattva-mahāsattva is not stained by desire, and also disparages the five desires by all kinds of causes and conditions: saying that desire burns like a blazing fire, saying that desire is filthy and foul, saying that desire brings ruin, saying that desire is like an enemy! Precisely because of this, Śāriputra! you should know that the bodhisattva receives the five desires for the sake of beings.’

Question: Among these three kinds of bodhisattva, why is a simile made for only one kind of bodhisattva?

Answer: The first, like ordinary people, does not cut off sexual desire; the second always cuts off sexual desire and cultivates pure conduct; the third also cultivates pure conduct yet appears to receive sexual desire—because worldly people do not understand this third kind, the simile is made especially for it.

Question: Why are dreams, transformations, and the like not used as similes?

Answer: A dream is not something the five senses can perceive; it arises only from the mind's recollection and imagining; whereas an illusion is seen by people with the five senses, it changes and perishes and is impermanent, and one can gain understanding by means of it. Although a transformation is also known by the five senses, those who can see it are extremely few. The Buddha wishes to ferry across the beings who can be ferried across, and illusion is something the multitude all believe in, so illusion is taken as the simile. Just as a conjurer by the art of illusion shows marvellous things before the multitude, making people rejoice, so too the bodhisattva, this conjurer, by the art of the five supernormal powers conjures up the five desires among beings, amusing himself with them, and by this ferries beings across and transforms them. Beings are of two kinds: those at home and those who have left home. To ferry across beings who have left home, he appears as a śrāvaka, a pratyekabuddha, a Buddha, or as teachers of all kinds of outside paths who have left home; as for beings at home, some are ferried across by seeing a renunciant, and some can instead be transformed by seeing a householder who receives the five desires together with them.

The Four Faults of the Five Desires: Blazing, Foul, Ruinous, Like an Enemy

The bodhisattva constantly disparages the five desires by all kinds of causes and conditions. As for ‘desire burns like a blazing fire’: before the pleasure of desire is lost, the fire of the three poisons—greed, hatred, and delusion—burns; once it is lost, the fire of impermanence burns again. Burned by two fires, it is therefore called ‘blazing’, and there is no time of true ease and happiness. As for ‘desire is filthy and foul’: the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, arhats, and all who are free of desire regard it as filthy and base. It is like a person who sees a dog eating dung, and both despises it and pities it for not getting good food but eating that impure thing instead; one who receives desire is also like this, not obtaining the inner joy of freedom from desire, but seeking pleasure in the impurity of sensual desire. As for ‘desire brings ruin’: because of attachment to the five desires, heavenly kings, human kings, and all kinds of rich and noble people have lost their kingdoms and endangered their lives—none of it has come from anything but this! As for ‘desire is like an enemy’: it makes people lose the benefit of the good; it is also like an assassin who outwardly seems like a friendly person but inwardly harbours harm; the five desires are just like this, making people lose their good mind and robbing them of their wisdom-life. The very reason the five desires arise is to destroy all good and ruin virtuous works. Know also that the five desires are like a hook that lures and harms the swimming fish, like a net that traps the mountain deer, like a lamp flame that burns the flying moth to death; precisely because of this, it is said ‘desire is like an enemy’. The harm an enemy does is only within this one life; but the causes and conditions of attachment to the five desires lead to falling into the three evil paths and undergoing to the full all kinds of suffering and poison through immeasurable lives.

How Should One Practise Prajñā: Not Seeing a Bodhisattva, Not Seeing Prajñā

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘How should a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practise prajñāpāramitā?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not see that there is a bodhisattva, does not see that there is the name bodhisattva, does not see that there is prajñāpāramitā, also does not see “I am practising prajñāpāramitā”, and also does not see “I am not practising prajñāpāramitā”. Why? Because the bodhisattva and the name bodhisattva are empty in their very nature; in emptiness there is no form, and no feeling, perception, constructions, or consciousness; apart from form there is no emptiness, and apart from feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness there is no emptiness. Emptiness is form, form is emptiness; emptiness is feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are emptiness. Why? Śāriputra! Only because there is a name is it called awakening; only because there is a name is it called bodhisattva; only because there is a name is it called emptiness. What is the reason for this? Because the true nature of all dharmas is originally without arising, without ceasing, without defilement, without purity. When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in this way, he sees neither arising nor ceasing; he sees neither defilement nor purity. Why? Because names are produced by the coming together of many conditions, and are only provisional names set up and spoken of through recollection, imagining, and discrimination. Precisely because of this, when a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not see any names, and because he does not see them, he does not cling to them.’

Question: Śāriputra already asked about this matter earlier; why does he ask again now?

Answer: Earlier he asked because the Buddha had said ‘one who wishes to know all dharmas with the omniscience of all kinds should learn prajñāpāramitā’; it was not a question he asked on his own initiative. Furthermore, now Śāriputra, having heard all the praises above of the merits of prajñā, rejoices in his mind and honours prajñā, so he asks ‘how should one practise it’; it is like a sick person who hears someone praise a good medicine and then asks ‘how should it be taken’.

Question: He already asked earlier, ‘abiding in the dharma of non-abiding, practising the perfection of giving, where the giver, the receiver, and the gift are all unfindable—practising in this way is practising prajñā’; why does he ask again now how to practise?

Answer: Above was a general question about all the perfections; here he asks only about prajñā. Above, broadly praising prajñā was the main point; here he asks directly how to practise prajñā. Furthermore, although prajñāpāramitā was broadly praised above, those in the assembly longed to obtain it; so for the sake of the multitude Śāriputra asks ‘how is prajñāpāramitā practised’. The merits of prajñāpāramitā are immeasurable and inexhaustible, and the Buddha's wisdom is also immeasurable and inexhaustible; if Śāriputra did not raise the question, then the Buddha's praise would be endless and inexhaustible; if Śāriputra did not ask, there would be no cause and condition to bring the praise to a stop.

Question: Since the merits of prajñā are so worthy of honour, what would be wrong with the Buddha simply going on praising it broadly?

Answer: When prajñā is praised, the listeners rejoice and honour it, and this increases their merit; if prajñā is taught to them, this increases their wisdom. The causes and conditions of merit alone cannot accomplish the Buddha path; it can be accomplished only with wisdom; so one should not simply go on praising. When people have heard the praise, their minds are already purified and they long to obtain prajñā; it is like facing a thirsty person—simply praising at length how fine a drink is does not quench his thirst; at that point one should give him the drink. For these causes and conditions, Śāriputra now asks how prajñā is practised.

If One Does Not See, How Can One Still Practise? Not Seeing While in Contemplation, as Fire Is a Provisional Name Yet Can Burn Things

Question: It is like a person who has eyes and can see, and so knows where to go, and only then can walk; the bodhisattva too should be like this: first recollect the Buddha path, understand prajñā, and see it, and only then can he practise; why is it now said ‘he does not see the bodhisattva or prajñā’? Since he does not see, how can he practise?

Answer: This does not say that he never sees; it only says that at the time of entering the right contemplation of prajñā, he does not see the bodhisattva or prajñāpāramitā; prajñāpāramitā comes forth in order to make beings understand the Dharma of what is true. This name ‘bodhisattva’ is an appellation provisionally set up through the coming together of many conditions, as is explained in detail in a later chapter. The name prajñāpāramitā is also like this: it is the coming together of many dharmas that is provisionally named prajñāpāramitā. Although prajñāpāramitā is a provisional name, it can break through all kinds of idle discourse; because its own-nature is originally non-existent, it is said to be ‘not visible’. It is like fire: it is from the coming together of many conditions that it is provisionally named fire, and though there is no real substance of fire, it can burn things.

Question: If upon entering prajñā one does not see, and upon leaving prajñā one sees again, which side is then to be believed?

Answer: What was said above, ‘prajñā comes forth in order to reveal the Dharma of what is true’—this is to be believed; what is seen after leaving prajñāpāramitā is not true, so it is not to be believed.

Question: If ‘upon entering prajñā one does not see, and upon leaving one sees’, then you should know that it is not that all dharmas are originally and always empty, but rather that it is the power of prajñā that makes them empty!

Answer: It is in accordance with worldly convention that practising is spoken of and entering prajñāpāramitā is spoken of; in reality all the idle discourse of contemplation has ceased, and there is neither leaving nor entering. If the worthies and sages did not speak by means of names, they would have no way to teach and transform ordinary people; so one should grasp the intent of what is said, and not cling to the words!

Why First Refute the ‘Self’, and Then the Emptiness of All Dharmas?

Question: Since what is valued in prajñā is the emptiness of all dharmas, why does it here first speak of the emptiness of beings and first refute the ‘self’?

Answer: One who first hears prajñā cannot straightaway be taught the emptiness of all dharmas. The ‘self’ cannot be found by the five senses; it is only through recollection, imagining, and discrimination that the notion of a ‘self’ arises, taking to exist what originally does not exist. Again, within the mind there is no fixed object; it is only through recollection, imagining, and discrimination, the causes and conditions of inversion, that the notion of a ‘self’ arises in the five aggregates, which are originally empty. If one is told there is no self, it is easy to understand. As for form and all the other dharmas, they are seen directly before the eyes; if at the very outset they are said to be empty and non-existent, it is hard to be believed. Now the ‘self’ is refuted first, and then the dharmas of ‘mine’; once the dharmas of self and mine are refuted, all dharmas are empty. Being thus free of desire is named attaining the path.

Furthermore, it is also because prajñāpāramitā has no fixed way of being taught.

The Five Senses of ‘Not Seeing “I Practise”, Not Seeing “I Do Not Practise”’

First, the phrase ‘does not see that I practise prajñā, does not see that I do not practise’. First: ordinary people, because they do not attain prajñā, are called ‘not practising’; the bodhisattva is not like this—he practises only the prajñā whose substance is empty, so it says ‘does not see not practising’. Second: the Buddha is the king of the Dharma, and he regards the wisdom of the other bodhisattvas as still slight and mixed with all kinds of fetters, not yet counting as practice; it is like a king who, even if he obtains some small thing, does not count it as having obtained anything; the Buddha too is like this—he regards the bodhisattvas, though they have some practice, as not yet counting as practising. Third: a person who practises prajñāpāramitā easily gives rise to arrogance, saying ‘I have prajñāpāramitā’, and grasps this mark; while a person who does not practise becomes lax and sunk in his own mind, harbouring sorrow and dejection. It is precisely to counteract these two extremes that it says ‘does not see that I practise or do not practise’. Fourth: ‘does not see that I practise prajñāpāramitā’ refutes the view that clings to ‘existence’; ‘does not see that I do not practise prajñāpāramitā’ refutes the view that clings to ‘non-existence’. Fifth: ‘does not see that I practise prajñā’ stops idle discourse and play upon dharmas; ‘does not see that I do not practise’ stops the lax mind. It is like riding a horse: when it runs too fast, one reins it in; when it goes too slowly, one whips it on. In such various ways ‘practising’ and ‘not practising’ are distinguished.

Form Is Emptiness; the Mark of Arising Is Unfindable: Names Are All the Coming Together of Causes and Conditions

Furthermore, the Buddha himself states the reason, namely ‘the bodhisattva and the name bodhisattva are empty in their very nature’. Although here only the name bodhisattva is said to be empty, in fact the five aggregates are empty in the same way. As for ‘in emptiness there is no form, and apart from form there is no emptiness’: this ‘emptiness’ refers to the emptiness of dharmas; in the emptiness of dharmas there is not even a hair's breadth of dharma, how much less coarse, manifest form! And ‘emptiness is not apart from form’—why? Precisely because form is refuted, there is this emptiness; how could it be said to be apart from form! Feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are also like this. And what is the reason for this? Because the Buddha again himself states the reason, namely ‘only because there is a name is it called awakening; only because there is a name is it called bodhisattva; only because there is a name is it called emptiness’.

Question: This matter has already been said earlier; why is it said again now?

Answer: What was said earlier is ‘does not see the bodhisattva, does not see the word bodhisattva, does not see prajñāpāramitā’; what is said now is the reason for ‘not seeing’, namely ‘only a name is called awakening, only a name is called bodhisattva, only a name is called emptiness’. The ‘bodhisattva’ earlier and the ‘bodhisattva’ here have the same meaning. As for the ‘word bodhisattva’, it too is as was said in explaining ‘bodhisattva’.

Prajñāpāramitā is divided into two parts: what has been accomplished is named ‘awakening’; what has not yet been accomplished is named ‘emptiness’.

The so-called ‘mark of arising’ is in fact utterly unfindable, so it is named ‘non-arising’. Why? Whether arising comes first and the dharma after, or the dharma comes first and arising after, or arising and the dharma are simultaneous—all are utterly unfindable, as has already been said above. Because there is no arising, there is also ‘no ceasing’; if a dharma neither arises nor ceases, it is like empty space—where then would there be defilement or purity? It is like empty space: ten thousand years of rain cannot wet it, a great fire cannot heat it, smoke cannot stain it. Why? Because it is originally without arising. When the bodhisattva is able to contemplate in this way, he does not, apart from this dharma of non-arising and non-ceasing, separately see arising, ceasing, defilement, or purity. Why? Because the Buddha himself states the reason: ‘All dharmas are recollection, imagining, and discrimination, the coming together of causes and conditions, with a name forcibly assigned to speak of them.’ What cannot be spoken is the true meaning; what can be spoken is all only names.

As for ‘when the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā he does not see any names’: earlier a few names were stated briefly, namely bodhisattva, the word bodhisattva, prajñāpāramitā, and the word awakening; now it is stated broadly that no names at all can be seen, and because they are not seen, one does not cling to them—not clinging being precisely because they are utterly unfindable. It is like among all kinds of eyes, the wisdom eye is foremost; the bodhisattva seeks everywhere with the wisdom eye and does not see them, down to not seeing even one extremely subtle dharma; precisely because of this, he does not cling.

Since He Clings to Nothing, Why Does He Not Enter Nirvāṇa?

Question: If the bodhisattva does not cling to any dharmas, why does he still not enter nirvāṇa?

Answer: This matter has already been spoken of in many places; now it is stated briefly here: because he has the mind of great compassion; because the Buddhas of the ten directions protect and keep him in mind; because his original vow is not yet fulfilled; because of the power of the perfection of vigour; because the two things, prajñāpāramitā and skilful means, come together; that is, because he does not cling even to ‘not clinging’ itself. For causes and conditions of all these kinds it is said ‘although the bodhisattva does not cling to dharmas, he does not enter nirvāṇa’.

Bodhisattva, Buddha, and Prajñā Are Only Names: The Sixteen Other Names for ‘Self’ Are Ultimately Unfindable

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he should reflect thus: the bodhisattva is only a name, the Buddha too is only a name, prajñāpāramitā too is only a name; form is only a name, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness too are only names. Śāriputra! Just as “self” too is only a name—this permanent self is ultimately unfindable—so being, the long-lived one, the life-possessor, the begetter, the nurtured one, the many-numbered one, the person, the doer, the one who causes doing, the arouser, the one who causes arousing, the experiencer, the one who causes experiencing, the knower, and the seer—all of these too are unfindable; precisely because they are unfindable and empty, they are spoken of only by names. The bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā in the same way: he does not see that there is a “self”, does not see that there are beings, and so on up to not seeing that there is a knower or a seer; even the names by which they are spoken of are none of them seen.’

Emptiness Was Already Spoken of at the End of the Second Chapter; Why Speak of It Again Here? The Emptiness of Dharmas and the Emptiness of Beings Spoken of Together

What follows is the treatise's commentary.

Question: The end of the second chapter has already spoken of emptiness; why is it spoken of again here? Answer: What came before mostly spoke of the emptiness of dharmas; now the emptiness of dharmas and the emptiness of beings are spoken of together. The practitioner observes that outer dharmas are wholly empty and without anything at all, yet takes that ‘person who is able to know emptiness’ to be not empty; therefore it is said further: ‘The person who contemplates is also empty.’ This emptiness of beings is spoken of much in the Dharma of the śrāvakas; all the Buddha's disciples know that among dharmas there is no self. Within five hundred years after the Buddha's passing into extinction, there was a division into two groups: one group believed in the emptiness of dharmas; the other believed only in the emptiness of beings, holding that ‘the five aggregates are dharmas that definitely and really exist’, and that only the ‘self’ which receives the five aggregates is empty. Therefore the Buddha uses the emptiness of beings as a comparison for the emptiness of dharmas.

Furthermore, ‘the emptiness of self’ is easy to understand, but ‘the emptiness of dharmas’ is hard to see. Why? Because the ‘self’, when sought with the five kinds of sense-consciousness, cannot be found; it is merely through the power of the view of self that a ‘self’ is produced by recollection, imagining, and discrimination. On the side of the emptiness of dharmas, however, form can be seen by the eye and sound can be heard by the ear, so it is hard to know that they are empty. These two matters are both empty within prajñāpāramitā, as is said in the meaning of ‘the eighteen emptinesses’.

Question: These names, from ‘self’ to ‘knower’ and ‘seer’—are they one and the same thing, or is each different? Answer: They are all only one and the same ‘self’; it is only that different names are set up according to different matters. Within the five aggregates the mind of ‘I and mine’ arises, so it is called ‘self’. It arises from the coming together of the five aggregates, so it is called ‘being’. The life faculty is complete in it, so it is called ‘the long-lived one’ and ‘the life-possessor’. It is able to bring about the many affairs, as a father begets a son, so it is called ‘the begetter’. It is raised and grows through such causes and conditions as suckling, clothing, food, and drink, so it is called ‘the nurtured one’. The five aggregates, the twelve sense-fields, the eighteen elements, and the other causes and conditions of dharmas are many dharmas and have their number, so it is called ‘the many-numbered one’. It is able to carry out human ways, so it is called ‘the person’. Its hands and feet are able to make and do things, so it is called ‘the doer’. It has the strength to put others to work, so it is called ‘the one who causes doing’. It is able to make the deeds of offence and merit that bear on later lives, so it is called ‘the one able to arouse’. It causes others to make the deeds of offence and merit that bear on later lives, so it is called ‘the one who causes arousing’. It receives the recompense of offence and merit in a later body, so it is called ‘the experiencer’. It causes others to experience suffering and pleasure, so it is called ‘the one who causes experiencing’. The eye sees form, so it is called ‘the seer’. The five consciousnesses know, so it is called ‘the knower’. Furthermore, seeing form with the eye, contemplating the five aggregates with the five wrong views, and observing dharmas with worldly right view and with world-transcending right view—this too is called ‘the seer’; that is to say, the eye faculty, the five wrong views, worldly right view, and undefiled view are all called ‘the seer’; what is known by the remaining four faculties and what is known by the mind-consciousness are together called ‘the knower’. All such names as these speak of that ‘soul’ (the soul-self).

This ‘soul’—the Buddhas of the ten directions and the three times, and all the worthies and sages, seek it and cannot find it; it is only by recollection, imagining, and discrimination that a name is forcibly given to it. Dharmas are also like this: all are empty and without reality, and are called only by borrowed names.

Question: Does this ‘soul’ have only these sixteen names, or does it have other names besides? Answer: Stated briefly, there are sixteen; stated broadly, they are immeasurable and boundless. Names are set up according to matters—such as the differences among official ranks and titles, the skill of crafts and arts and of wisdom, leaving home and attaining the path, and names of all these kinds—all arise from the coming together of causes and conditions, and therefore have no self-nature; having no self-nature, they are therefore ultimately empty. Because beings are empty, dharmas are empty; because dharmas are empty, beings too are empty.

Apart from the Buddha's Wisdom, the Bodhisattva Surpasses All Those of the Two Vehicles: The Simile of Jambudvīpa Filled as with Bamboo, Hemp, Rice, and Reeds

The Buddha said: ‘A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises prajñāpāramitā in this way, apart from the Buddha's wisdom, surpasses and stands above all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, because he uses “the emptiness of the unfindable”. Why? Because for this bodhisattva-mahāsattva the dharmas of all kinds of names, and the places to which the names are attached, are also unfindable. Śāriputra! Only when a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is able to practise in this way is he practising prajñāpāramitā. Suppose the whole of Jambudvīpa were filled as with bamboo, hemp, rice, and reeds, the number of bhikṣus being as many as that, and their wisdom all like that of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana: if they are compared with the wisdom of a bodhisattva practising prajñāpāramitā, they do not reach one part in a hundred; one part in a thousand, in a hundred thousand, and so on up to what calculation and simile can express—they cannot compare. Why? Because the bodhisattva-mahāsattva uses wisdom to ferry all beings across to liberation.’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. The treatise-author says: There are two causes and conditions by which the bodhisattva's wisdom surpasses the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. First, with the knowledge of emptiness he knows that all dharmas are empty, yet does not see this ‘emptiness’ either; emptiness and non-emptiness are equal, one, and not two. Second, he uses this wisdom in order to ferry all beings across to liberation and bring them to attain nirvāṇa. The wisdom of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas can only observe that dharmas are empty, but cannot contemplate ‘the world’ and ‘nirvāṇa’ as one. It is like people getting out of a prison: some merely break through the wall and get out, freeing only themselves; others destroy the prison and break the locks, both freeing themselves and also rescuing the many.

Furthermore, the bodhisattva's wisdom is more excellent because it enters into two dharmas: first, great compassion; second, prajñāpāramitā. Again there are two dharmas: first, the pratyutpanna samādhi; second, skilful means. Again there are two dharmas: first, constantly abiding in meditative concentration; second, being able to penetrate the dharma-nature. Again there are two dharmas: first, being able to undergo suffering in place of all beings; second, giving up all happiness oneself. Again there are two dharmas: first, a mind of kindness without enmity and without anger; second, a mind that does not cling even to the merits of the Buddhas. Merits of all these kinds adorn his wisdom, and therefore it surpasses the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.

Question: For people of dull faculties one may speak in similes; Śāriputra's wisdom is of sharp faculties—why still use a simile? Answer: It is not necessarily for those of dull faculties that similes are made; similes serve to adorn discussion and to make people give rise to faith so that the mind has something to hold on to, and therefore matters seen by the five senses are borrowed as similes for what is known by the mind-consciousness, so that one may be awakened. It is like climbing a tower: with a ladder it is easy to go up. Furthermore, all beings crave and cling to worldly pleasures, and on hearing that cultivating the path can attain nirvāṇa, they on the contrary neither believe nor delight in it; therefore matters seen with the eye are used as similes for principles that cannot be seen. It is like bitter medicine, which is hard to take; if honey is borrowed and mixed with it, it is easy to swallow. Furthermore, Śāriputra is foremost in wisdom among the śrāvakas, yet when he is compared with the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, he does not show up at all.

As for ‘Jambudvīpa’: ‘Jambu’ is the name of a tree; that forest is luxuriant, and this tree is the tallest and greatest in the forest. ‘Dvīpa’ means continent. On this continent there is such a forest; in the forest there is a river, and at the bottom of the river there is golden sand, called Jambūnada gold; because there are jambu trees, it is called ‘the Jambu Continent’. This continent is surrounded by five hundred small continents, and all together are called Jambudvīpa.

Question: The disciples are so many; why say only ‘people such as Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana filling Jambudvīpa, as bamboo, hemp, rice, and reeds’? Answer: Among all the Buddha's disciples, the one foremost in wisdom is Śāriputra, and the one foremost in supernormal travel is Maudgalyāyana; these two are great within the Buddha's Dharma and are great in the teachings of the outside paths as well. Pūrṇa, Jiaxina, Aniruddha, and others, though great within the Buddha's Dharma, are not equal to these two in the teachings of the outside paths. Moreover, these two constantly assist the Buddha in the great assembly in spreading the teaching and transforming beings, and refute the outside paths; bhikṣus such as Pūrṇa do not have such merits, and so they are not mentioned. Furthermore, to speak of Śāriputra is to include all who have wisdom; to speak of Maudgalyāyana is to include all who cultivate meditative concentration.

Similes are of two kinds: first, the hypothetical simile; second, the simile of actual fact; the present one is a hypothetical simile. The reason no other things are used for the simile is that these four—bamboo, hemp, rice, and reeds—grow in dense clumps and are also many in kind. Bhikṣus such as Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana filling Jambudvīpa—the wisdom of so many arhats put together still does not reach one hundredth of the bodhisattva's wisdom, and so on up to what calculation and simile can express, they cannot compare.

Question: Why not say only ‘beyond the reach of calculation and simile’, but also say ‘not one part in a hundred or a thousand’? Answer: ‘Beyond the reach of calculation and simile’ is the most extreme statement. It is like a person who has committed a grave crime: first he is flogged and bound and subjected to torments, and only then put to death. Just so, in the Dharma of the śrāvakas ‘not one part in sixteen’ is constantly used as the simile; in the Dharma of the Great Vehicle, ‘and so on up to beyond the reach of calculation and simile’ is used.

Not Only Jambudvīpa Filled, but Even Worlds as Many as the Sands of the Ganges in the Ten Directions: The Three Similes of the Vajra Jewel, the Kalaviṅka, and the Wheel-Turning Sage King

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! Set aside for now the matter of “Jambudvīpa filled with ones all like Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana”. Suppose the three-thousand great-thousand world were filled with ones all like Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana; set this matter aside too, and suppose worlds of the ten directions as many as the sands of the Ganges were filled with wisdom all like that of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana: if it is compared with the wisdom of a bodhisattva practising prajñāpāramitā, it does not reach one part in a hundred; one part in a thousand, in a hundred thousand, and so on up to what calculation and simile can express—it cannot compare.’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. The treatise-author says: This meaning is the same as that of ‘Jambudvīpa filled’ above; it differs only in that the number is greater.

Question: Although Śāriputra, Maudgalyāyana, and the others are many, their wisdom has no difference; why make the simile with a great number? Answer: Some people think that the few have no strength and the many have strength, just as when water is little, its force is also small. Or it is like an extremely robust man: when the people are few and their strength slight, they cannot subdue him, but when a great army comes to attack, he surrenders. There are also people who think that one Śāriputra has little wisdom and does not match the bodhisattva, but that many of them might perhaps match him; the Buddha therefore says ‘although many, they still do not match’, and so the simile is made with a great number. It is like how the strength of all grasses and trees is not equal to fire, and the force of all bright things does not reach the sun; or again, the mountains of the worlds of the ten directions are not equal to a single vajra jewel. Why? Because the bodhisattva's wisdom is the root of all the Buddha-dharmas, and is able to make all beings leave suffering and obtain happiness. It is like the chick of the kalaviṅka bird: though it has not yet broken out of the shell, its cry already surpasses all other birds—how much more once it has come out of the shell! The bodhisattva's wisdom is also like this: though he has not yet broken the shell of ignorance, it already surpasses all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas—how much more once he has become a Buddha! Or again, it is like the crown prince of a wheel-turning sage king: though he has not yet come into his own, his fortune and majestic virtue already surpass all kings—how much more when he has truly become a wheel-turning sage king! The bodhisattva is also like this: though he has not yet become a Buddha, over immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas he has accumulated immeasurable wisdom and merit, and therefore he surpasses the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas—how much more once he has become a Buddha!

Cultivating Wisdom for a Single Day Surpasses All Those of the Two Vehicles: Not a Repetition, but a Turn from the General Mark to the Particular Mark

The Buddha said: ‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises prajñāpāramitā and cultivates wisdom for only a single day surpasses and stands above all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. Question: It has already been said before, ‘apart from the Buddha's wisdom, he surpasses and stands above all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas’; why is it said again now? Answer: This is not a repetition. Above it was spoken with regard to the general mark; now it is spoken with regard to the particular mark. Earlier it was said, ‘all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas do not reach the bodhisattva's wisdom’; now it is only pointed out that ‘they do not reach even the bodhisattva's wisdom of a single day’—how much less the wisdom cultivated over thousands and myriads of years!

The Wisdom of All the Sages Is Non-arising and Empty in Nature and Should Have No Difference; Why Say the Bodhisattva's Single Day Surpasses Them? The Same Object in the Truth of Cessation, the Same Entry into One Taste

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! All the wisdom that the śrāvakas have—whether the wisdom of the srota-āpanna, the sakṛdāgāmin, the anāgāmin, or the arhat, the wisdom of the pratyekabuddha, or the wisdom of the Buddha—all these many kinds of wisdom have no difference, do not contradict one another, and are all non-arising and empty in nature. Since these dharmas do not contradict one another and are all non-arising and empty in nature, these dharmas have no distinction; why does the World-Honored One say, “A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises prajñāpāramitā and cultivates wisdom for only a single day surpasses and stands above the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas”?’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. Question: Above, the Buddha has already said, ‘A bodhisattva-mahāsattva cultivating wisdom surpasses and stands above the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas’; why does Śāriputra ask again now? Answer: He is not asking ‘whether the power of wisdom can ferry beings across’; now he asks only ‘whether, as dharmas, the substance and nature of the wisdom of the Buddha and of the six kinds of sages have any difference’. Because the wisdom of all the worthies and sages is in every case the wisdom of the real mark of all dharmas, in every case the wisdom of the four truths and the thirty-seven limbs of the path, in every case the wisdom that leaves the three realms, enters the three gates of liberation, and accomplishes the fruits of the three vehicles, it is therefore said that there is no difference. Furthermore, just as the srota-āpanna cuts off the fetters with undefiled knowledge and attains the fruit, so too, up to the Buddha; as the srota-āpanna uses the two fruits of liberation—conditioned liberation and unconditioned liberation—so too, up to the Buddha; as the Buddha enters nirvāṇa, so the srota-āpanna, at the latest, does not go beyond seven lives. All are one and the same matter, one and the same object, one and the same practice, one and the same fruit of recompense, and it is therefore said that ‘they do not contradict one another’. Why? Because all are non-arising and empty in nature.

Question: Only by breaking ignorance and accumulating wholesome dharmas does wisdom arise; this wisdom is associated with the mind, arises together with the mind, and proceeds following the mind—how then is it said here that ‘wisdom is non-arising and empty in nature, and has no distinction’? Answer: Wisdom takes the truth of cessation as its object, and so it is said to be ‘non-arising’; it is formed from the coming together of causes and conditions and has no self-nature, and so it is called ‘empty in nature’, without anything to discriminate. Wisdom takes its name from its object, just as when the eye takes form as its object and eye-consciousness arises, it is called either eye-consciousness or form-consciousness. Although wisdom is a dharma made by the coming together of causes and conditions, because its object is non-arising and empty in nature, it is called ‘non-arising’ and ‘empty in nature’.

Question: The wisdom of all the worthies and sages arises taking the four truths as its object; why speak only of the truth of cessation? Answer: Among the four truths, the truth of cessation is supreme. Why? Because the three truths of suffering, origination, and the path all belong to the truth of cessation. It is like someone who gives a banquet for the Son of Heaven and also invites the ministers to eat with him: this too counts as an offering to the Son of Heaven. Furthermore, it is with regard to the truth of cessation that ‘non-arising’ is said, and with regard to the three truths that ‘empty in nature’ is said. Furthermore, some say: the nature of these kinds of wisdom is of itself non-arising, and their nature is of itself empty. Why? Because all dharmas come from the coming together of causes and conditions and have no self-nature, and having no self-nature, they do not arise.

Question: If so, then wisdom and folly would have no distinction! Answer: The ‘suchness’ of dharmas, entering the dharma-nature, has no distinction; just as fires are each different, yet the mark of their quiescent extinction has no difference. It is like the many rivers and myriad streams, each of a different colour and a different taste: once they enter the great ocean, they become one taste and one name. Folly and wisdom are also like this: entering prajñāpāramitā, they are all the same one taste, without difference. Or again, it is like the five colours which, when they draw near Mount Sumeru, of themselves lose their own colour and all become the same gold colour; in this way, inner and outer dharmas entering prajñāpāramitā all become one taste. Why? Because the mark of prajñāpāramitā is ultimately pure. Furthermore, the real mark of folly is wisdom itself; if one discriminates and clings to this wisdom, this wisdom becomes folly. Seen in this way, what distinction is there between folly and wisdom? When one first enters the Buddha's Dharma, there is still a distinction between what is folly and what is wisdom; after entering deeper by stages, folly and wisdom are not different. Therefore all these many kinds of wisdom have no distinction, do not contradict one another, are non-arising and empty in nature, and so there is no fault.

The Buddha Answers with a Counter-question: Could Those of the Two Vehicles Have the Thought of ‘Ferrying All Beings Across’? The Four Kinds of Discourse and Prince Fearless

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘What do you think? When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā and cultivates wisdom for only a single day, he thinks in his mind: “I practise the path-wisdom in order to benefit all beings; with omniscience of all kinds I shall know all dharmas and ferry all beings across to liberation.” Does the wisdom of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have such a thing?’ Śāriputra answered: ‘No, World-Honored One!’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. The treatise-author says: Discourse is of four kinds: first, the definite; second, the analytical; third, the counter-question; fourth, the set-aside. ‘Definitive discourse’ is like ‘among beings the World-Honored One is foremost’, ‘among all dharmas there is no self’, ‘the world is not to be craved and delighted in’, ‘nirvāṇa is peaceful, quiescent extinction’, ‘the causes and conditions of deeds are not lost’; statements such as these are called ‘the definite’.

‘Discriminating discourse’ is like when Prince Fearless asked the Buddha: ‘Can the Buddha speak words that make others angry?’ The Buddha said: ‘This matter should be answered by discriminating.’ The prince said: ‘Those Nirgrantha fellows are finished—they cannot rise again!’ The prince said: at times, because there is no mind of pity, one brings beings out of their offences, and beings become angry because of it; yet later beings will gain benefit. At that time Fearless's son was sitting on his knee. The Buddha asked Fearless: ‘Sometimes your child swallows tiles, stones, grass, and sticks—do you let him swallow them down?’ Fearless answered: ‘I do not. First I tell him to spit them out; if he will not spit them out, I grab his ear with my left hand and dig into his mouth with my right, and even if it makes him bleed I do not let him be.’ The Buddha said: ‘Do you not pity him?’ Fearless answered: ‘It is precisely because I pity him deeply that I take the tiles and stones out for him; though it hurts at the time, afterwards he is at peace.’ The Buddha said: ‘I too am like this. If beings are about to commit grave offences and will not follow good teaching, I admonish them with bitter words; though they give rise to anger, afterwards they are at peace.’ Or again, it is like when the five bhikṣus asked the Buddha: ‘Is it by experiencing pleasure that one attains the path?’ The Buddha said: ‘Not necessarily. Some experience suffering and incur offence, some experience suffering and gain happiness; some experience pleasure and incur offence, some experience pleasure and gain merit.’ Statements such as these are called ‘the analytical’.

‘Counter-questioning discourse’ means answering someone by turning back on him what he has asked. As when the Buddha told a bhikṣu: ‘What do you think? Is this form permanent or impermanent?’ The bhikṣu said: ‘Impermanent.’ ‘If it is impermanent, is it suffering?’ He answered: ‘Suffering.’ ‘If a dharma is impermanent and suffering, would a noble disciple who has heard much cling to this dharma, saying, “This dharma is I, is mine”?’ He answered: ‘No, World-Honored One!’ The Buddha told the bhikṣu: ‘From now on, all form whatever—whether past, future, or present, inner or outer, fine or ugly—this form is not what is mine, nor do I belong to this form; one should know it thus with right and true wisdom; feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are also like this.’ Statements such as these are called ‘the counter-question’.

‘Set-aside discourse’ is like the fourteen difficult questions: the world is permanent, the world is impermanent, the world has a limit, the world has no limit; questions such as these are called ‘the set-aside’ (kept aside and not answered). Now the Buddha answers Śāriputra with the counter-question. Because Śāriputra's wisdom had not yet understood this matter, the Buddha turned back and asked about the root of the matter, so that he might come to understand.

The bodhisattva's wisdom that ferries beings across is called ‘path-wisdom’. As is said in a later chapter: ‘The sarvajñā wisdom is the concern of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas; the wisdom of omniscience of all kinds is the concern of the Buddhas; the wisdom of the kinds of paths is the concern of bodhisattvas.’ Furthermore, the eightfold noble path is the real path; causing beings to enter the path through all kinds of causes and conditions is called ‘path-wisdom’. Causing beings to abide securely in the path is precisely ‘benefiting’ those of the śrāvaka lineage, the pratyekabuddha lineage, and the Buddha lineage. Again, all wisdom that attains everything without exception is called ‘of all kinds’; whether conditioned or unconditioned, all is known with omniscience of all kinds. After attaining the Buddha path, one should ferry all beings across to liberation and benefit all beings, whether by the Great Vehicle, or by the śrāvaka vehicle, or by the pratyekabuddha vehicle; if they do not enter the path of the three vehicles, one teaches them to cultivate merit and to enjoy wealth and happiness among gods and humans; if they cannot cultivate merit, one benefits them with things of benefit in this present life—clothing, food and drink, bedding, and so on; if even this cannot be done, one should benefit them with a mind of kindness and compassion. This is called ‘ferrying all beings across’.

Question: If the Buddha knows that no śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha is able to act for beings, why does he still ask? Answer: The Buddha's intent is this: he wishes to make Śāriputra say with his own mouth that ‘the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are not equal to the bodhisattva’, and that is why the Buddha asks. Śāriputra answered: ‘No, World-Honored One!’ Why? Because although the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have a mind of kindness, they never originally aroused the mind vowing to ferry all beings across, nor do they dedicate their roots of goodness toward anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Therefore a bodhisattva who cultivates wisdom for only a single day surpasses and stands above the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.

Could Those of the Two Vehicles Have the Thought ‘We Shall Attain Awakening and Ferry Beings into Nirvāṇa without Remainder’? Because the Gates of Meaning Differ, the Question Is Asked Again

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! What do you think? Could the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have such a thought: “We shall attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and ferry all beings across to liberation, bringing them to attain nirvāṇa without remainder”?’ Śāriputra answered: ‘No, World-Honored One!’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘For this reason, you should know that the wisdom of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, compared with the wisdom of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, does not reach one part in a hundred, and so on up to what calculation and simile can express—it cannot compare.’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. Question: Above, Śāriputra has already been asked with a counter-question and the matter has already been settled; why is he asked again now? Answer: Because Śāriputra wished to take the point that the srota-āpanna ‘equally attains liberation’ and make it equal to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and the Buddha does not allow this. It is like someone wishing to take the space inside a single pore and make it equal to empty space. Therefore the Buddha questions him on this matter once more. Furthermore, although it is the same one matter, the gates of meaning are each different. What was said before is that ‘wisdom is for the sake of all beings’; what is said now is ‘could there be such a thought: we shall attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and bring all beings to attain nirvāṇa without remainder’. The meaning of ‘nirvāṇa without remainder’ is as has been said before. Furthermore, if even a single śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha does not make such a thought, how much less all the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas!

Could Those of the Two Vehicles Have the Thought ‘Practise the Six Perfections, Bring Beings to Maturity, Adorn the World’? From the Brief Statement to the Extended Statement of the Causes and Conditions for Attaining Awakening

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! What do you think? Could the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have such a thought: “I shall practise the six perfections, bring beings to maturity, adorn the world, fulfil the Buddha's ten powers, four fearlessnesses, four unobstructed knowledges, and eighteen unshared dharmas, and ferry immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of beings across to liberation, bringing them to attain nirvāṇa”?’ Śāriputra answered: ‘No, World-Honored One!’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. The treatise-author says: Before, it was only stated briefly, ‘I shall attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi’; now the causes and conditions for attaining anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi are stated at length, namely the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas. The meaning of ‘the six perfections’ is as has been said before. ‘Teaching and transforming beings and purifying the Buddha-world’ will be spoken of later. The rest, ‘the ten powers’ and so on, are also as has been said before.

The Firefly Does Not Think of Illuminating, While the Risen Sun Lights All Jambudvīpa: The Bodhisattva Thinks of Ferrying Beings Across, and Those of the Two Vehicles Do Not Make This Thought

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘A bodhisattva-mahāsattva is able to make such a thought: “I shall practise the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, accomplish anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and ferry immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of beings across to liberation, bringing them to attain nirvāṇa.” It is like the firefly, which does not make such a thought: “My power can light up the whole of Jambudvīpa and make it everywhere greatly bright.” The arhats and pratyekabuddhas are also like this; they do not make such a thought: “We shall practise the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, attain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and ferry immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of beings across to liberation, bringing them to attain nirvāṇa.”’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. The treatise-author says: The reason that Śāriputras and Maudgalyāyanas as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions are all not equal to a single bodhisattva is like the fireflies: though they are many in number and each gives some light, they do not reach the sun. The firefly also does not make such a thought: ‘My light can illuminate the whole of Jambudvīpa.’ The śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas also do not make such a thought: ‘My wisdom can illuminate immeasurable and boundless beings.’ It is like the firefly, which at night can still give some light, but once the sun comes out its light does not show at all. The śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are also like this: while no great bodhisattva has yet appeared in the world, they are able to make the lion's roar, teaching the Dharma and transforming beings; once a bodhisattva appears in the world, what they do no longer shows.

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! It is like when the sun comes out: its light shines everywhere over Jambudvīpa, and there is none that does not receive its light. The bodhisattva-mahāsattva is also like this: he practises the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, attains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and ferries immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of beings across to liberation, bringing them to attain nirvāṇa.’

What follows is the treatise's commentary. The treatise-author says: It is like the sun-god, who, out of pity for beings, circles the four continents together with his palace of the seven treasures, from beginning to end constantly without slackening or stopping, removing all cold and damp for beings and dispelling all darkness, so that each obtains its proper place. The bodhisattva is also like this: from the first arousing of the mind, he constantly practises the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, and for the sake of ferrying beings across he never slackens or rests; he removes the cold of the unwholesome, dries up the mire of the five desires, breaks folly and ignorance, and teaches beings to cultivate wholesome deeds, so that each obtains its proper place. Again, the sun's light shines everywhere, without hatred and without love, shining down alike on every height and depth, shallow and deep, of the lie of the land. The bodhisattva is also like this: appearing in the world, abiding in the five supernormal powers, dwelling in empty space, he emits the light of wisdom, illuminating all deeds of offence and merit and all kinds of fruits of recompense. With the light of wisdom the bodhisattva extinguishes the wrong views and idle discourse of beings; it is like the morning dew, which disperses as soon as it sees the sun.

Śāriputra Asks: How Does the Bodhisattva Pass Beyond the Grounds of the Two Vehicles, Abide in the Ground of Non-retrogression, and Purify the Buddha-Path?

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One, how must a bodhisattva-mahāsattva proceed in order to pass beyond the grounds of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, abide in the non-retrogressing ground of the avaivartika, and purify the Buddha-path?’

What follows is the treatise's explanation. Question: why does Śāriputra put this question? Answer: Śāriputra had earlier asked about the wisdom of the many sages being without difference, and the Buddha had already used similes of all kinds to show that the bodhisattva's wisdom is superior; since his mind had now understood this, he goes on to ask how the bodhisattva is able to pass beyond the two vehicles, abide in the ground of non-retrogression, and purify the Buddha-path. Again someone asks: people of the Small Vehicle do not abide toward becoming a Buddha, so why does Śāriputra ask about the matter of ‘purifying the Buddha-path’? Answer: Śāriputra is the great general who follows the Buddha in turning the Dharma wheel; although this question adds nothing to himself, he asks it in order to benefit the beings who seek the Buddha-path. Again, because the bodhisattva with great compassion brings much benefit, he asks about the bodhisattva's matters so as to benefit beings. Furthermore, Śāriputra, having received the Buddha's grace, broke through all wrong views and attained the fruit of the path; it is in order to repay that grace that he asks about the bodhisattva's matters. Again, within the ground of the śrāvakas Śāriputra had already exhausted its furthest limit, and what he had not yet penetrated was only the bodhisattva's matters, so he asks further. Again, because the bodhisattva's Dharma is extremely deep and subtle, although he cannot realise it, he asks out of love and delight in it—just as, seeing someone with a wondrous jewel, one asks about it out of love and delight even though one does not have it oneself.

The Buddha Answers: From the First Arousing of the Intention, Practise the Six Perfections and Abide in the Three Gates of Liberation—Shooting Up into Space without Falling into Nirvāṇa

The Buddha told Śāriputra: from the very first arousing of the intention, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises the six perfections and abides in the dharmas of emptiness, signlessness, and non-action; he is then able to pass beyond all the grounds of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, abide in the avaivartika ground, and purify the Buddha-path.

The treatise explains. Question: these three matters—passing beyond the two vehicles, abiding in non-retrogression, and purifying the Buddha-path—each have their own causes and conditions in the later chapters; why does the Buddha now speak of them together in one place? Answer: here it is said briefly; later the causes and conditions of the three matters will naturally be said at length. Again, now only the causes and conditions of emptiness, signlessness, and non-action are spoken of, and only later are the various merits spoken of; therefore the three matters are spoken of together. Again someone asks: once one enters the three gates of liberation one arrives at nirvāṇa; how is it now said that by emptiness, signlessness, and non-action one is able to pass beyond the grounds of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas? Answer: if one lacks the power of skilful means, on entering the three gates of liberation one straightaway takes nirvāṇa. If one has the power of skilful means, then although abiding in the three gates of liberation and seeing nirvāṇa, with a mind of kindness and compassion one is able to turn this mind back and arouse it anew, as is said in a later chapter. It is like shooting upward into space: arrow after arrow props up the one before, not letting the arrows fall to the ground. The bodhisattva is also like this: with the arrow of wisdom he shoots upward into the space of the three liberations, and then with the following arrow of skilful means he shoots the arrow before it, not letting it fall into the ground of nirvāṇa. Although this bodhisattva sees nirvāṇa, he passes straight on without halting, looking forward to another great matter—namely unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening. Now is the time for contemplating, not the time for realising. Principles such as these should be spoken of at length. If one passes beyond these two grounds of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas and understands that dharmas neither arise nor cease, this is the avaivartika ground. Abiding in the avaivartika ground, transforming beings and purifying Buddha-worlds—this is being able to purify the Buddha-path. Furthermore, the bodhisattva abides in the three gates of liberation and contemplates the four truths; knowing that these are the dharmas of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, he passes straight beyond the four truths and enters the one truth—namely that all dharmas neither arise nor cease, are neither stained nor pure, neither come nor go, and so on. Entering into this one truth is called the avaivartika ground. Abiding in this avaivartika ground, the ground of purifying the Buddha-path, he extinguishes the coarse and evil deeds of body, speech, and mind, and also extinguishes whatever within dharmas has been lost and spoiled from the very beginning; this is called the ground of purifying the Buddha-path.

Śāriputra Asks: While the Bodhisattva's Afflictions Are Not Yet Exhausted, Abiding in What Merit Can He Be a Field of Merit for the Two Vehicles?

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: abiding on what ground is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva able to be a field of merit for the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas?

The treatise explains. Śāriputra deeply and wholeheartedly reveres the bodhisattva, and therefore now asks: while the bodhisattva's outflows and fetters are not yet fully cut off, abiding in what merit is he able to be a field of merit for the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas?

The Buddha told Śāriputra: from the first arousing of intent, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises the six perfections, all the way until he sits at the seat of awakening; throughout this interval he is constantly a field of merit for the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.

The treatise explains. The Buddha shows Śāriputra this meaning: although the bodhisattva shares with the two vehicles the three gates of liberation and the matter of going toward nirvāṇa, the bodhisattva has great kindness and great compassion, which the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas do not have. From the first arousing of the mind the bodhisattva cultivates the six perfections, up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, his aim being to ferry all beings across to liberation and to complete all the Buddha-dharmas; therefore he is superior.

All Wholesome Dharmas Appear in the World Because of the Bodhisattva

The Buddha went on to say: why is this? Because there is the bodhisattva-mahāsattva as cause and condition, the various wholesome dharmas of the world are able to arise.

The treatise explains. The Buddha has already explained by one cause and condition that, because the bodhisattva diligently practises the many practices, he is able to be a field of merit for the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. Now he further speaks of the cause and condition of the bodhisattva's benefiting others outwardly, whereby the world has all wholesome dharmas. What is the principle here? Although the bodhisattva who has aroused the mind has not yet become a Buddha, he is already able to make the beings who can be ferried across abide in the paths of the three vehicles, and those who cannot enter the three vehicles he makes abide in the ten wholesome paths—how much more so when he becomes a Buddha! Question: the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are also causes and conditions for the world's obtaining wholesome dharmas; why is it said only that the bodhisattva is able to make the world have wholesome dharmas? Answer: the wholesome dharmas that the world has because of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas all come about because of the bodhisattva as well. If the bodhisattva did not arouse the mind, the world would not even have the Buddha-path, let alone śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. The Buddha-path is the root of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. Furthermore, although there are wholesome dharmas because of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, they are few, and because they are few they are not spoken of. If even the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are not spoken of, how much less the teachers of the outside paths!

The bodhisattva went on to enumerate: what are the wholesome dharmas? They are the ten wholesome paths, the five precepts, the fast-precepts complete in eight parts; the four meditations, the four immeasurable minds, the four formless absorptions; the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of supernormal power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven limbs of awakening, the limbs of the eightfold noble path—all appear in the world because of the bodhisattva. Again, because of the bodhisattva, the six perfections, the eighteen emptinesses, the Buddha's ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, the eighteen unshared dharmas, great kindness, great compassion, and omniscience of all kinds all appear in the world. Again, because of the bodhisattva there are great kṣatriya clans, great brahmin clans, and great householder families; there are the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the heaven of neither perception nor non-perception—all appear in the world. Again, because of the bodhisattva there are the srota-āpanna, the sakṛdāgāmin, the anāgāmin, the arhat, the pratyekabuddha, and the Buddha—all appear in the world.

The treatise explains. Question: that the world has wholesome dharmas because of the bodhisattva may still be said; but as for great kṣatriya clans, great brahmin clans, and great householder families—even if there were no bodhisattva in the world there would still be these noble clans; how can it be said that all of them arise from the bodhisattva? Answer: because of the bodhisattva, the world has the five precepts, the ten wholesome deeds, the eight fast-precepts, and so on. These dharmas come in three grades, superior, middling, and inferior: the superior grade attains the path, the middling grade is born in heaven, and the inferior grade becomes human; that is why there are great kṣatriya clans, great brahmin clans, and great householder families. Again someone asks: even if there were no bodhisattva in the world, the world would still have the five precepts, the ten wholesome deeds, the eight fast-precepts, and the noble clans such as the kṣatriyas. Answer: the bodies the bodhisattva takes on are of all different kinds—at times he takes on a body born of the causes and conditions of karma, at times a transformation body—and teaching in the world, he proclaims wholesome dharmas of all kinds together with the dharmas of the world, the dharmas of kings, worldly conventional dharmas, the dharmas of those who leave home, the dharmas of those at home, the dharmas of lineages, and the dharmas of household life, pitying beings and protecting the world; although these are not the bodhisattva's true Dharma, he constantly practises these worldly dharmas. For this reason all of these come from the bodhisattva. Again someone asks: the bodhisattva is pure and cultivates great kindness and compassion; how could he speak of the various mixed dharmas of the world? Answer: there are two kinds of bodhisattva. The first practises kindness and compassion and enters the bodhisattva path directly. The second is the ruined bodhisattva, who also has a mind of compassion and governs the world by the laws of the state; he has no greed for gain in it, and although there is some harm he inflicts, those he brings to peace and happiness are more—he punishes one evil person so as to preserve a whole family. One who establishes laws in this way, though he is not called a pure bodhisattva, is still able to be called a ruined bodhisattva. For this reason all of these come from the bodhisattva. The various riches and honours of the world all come from the paths of the two vehicles; the paths of the two vehicles come from the Buddha, and the Buddha in turn comes about because of the bodhisattva. If there were no bodhisattva to proclaim wholesome dharmas, the world would have no path of gods, no path of humans, no path of asuras; there would be no pleasant feeling and no feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant, only painful feeling, and one would constantly hear the sound of weeping from the hells. Since the bodhisattva has such great benefit, how could he not be called a field of merit for the world? When Śāriputra heard that the bodhisattva has great merit and ought to receive offerings, he nevertheless thought in his mind: the bodhisattva's afflictions are not yet exhausted; although he has great merit, I fear he cannot digest these offerings—just as a person, though he has eaten fine food, cannot digest it because of an illness within. For this reason—

The Merit of Giving Was Already Pure and Complete from the Start: The Bodhisattva Is a Great Donor, and What He Gives Is Wholesome Dharmas

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: has the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's merit of giving already become pure and complete? The Buddha said: no. Why is this? Because it was already pure and complete from the start.

The treatise explains. Because from the moment he first arouses the mind, the bodhisattva becomes the foremost of those who make offerings for all beings. What is the principle here? Because the bodhisattva has resolved to undergo toil and suffering on behalf of immeasurable, boundless asaṃkhyeyas of beings, and to benefit immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of beings so that they attain liberation, his aim being to obtain the power of great wisdom of all the Buddha-dharmas, able to make the world itself nirvāṇa. For causes and conditions of all these kinds it is said that it was already pure and complete from the start. Furthermore, the Buddha is restating the causes and conditions by which he is able to digest offerings.

The Buddha went on to say: Śāriputra, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is a great donor; what is it that he gives? He gives wholesome dharmas. What kind of wholesome dharmas? They are the ten wholesome paths, the five precepts, up to the eighteen unshared dharmas and omniscience of all kinds; these he gives to beings.

The treatise explains. Earlier it was said ‘because of the bodhisattva as cause and condition, the world has wholesome dharmas’; now it is said ‘the bodhisattva is the master who gives wholesome dharmas’—this is the difference between the two.

Śāriputra Asks about Practising in Accord with Prajñā; the Buddha Answers: Practising in Accord with the Emptiness of Form Is Called Being in Accord

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: World-Honored One, how does a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practise in accord with prajñāpāramitā and come to be in accord with prajñāpāramitā?

The treatise explains. It was said above that ‘cultivating prajñāpāramitā for a single day surpasses the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas’; coming from this cause and condition, the Buddha praised the bodhisattva in all kinds of ways. Such great merits as these all arise from prajñāpāramitā, and so he now asks how the bodhisattva practises this prajñāpāramitā and comes to be in accord with prajñāpāramitā. Furthermore, Śāriputra knows that prajñāpāramitā is hard to practise and hard to attain, like an illusion, like a conjuration, hard to receive and uphold; fearing only that practitioners would go astray and fall into confusion, he asks about the method of practising in accord.

The Buddha told Śāriputra: the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord with the emptiness of form; this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness; this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā. Furthermore, Śāriputra, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord with the emptiness of the eye; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of visible form; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of sound, smell, taste, touch, and dharmas; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of the eye-element, the form-element, and the eye-consciousness-element; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of the ear, sound, and consciousness elements, the nose, smell, and consciousness elements, the tongue, taste, and consciousness elements, the body, touch, and consciousness elements, and the mind, dharma, and consciousness elements; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of suffering; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of origination, cessation, and the path; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of ignorance; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of constructions, consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense-bases, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and old age and death; this is called being in accord with prajñā. He practises in accord with the emptiness of all dharmas—whether conditioned or unconditioned, all are empty; this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

The Treatise Explains the Five Aggregates at Length (1): The Aggregate of Form—the Visible and the Invisible, and the Various Aspects of Form

The treatise explains. The five aggregates are form, feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness. The aggregate of form is the visible dharma. Because of this visible form as cause and condition, there is also form that is invisible yet resistant. Although the resistant is invisible, it too is called form—just as one who has attained the path is called a person of the path, and the others who have left home but not yet attained the path are also called persons of the path. What is visible? Only one field is the small portion of form that is visible and resistant, included in one sense-field. The other nine fields, together with non-manifest karma, are called invisible form. The resistant are ten fields; the non-resistant is only non-manifest form. The distinctions of with-outflows and without-outflows and so on are likewise. As a sūtra says: form is of three kinds—form that is visible and resistant, form that is invisible and resistant, and form that is invisible and non-resistant. Therefore one should know that it is not only what the eye sees that is form: the ten inner and outer fields that are able to give rise to the five consciousnesses are all called form, and because of this portion of form, non-manifest form arises.

Again, there are four kinds of form: inner and appropriated, inner and not appropriated, outer and appropriated, outer and not appropriated. Again, there are five kinds of form, namely the five sense-objects. Again, there is one kind of form, the mark of being afflicted and broken, as a sūtra says. The bodily form of beings is called the mark of being afflicted and broken; form that is not of beings is also called the mark of being afflicted and broken, because its having a mark that is able to afflict is a cause and condition, and so it too is called affliction. It is like this: if there is a body, then there are sufferings such as hunger, thirst, cold, heat, old age, illness, knives, and cudgels. Again, there are two kinds of form: the four great elements and the form derived from the four great elements; inner form and outer form; appropriated form and unappropriated form; bound form and unbound form; form that can give rise to wrongdoing and form that can give rise to merit; karmic form and non-karmic form; karmic form and resultant form; karmic form and retributive form; resultant form and retributive form; obscured indeterminate form and unobscured indeterminate form; visible form and invisible form; resistant form and non-resistant form; form with outflows and form without outflows. In this way form is distinguished into two kinds. Again, there are three kinds of form, as said above under the visible and resistant. Again, there are three kinds of form: wholesome form, unwholesome form, and indeterminate form; form of one in training, form of one beyond training, and form of one neither in training nor beyond training; form arising from what is abandoned by seeing the truths, form arising from what is abandoned by contemplation, and form arising from what is not abandoned. Again, there are three kinds of form: form bound to the desire realm, form bound to the form realm, and unbound form; there is form that can give rise to greed, form that can give rise to hatred, and form that can give rise to delusion—and the three fetters, the three outflows, and so on are likewise. There is form that can give rise to the wholesome root of non-greed, the wholesome root of non-hatred, and the wholesome root of non-delusion; the various three wholesome roots of this kind should all be spoken of at length. There is form that can give rise to obscured indeterminate dharmas and form that can give rise to unobscured indeterminate dharmas, and the unobscured indeterminate is again of two kinds—that which arises from retribution and that which does not arise from retribution; these are the two kinds of the indeterminate. Again, there are four kinds of form, as said above under the appropriated and the unappropriated; namely, the three kinds of the four great elements and derived form—wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate; manifest form and non-manifest form of bodily karma, and manifest form and non-manifest form of verbal karma; received form, restraining form, used form, and unused form—these are the four kinds of form. Again, there are five kinds of form: manifest and non-manifest form of the body, manifest and non-manifest form of speech, and non-karmic form; the five sense-faculties and the five sense-objects; coarse form, moving form, shadow form, reflected-image form, and deceptive form.

Coarse form is what can be seen, heard, smelled, tasted, and touched, such as earth and stones. Moving form is of two kinds: first, the movements of beings; second, the movements of what is not beings—such as the movements of water, fire, and wind; the earth moves in dependence on others: below there is a great wind that stirs the water, and the water in turn moves the earth; the wind blows and moves the trees; as wine boils of itself and moves; as the lodestone draws iron; as pearls, jade, tridacna shell, and agate are able to move of themselves at night—all these are the karmic causes and conditions of the merit of beings in former lives, inconceivable.

Question: shadow form and reflected-image form should not be set up as a separate kind. Why? The eye together with light faces a clear mirror and is thereupon turned back, so that one sees oneself. A shadow is likewise: because the light is blocked, the shadow appears; there is no separate dharma. Answer: this is not so. When one sees an image in oil, it is black—that is not the original colour. In a knife five feet long, looked at crosswise the image of the face becomes broad, looked at lengthwise the image of the face becomes long—that is not the original face. In the rock crystal of Daqin, where there are flaws, within each flaw there is an image of the face—that is not a single image of the face. For this reason it is not that one still sees the original image. Furthermore, there is the mirror, there is the person, there is the one holding the mirror, there is light: because the many conditions come together, the image arises; if the many conditions are not complete, the image does not arise. This image is not without causes and conditions, yet neither is it within the causes and conditions; in this way it is a separate dharma of its own and is not that face. The way this subtle form arises is like this, unlike coarse form—just as because of fire there is smoke, and when the fire has gone out the smoke still remains. Question: if so, the shadow should not be spoken of separately, since it is likewise subtle form. Answer: the image in the mirror has form of all kinds of colours, whereas the shadow is only one colour; therefore they differ. Although both of these depend on a shape and move along with it, their substance is different: the shadow appears from the blocking of light, while the image arises from causes and conditions of all kinds; although both are subtle form, each is different. Deceptive form is such as a mirage, an illusion, a conjuration, a city of the gandharvas, and so on: seen from afar it can deceive a person's eye, but close up there is nothing at all. Forms of all these immeasurable kinds are collectively called the aggregate of form.

The Treatise Explains the Five Aggregates at Length (2): Feeling, Perception, Constructions, and Consciousness—Mental Concomitants Born of Contact, and the Distinctions of Each

The aggregate of feeling is as a sūtra says: because the eye takes form as its condition, eye-consciousness arises; because the three things come together, contact arises; this contact immediately makes the three aggregates arise together, namely feeling, perception, and constructions. Question: eye-consciousness also acts as a cause for the three aggregates; why is only contact spoken of? Answer: eye-consciousness abides only momentarily; having seen form it ceases, and then mind-consciousness arises, which is able to discriminate form as fine or ugly; therefore eye-consciousness is not spoken of. Because the three things—eye, form, and consciousness—come together, contact arises, and contact gives rise to the mental concomitants; the causes and conditions of eye-consciousness are more remote, and so it is not spoken of. Question: all consciousnesses have contact; why is it said only that contact is the cause and condition that gives rise to the mental concomitants? Answer: mind is of two kinds: first, mind that arises and ceases moment by moment; second, mind that continues in sequence. Contact is likewise; because contact that continues in sequence is coarser, it is said that the mental concomitants arise because of contact. Moment-by-moment contact is subtle; although it too gives rise to the mental concomitants along with it, because it is not distinct it is not spoken of. If the three things—sense-faculty, sense-object, and consciousness—come together and are able to experience suffering and pleasure, at that time the dharma of contact is distinct and clear; for this reason it is said that the mental concomitants arise because of contact. Just as the dharma of form arises from the coming together of causes and conditions, the mental concomitants are likewise—they arise from the coming together of the dharma of contact. Just as the dharma of form arises from a coming together and without a coming together does not arise, the mental concomitants are likewise—if there is contact they arise, if there is no contact they do not arise. This aggregate of feeling, as one kind, is the mark of feeling. Again, there are two kinds of feeling: bodily feeling and mental feeling; inner feeling and outer feeling; coarse and subtle; far and near; pure and impure; and so on. Again, there are three kinds of feeling: painful, pleasant, and neither painful nor pleasant; wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate; of one in training, of one beyond training, and of one neither in training nor beyond training; abandoned by seeing the truths, abandoned by contemplation, and not abandoned; feeling arising from what is abandoned by seeing the truths, feeling arising from what is abandoned by contemplation, and feeling arising from what is not abandoned; or feeling that arises from the view of the body but does not in turn act as a cause for the view of the body, or feeling that arises from the view of the body and in turn acts as a cause for the view of the body, or feeling that does not arise from the view of the body and does not in turn act as a cause for the view of the body; again, there are three kinds of feeling: bound to the desire realm, bound to the form realm, and bound to the formless realm—these are the three kinds of feeling. Again, there are four kinds of feeling: inner bodily feeling, outer bodily feeling, inner mental feeling, and outer mental feeling; together with feeling associated with the four right efforts, the four bases of supernormal power, and so on, and feeling associated with the four floods, the four bonds, and so on—these are called the four kinds of feeling. Again, there are five kinds of feeling: the faculty of pleasure, the faculty of pain, the faculty of sorrow, the faculty of joy, and the faculty of equanimity; and feeling associated with what is abandoned by seeing suffering, up to feeling associated with what is abandoned by contemplation; feeling associated with the afflictions of the five hindrances, the five fetters, and so on is likewise. Again, there are six aggregates of feeling, namely the feeling associated with the six consciousnesses. Again, mind-consciousness discriminates eighteen feelings: the eye sees form, reflects and discriminates, and the mind gives rise to joy; the eye sees form, reflects and discriminates, and the mind gives rise to sorrow; the eye sees form, reflects and discriminates, and the mind gives rise to equanimity; and so on up to mind-consciousness, likewise. Among these eighteen feelings some are pure and some defiled, making thirty-six. Each of the three times has thirty-six, making one hundred and eight. Distinguishing the meaning of feeling by causes and conditions of all these kinds is immeasurable; this is called the aggregate of feeling.

The aggregate of perception, the aggregate of associated constructions, and the aggregate of consciousness are distinguished in the same way. Why is this? Because they are associated with the aggregate of feeling. Furthermore, the Buddha says that there are four kinds of perception: small perception, great perception, immeasurable perception, and the perception of nothingness. Small perception is being aware of small dharmas. As it is said of small dharmas—small desire, small faith, small form, small objective marks—this is called small perception. Furthermore, perception bound to the desire realm is called small; perception bound to the form realm is called great; perception bound to the three formless heavens is called immeasurable; perception bound to the sphere of nothingness is called the perception of nothingness. Furthermore, perception associated with afflictions is called small perception, because it is covered by afflictions; perception with outflows yet without stain is called great perception; perception that takes the real mark of dharmas as its object is called the perception of nothingness; perception without outflows is called immeasurable perception, because it is the immeasurable dharma that takes nirvāṇa as its object. Furthermore, the Buddha says that there are six perceptions, namely perception arising in association with eye-contact, up to perception arising in association with mind-contact. This is called the aggregate of perception.

As for the aggregate of constructions, the Buddha sometimes says that all conditioned dharmas are called constructions. Sometimes he speaks of three constructions: bodily construction, verbal construction, and mental construction. Bodily construction is in-and-out breathing. What is the principle here? Because the breath belongs to the body. Verbal construction is initial inquiry and sustained examination. What is the principle here? Because first there is initial inquiry and sustained examination, and only afterwards is there speech. Mental construction is feeling and perception. What is the principle here? Because by experiencing suffering and pleasure and grasping at marks the mind is set in motion, this is called mental construction. The mental concomitants are of two kinds: first, those belonging to views; second, those belonging to craving. Among those belonging to craving, the chief is called feeling; among those belonging to views, the chief is called perception; for this reason these two dharmas are said to be mental construction. The Buddha sometimes speaks of the three constructions within the twelve causes and conditions, namely meritorious construction, demeritorious construction, and imperturbable construction. Meritorious construction is wholesome karma bound to the desire realm. Demeritorious construction is unwholesome karma. Imperturbable construction is karma bound to the form realm and the formless realm. In the Abhidharma, apart from feeling and perception, the remaining mental concomitants, together with the dharmas not associated with mind such as the absorption without perception and the absorption of cessation—this is called the aggregate of constructions.

As for the aggregate of consciousness: because the inner and outer six sense-fields come together, six kinds of awareness arise; this is called consciousness. Because the power of the inner condition is great, it is called eye-consciousness, up to being called mind-consciousness. Question: mind is itself consciousness; how can it be said that because of the power of the mind as condition, mind-consciousness arises? Answer: because mind has the mark of arising and ceasing, mostly taking the preceding mind as cause, it takes dharmas as object and mind-consciousness arises. Question: the preceding mind has already ceased; how can it give rise to the later consciousness? Answer: mind is of two kinds: first, ceasing moment by moment; second, mind continuing in sequence and so called one. For the sake of this continuing mind, all minds are called one mind; therefore there is no fault in consciousness arising in dependence on mind. Because mind-consciousness is hard to understand, the ninety-six kinds of outside paths do not say that consciousness arises in dependence on mind, but take dependence on the soul as the basis. These five aggregates have already been spoken of at length under the four foundations of mindfulness. Why is this? Because the foundation of mindfulness of the body speaks of the aggregate of form; the foundation of mindfulness of feeling speaks of the aggregate of feeling; the foundation of mindfulness of mind speaks of the aggregate of consciousness; the foundation of mindfulness of dharmas speaks of the aggregates of perception and constructions.

Question: there should not be five aggregates; there should be only the aggregate of form and the aggregate of consciousness. The aggregate of consciousness, because it discriminates according to the occasion, has different names, and so is called feeling, perception, and constructions—just as defiled consciousness is called affliction and pure consciousness is called wholesome dharma. Answer: not so. What is the principle here? If the names differ, the realities also differ; if there were no differing dharmas, the names ought not to differ. If there were only mind and no mental dharmas, mind ought not to be defiled or pure. It is like the water of a clear pool: a mad elephant enters it and makes it muddy; if a water-clearing pearl is put in, the water becomes clear; one cannot say that apart from the water there is no elephant and no pearl. Mind is likewise: because afflictions enter, they are able to make the mind muddy; because wholesome dharmas such as kindness and compassion enter the mind, they make the mind clear. For this reason one cannot say that afflictions and dharmas such as kindness and compassion are simply the mind. Question: did you not hear me say earlier, ‘defiled mind is affliction, pure mind is wholesome dharma’? Answer: if defiled mind continues, how can pure mind arise? If pure mind continues, how would defiled mind arise? For this reason this matter is not so. You know only coarse and manifest matters and do not know the mental concomitants; one may not say that something does not exist because one does not know it. One should know that there must be five aggregates.

The Treatise Explains the Five Aggregates at Length (3): The Order of the Five Aggregates, and the Ultimate Emptiness of All Dharmas

Question: if there are five aggregates, why are just five spoken of, neither more nor fewer? Answer: dharmas each have their fixed limits. Just as the hand has five fingers by its nature, one cannot ask for more or fewer. Furthermore, although conditioned dharmas are immeasurable, the Buddha divides them into five portions and they are then entirely included. Question: if so, why does he also speak of the twelve sense-fields and the eighteen elements? Answer: the meaning of the aggregates ought to be like this, but the meaning of the sense-fields and the elements is different. The Buddha is the King of Dharma; for the sake of beings he sometimes speaks briefly and sometimes at length. Some beings are not much deluded about form and consciousness but are much mistaken about the mental concomitants; therefore he speaks of the five aggregates. Some beings are not deluded about mind and the mental concomitants but are confused only about form; for the sake of such beings he speaks of form as ten fields, and speaks of mind and the mental concomitants together as two fields. Some beings are little deluded about the mental concomitants but largely fail to penetrate form and mind; for the sake of such beings he speaks of the mental concomitants as one element and form and mind as seventeen elements. Some beings do not know the arising and ceasing of the world's dharmas of suffering and do not know the path of leaving suffering; for the sake of such beings he speaks of the four truths: the world and the body are all suffering; afflictions such as craving are the cause of suffering; the cessation of afflictions is the cessation of suffering; the dharma of skilful means for extinguishing afflictions is called the path. Some beings, because they cling to an ‘I’, hold wrong views about dharmas and conceive a mark of oneness or a mark of difference, or say that the world is without cause and without condition, or fall into wrong causes and conditions; for the sake of such beings he speaks of the twelve causes and conditions. Some people say that there are permanent dharmas—some say the soul is permanent, some say all dharmas are permanent—only that at the time of destruction they are hidden and subtle and are not non-existent, and if they meet with the coming together of causes and conditions they appear again, there being no other dharma; for the sake of such people he says: all conditioned dharmas are made dharmas and have nothing permanent or fixed. It is like a wooden figure with all kinds of mechanisms: because the wooden pegs are fitted together it is able to move, yet there is nothing real about it—this is called conditioned dharma.

Question: what order is there in the five aggregates spoken of here? Answer: when a practitioner first trains in the method of contemplation, he first contemplates coarse dharmas, knowing that the body is impure, impermanent, suffering, empty, without self, and so on—such is the affliction of the body. The reason beings are greedily attached to this body is that it can give rise to pleasure; when this pleasure is examined closely, immeasurable sufferings constantly follow it, and this pleasure too is impermanent, empty, without self, and so on. Within the six sense-objects there are immeasurable sufferings; by what cause do beings give rise to greedy attachment? Because beings grasp at marks and become greedily attached—just as a person, having a particular fondness for a body, becomes attached to it, and is able to give up his life and follow it into death, grasping at its marks. Having experienced suffering and pleasure, one is set in motion and gives rise to volition and the other constructions. When the mind's constructions are set in motion, consciousness is able to know the skilful means of leaving suffering and attaining pleasure—this is consciousness. Furthermore, beings experience suffering and pleasure because of the causes and conditions of the five desires; because of the causes and conditions of grasping at marks they become deeply attached to this pleasure; because they are deeply attached to pleasure, they either give rise to the three poisons or give rise to the three wholesome roots—this is called constructions; consciousness is their master and makes use of the matters above. The five desires are form; form is the root, so the aggregate of form is spoken of first, and the rest have their names according to their order. The remaining dharmas such as the sense-fields and the elements all come in order from the five aggregates; only in the dharma-field and the dharma-element are unconditioned dharmas added, and in the four truths cessation through knowledge is added. The sense-fields, the elements, up to conditioned and unconditioned dharmas are as said above.

Now these five aggregates and the other dharmas are all empty. Why is this? Because the Lord of Sages says so. Sages are of three kinds—lower, middle, and upper—and the Buddha is their lord. Just as among the stars and the moon the sun is supreme because its light is great, the Buddha, having attained all wisdom, is called the Lord of Sages; because it is spoken by the Lord of Sages, it must be true. Furthermore, because there are the eighteen emptinesses, all dharmas are empty. If by the emptiness of nature alone all dharmas can be emptied, how much more with eighteen! If by inner emptiness and outer emptiness all dharmas can be emptied, how much more with eighteen! Furthermore, if a single dharma were not empty, there would have to be two kinds—form dharmas and non-form dharmas. Form dharmas are analysed and broken apart down to the minutest particles, and when the minutest particles are analysed they too cannot be found; in the end all are empty. Non-form dharmas, down to their arising and ceasing moment by moment, are therefore all empty, as said under the four foundations of mindfulness. Furthermore, the nature of dharmas is empty; they are only names, existing because causes and conditions come together. Just as mountains, rivers, grasses, trees, land, people, provinces, commanderies, cities, and towns are named a country; lanes, wards, markets, streets, lodgings, and palaces are named a capital; beams and pillars, rafters and ridgepoles, tiles and bamboo, walls and stones are named a hall; the upper, middle, and lower portions coming together are named a pillar; slices coming together give the name of a portion; many strips coming together give the name of a slice; many minute particles coming together give the name of a strip. These minutest particles are large, middling, and small: the large are the floating dust that can be seen; the middling are seen by the gods; the small are seen by the higher sages with the divine eye; if one contemplates them with the wisdom-eye, nothing is seen. What is the principle here? Because by nature they are in reality non-existent. If the minutest particle were real, it would be permanent: it could not be divided, could not be destroyed, fire could not burn it, water could not drown it. Furthermore, whether the minutest particle has shape or is without shape, both have faults. If it is without shape, how could it be form? If the minutest particle has shape, it makes a boundary with space, and so has divisions in the ten directions; if it has divisions in the ten directions, it is not called minute. In the Buddha-Dharma, no form, whether far, near, coarse, or subtle, is permanently abiding. Furthermore, apart from these causes, conditions, and names there is no dharma. Now, if the causes, conditions, and names of mountains, rivers, and land are removed, there is no further name of a country; if the causes, conditions, and names of lodgings, wards, roads, and streets are removed, there is no name of a capital; if the causes, conditions, and names of beams, rafters, bamboo, and tiles are removed, there is no further name of a hall; if the causes, conditions, and names of the three portions are removed, there is no further name of a pillar; if the causes, conditions, and names of the slices are removed, there is no name of a portion; if the causes, conditions, and names of the strips are removed, there is no name of a slice; if the causes, conditions, and names of the many minute particles are removed, there is no name of a strip; if the name of the middling particle is removed, there is no name of the large particle; if the name of the small particle is removed, there is no name of the middling particle; if the false seeing of the divine eye is removed, there is no name of the small particle. Because of meanings such as these, of all kinds of causes and conditions, one knows that dharmas are ultimately empty.

Question: if dharmas are ultimately empty, why are there still names? Answer: if names were real, they would be refuted together with the dharmas. If names are non-existent, you should not come and raise difficulties with them. Names and dharmas are no different; for this reason one knows that all dharmas are empty. Furthermore, all dharmas are truly empty. What is the principle here? Because not a single dharma is fixed; all arise from the coming together of many dharmas. If there is no one, there is also no many. It is like a tree: because root, trunk, branches, and leaves come together, there is the provisional name ‘tree’; if there were no tree-dharma, for whom would root, trunk, branches, and leaves come together? If there is no coming together, there is not a single dharma; if there is not a single dharma, there is also no many, because first there is one and only afterwards many. Furthermore, all the verbal idle discourse of the various views has no reality. To say the world is permanent is not so; that the world is impermanent is not so; that there are beings, that there are no beings; that it has an end, that it has no end; that there is a self, that there is no self; that dharmas are real, that dharmas are empty—none of these is so, as said earlier in the various gates of discussion. If all this idle discourse of views does not exist, how could it not be empty? Question: you say ‘that dharmas are real and that dharmas are empty are both not so’; how is it that you now say ‘dharmas are empty’? Answer: there are two kinds of emptiness. The first speaks of the emptiness of names, which only refutes attachment to existence and does not refute emptiness. The second uses emptiness to refute existence, and there is no emptiness either. It is like this: when a small kalpa comes to an end, there are weapons, epidemics, and famine, yet there are still people, things, birds, beasts, mountains, and rivers. When a great kalpa burns, the mountains, rivers, and trees, down to the great waters beneath the vajra ground, are all exhausted; when the kalpa fire has gone out, the wind that holds up the waters also ceases, and everything is vast and empty with nothing left over. Emptiness is also like this: refuting dharmas, all are empty, only emptiness remains, and yet one grasps its mark and becomes attached to it. The great emptiness refutes all dharmas, and emptiness too is emptied again. For this reason you should not raise such a difficulty. If all idle discourse is extinguished, how could it not be empty? By causes and conditions of all these kinds, emptiness is spoken of in place after place; one should know that all dharmas are empty.

To ‘practise’ is to cultivate and carry out contemplation in keeping with prajñāpāramitā, without pausing and without resting; this is called practising. It is like a disciple who follows his teacher's instruction and does not go against the teacher's intention; this is called being in accord. As the mark of prajñāpāramitā is, so the bodhisattva too follows this mark, contemplating with wisdom, able to attain and able to accomplish, without increase and without decrease; this is called being in accord—like a box and its lid, matched in size. Although prajñāpāramitā extinguishes the dharmas of the various views, by the power of wisdom it is called able to do everything and able to contemplate everything; being able to know in this way and not falling into the two extremes—this is being in accord with prajñā.

Practising in Accord with the Seven Emptinesses: Seven Emptinesses Stated Briefly Comprise the Eighteen

The Buddha went on to say: furthermore, Śāriputra, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord with the emptiness of nature; this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā. In this way, Śāriputra, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practising prajñāpāramitā practises in accord with the seven emptinesses—namely the emptiness of nature, the emptiness of specific marks, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unfindable, the emptiness of non-existent dharmas, the emptiness of existent dharmas, and the emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas; this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

The treatise explains. Question: why is it not said that abiding in the eighteen emptinesses, but only that abiding in the seven emptinesses, is called being in accord with prajñā? Answer: in the Buddha-Dharma, stated at length there are the eighteen emptinesses; stated briefly there are the seven emptinesses—just as, stated at length, the dharmas that aid the path are the thirty-seven limbs of the path, and stated briefly they are the seven limbs of awakening. Furthermore, these seven emptinesses are mostly used to benefit beings. As for the great emptiness and beginningless emptiness, they are spoken of because at times there are beings who give rise to such wrong views. The emptiness of nature means that the nature of all dharmas, from root to tip, is empty of itself even so—how much more in the present! Even causes and conditions are empty—how much more their fruits and retributions! The emptiness of specific marks means that the general marks and particular marks of dharmas are all contemplated as empty, and the mind then departs from them. By means of these two emptinesses, dharmas are all empty; this is called the emptiness of all dharmas. From the emptiness of nature there are marks; because marks are empty, dharmas are all empty. Because dharmas are empty, there is nothing further to be attained; this is called the emptiness of the unfindable. These four kinds of emptiness are used to refute all existent dharmas; if one takes existent dharmas and existent marks as faults, one then seizes on non-existent dharmas, and therefore the emptiness of non-existent dharmas is spoken of. If one takes non-existent dharmas as wrong, one then wishes to turn back and seize on existent dharmas, and therefore the emptiness of existent dharmas is spoken of. Earlier it was said that although the four emptinesses refute existent dharmas, the practitioner's mind leaves existence but settles in non-existence; therefore the emptiness of non-existent dharmas is spoken of next. If non-existent dharmas are said to be wrong, the mind has nowhere to lodge and wishes to turn back and settle in existence; therefore the emptiness of existent dharmas is spoken of briefly, because the mind that settles in existence has already grown weak. The emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas: the practitioner takes the emptiness of non-existent dharmas as wrong and his mind again doubts existence; if the mind contemplates existence, it again doubts non-existent dharmas; therefore he contemplates both existence and non-existence as empty, like the contemplation of inner and outer emptiness. For this reason only the seven emptinesses are spoken of.

When Practising in Accord with the Seven Emptinesses, One Does Not See Accord or Non-accord, Does Not See Arising and Ceasing, Defilement and Purity

Question: you say ‘understanding that all dharmas are empty and extinguishing the various views is called being in accord with prajñā’; contemplating in this way is called being in accord, and not contemplating in this way is not being in accord—this is discriminating right and wrong, which is itself already a view; how can you speak of ‘extinguishing’? Answer: for this reason—

The Buddha told Śāriputra: when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord with the seven emptinesses, he does not see form as either in accord or not in accord; he does not see feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness as either in accord or not in accord. He does not see form as either having the mark of arising or having the mark of ceasing; he does not see feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness as either having the mark of arising or having the mark of ceasing. He does not see form as either having the mark of defilement or having the mark of purity; he does not see feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness as either having the mark of defilement or having the mark of purity.

The treatise explains. ‘He does not see form as either having the mark of arising or having the mark of ceasing’ means that he does not see the five aggregates as having arising or having ceasing. If the five aggregates had the marks of arising and ceasing, one would fall into annihilation; falling into annihilation, there would be no wrongdoing and no merit; with no wrongdoing and no merit, one would be no different from birds and beasts. ‘He does not see form as either defiled or pure’ means that he does not see the five aggregates as having bondage or having release. If the five aggregates were bound by nature, there would be none who could attain liberation. If the five aggregates were pure by nature, there would be no dharma of training in the path.

Dharmas Do Not Combine with One Another, Because Their Nature Is Empty; in the Emptiness of Form There Is No Form

The Buddha went on to say: he does not see form combining with feeling, does not see feeling combining with perception, does not see perception combining with constructions, does not see constructions combining with consciousness. Why is this? Because there is no dharma that combines with another dharma, because their nature is empty.

The treatise explains. Mind and the mental concomitants have no shape; because they have no shape, they have no place of abiding; for this reason form does not combine with feeling. The four great elements and the form derived from the four great elements are a combining of two touches, but among mind and the mental concomitants there is no dharma of touch, and so they cannot combine. Question: if so, why is it said that feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness do not combine together? Answer: here the Buddha himself has said that there is no dharma that combines with another dharma. Why is this? Because the nature of all dharmas is ever empty. If there is no dharma that combines with another dharma, there is also no separating from one another. Furthermore, the Buddha himself states the cause and condition—

The Buddha went on to say: Śāriputra, in the emptiness of form there is no form; in the emptiness of feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness there is no consciousness.

The treatise explains. Why is this? Because form and emptiness are opposed. If emptiness comes, it extinguishes form; how could there be form in the emptiness of form? It is like there being no fire in water and no water in fire, because their natures are opposed. Furthermore, some people say ‘form is not truly empty; it is only when the practitioner enters the emptiness samādhi that he sees form as empty’; for this reason it is said ‘in the emptiness of form there is no form at all, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise’.

Each of the Five Aggregates Is Without Its Own Mark; Form Is Emptiness, Emptiness Is Form

The Buddha went on to say: Śāriputra, because form is empty, there is no mark of being afflicted and broken; because feeling is empty, there is no mark of feeling; because perception is empty, there is no mark of knowing; because constructions are empty, there is no mark of making; because consciousness is empty, there is no mark of awareness.

The treatise explains. Question: what order is there in this meaning? Answer: earlier it was said that in the emptiness of the five aggregates there are no five aggregates; now here the cause and condition of this is stated. Because the own-mark of each of the five aggregates cannot be found, it is said that in the emptiness of the five aggregates there are no five aggregates.

The Buddha went on to say: why is this? Śāriputra, form is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from form; form is emptiness, emptiness is form. Feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise.

The treatise explains. The Buddha restates the cause and condition. If the five aggregates were different from emptiness, there ought to be five aggregates within emptiness. Now the five aggregates are not different from emptiness and emptiness is not different from the five aggregates; the five aggregates are emptiness and emptiness is the five aggregates; for this reason emptiness does not destroy the five aggregates. What is the principle here? Here the Buddha himself states the cause and condition—

The Empty Mark of Dharmas Neither Arises nor Ceases, up to There Being No Buddha and No Buddha-Path; This Is Called Being in Accord

The Buddha went on to say: Śāriputra, the empty mark of these dharmas neither arises nor ceases, is neither stained nor pure, neither increases nor decreases; this dharma of emptiness is not past, not future, not present. Therefore in emptiness there is no form, no feeling, perception, constructions, or consciousness; no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind; no form, sound, smell, taste, touch, or dharmas; no eye-element, up to no mind-consciousness-element; no ignorance and also no ending of ignorance, up to no old age and death and also no ending of old age and death; no suffering, origination, cessation, or path; also no knowledge and also no attainment; no srota-āpanna and no fruit of srota-āpanna, no sakṛdāgāmin and no fruit of sakṛdāgāmin, no anāgāmin and no fruit of anāgāmin, no arhat and no fruit of arhatship, no pratyekabuddha and no path of the pratyekabuddha, no Buddha and also no Buddha-path. Śāriputra, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises in accord in this way—this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

The treatise explains. Question: everyone knows that in emptiness there is nothing at all, no arising and no ceasing, without stain and without purity, no increase and no decrease, no dharmas whatsoever; why does the Buddha still distinguish the five aggregates and the other dharmas and say that each is empty? Answer: some people, although they too cultivate emptiness, in their perception take it that within emptiness there are still dharmas—just as a person who practises the mind of kindness, although there are no beings, imagines beings attaining happiness, and thereby himself gains immeasurable merit. For this reason the Buddha says that the nature of dharmas is ever empty of itself; it is not that the emptiness samādhi makes dharmas empty—just as water by nature has the mark of coldness, and it is fire that makes it turn hot. To say that the emptiness samādhi makes dharmas empty—this is not so. ‘Knowledge’ means the eight knowledges without outflows. ‘Attainment’ means the first attainment of the noble path, the fruit of srota-āpanna, up to the Buddha-path. This meaning has already been spoken of at length earlier.

Not Seeing Prajñā as in Accord or Not in Accord, up to Omniscience of All Kinds

The Buddha went on to say: Śāriputra, this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practising prajñāpāramitā does not see prajñāpāramitā as either in accord or not in accord; does not see the perfection of giving (dānapāramitā), the perfection of morality (śīlapāramitā), the perfection of patience (kṣāntipāramitā), the perfection of vigour (vīryapāramitā), and the perfection of meditation (dhyānapāramitā) as either in accord or not in accord; also does not see form as either in accord or not in accord; does not see feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness as either in accord or not in accord; does not see the eye up to the mind, form up to dharmas, the eye-form-consciousness elements up to the mind-dharma-consciousness elements as either in accord or not in accord; does not see the four foundations of mindfulness up to the limbs of the eightfold noble path, the Buddha's ten powers up to omniscience of all kinds, as either in accord or not in accord. In this way, Śāriputra, one should know that the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

The treatise explains. When the bodhisattva attains the real mark of dharmas and enters prajñāpāramitā, he sees no fixed mark even in prajñāpāramitā—whether in accord or not in accord—how much less does he see other dharmas as existing! How is it that he does not see prajñā as in accord or not in accord? It is that he does not see ‘acting in this way is in accord with prajñāpāramitā’, nor does he see ‘not acting in this way is not in accord with prajñāpāramitā’. For example, to practise by way of permanence, pleasure, and self is not in accord with prajñāpāramitā; to practise by way of impermanence, suffering, and no-self is in accord with prajñāpāramitā. To practise by way of the real is not in accord with prajñāpāramitā; to practise by way of emptiness is in accord with prajñāpāramitā. For example, to practise by way of existence or non-existence is not in accord with prajñāpāramitā; to practise by way of neither existence nor non-existence is in accord with prajñāpāramitā. Within prajñāpāramitā none of these things exist, because the mark of prajñāpāramitā is ultimately pure. The five perfections, the five aggregates, up to omniscience of all kinds are likewise. Question: that prajñāpāramitā is ultimately pure can still be said; how are the five perfections and the other dharmas pure? Answer: it was said earlier that these five things, apart from prajñāpāramitā, are not called perfections; only by combining with prajñāpāramitā are they called perfections, as is said in the first chapter on prajñāpāramitā. What is called the perfection of giving? It is not seeing a giver, not seeing a receiver, and there being no goods given. These dharmas of the five aggregates are the bodhisattva's place of contemplation; because they combine with prajñāpāramitā and because they are ultimately pure, he does not see accord or non-accord. The twelve sense-fields, the eighteen elements, and the twelve causes and conditions are likewise. These dharmas have no fixed nature and no fixed dharma; for this reason he does not see them as either in accord or not in accord. The eighteen emptinesses, the four foundations of mindfulness, up to great kindness, great compassion, and omniscience of all kinds—he also does not see these as either in accord or not in accord. Question: this bodhisattva is not a śrāvaka or a pratyekabuddha; how can he have the thirty-seven limbs of the path? He has not yet attained the Buddha-path; how can he have the ten powers and the four fearlessnesses? Answer: although this bodhisattva is not a śrāvaka or a pratyekabuddha, he also contemplates the dharmas of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, in order to ferry beings across by the paths of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. Again, some say that he practises the paths of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas but simply does not take realisation, as is said in a later chapter: entering the samādhi of emptiness, signlessness, and non-action, the bodhisattva abides in these three gates of liberation and thinks: now is the time for contemplating, not the time for realising. Or there are bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the intention who hear that the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have the dharmas of the thirty-seven limbs of the path, and then recite them, keep them rightly in mind, and discriminate them; for this reason it is said that the bodhisattva has the thirty-seven limbs of the path. The Buddha's ten powers and so on are likewise. The bodhisattva himself abides in the bodhisattva's ten powers, four fearlessnesses, and eighteen unshared dharmas; abiding in these dharmas, whether he hears of, or recollects and discriminates, the Buddha's ten powers, four fearlessnesses, eighteen unshared dharmas, and so on, which are extremely deep and subtle, these too are matters within his own share. Furthermore, this bodhisattva has for immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas cultivated the Buddha's ten powers, four fearlessnesses, and so on; when he comes to sit beneath the Buddha-tree, because he attains unobstructed liberation, they increase and become pure. It is like one whose meritorious service has been established and who afterwards receives its reward; the bodhisattva is also like this—having these merits, he then receives their names. These merits all combine with the momentum of prajñāpāramitā, and so he does not see them as either in accord or not in accord. The meaning of these dharmas, from the six perfections up to omniscience, has been spoken of earlier.

Emptiness Does Not Combine with Emptiness; Why Restate the Causes and Conditions of Accord and Non-accord?

The Buddha went on to say: furthermore, Śāriputra, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, emptiness does not combine with emptiness, signlessness does not combine with signlessness, non-action does not combine with non-action. Why is this? Because emptiness, signlessness, and non-action have neither combining nor non-combining. Śāriputra, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises in accord in this way—this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

The treatise explains. Question: within a single mind there are not two emptinesses; how can it be said that ‘emptiness does not combine with emptiness’? Answer: emptiness is of two kinds: first, the emptiness samādhi; second, the emptiness of dharmas. The emptiness samādhi does not combine with the emptiness of dharmas. Why is this? If it were by the power of the emptiness samādhi that the emptiness of dharmas is combined with, this dharma would not be empty by its own nature. Again, emptiness is empty by its very nature and does not arise from causes and conditions; if it arose from causes and conditions, it would not be called the emptiness of nature. If a practitioner sees emptiness when he enters absorption and does not see emptiness when he leaves absorption, one should know that this is false. Furthermore, the Buddha himself states the cause and condition: in emptiness there is no combining and no non-combining, and signlessness and non-action are likewise. Śāriputra, the bodhisattva who practises in accord in this way—this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā. Question: it would have been enough to say in one place ‘he does not see being in accord or not in accord with prajñāpāramitā’; why speak again, in all kinds of ways, of the causes and conditions of accord and non-accord? If it is in accord in one place, it is in accord in all the rest; if it is not in accord in one place, it is not in accord in all the rest either—just as one blind man has no sight, and a thousand blind men are all the same. Answer: not so. Only if one wished to seek victory through idle discourse would one raise such a difficulty. Although the mark of dharmas cannot be spoken, the Buddha, out of great kindness and great compassion, speaks of it by skilful means of all kinds. Again, when the Buddha speaks the Dharma, he speaks for one kind of being to attain the path, and speaks again for those not yet awakened. Again, one statement is for cutting off the fetters of seeing the truths, a second statement is for cutting off the fetters of contemplation, and a further statement is so that all the remaining fetters are cut off portion by portion. Again, by one statement someone attains the śrāvaka path; one statement is a cause and condition for planting the pratyekabuddha path; a further statement is for arousing the mind of unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening; a further statement is for practising the six perfections; a further statement is for practising skilful means and attaining the acceptance of non-arising; a further statement is for attaining the first abiding ground; a further statement goes up to the tenth abiding ground; a further statement is for the sake of humans; a further statement is for the sake of gods. Furthermore, the mark of this prajñāpāramitā is extremely deep, hard to understand and hard to know; the Buddha knows that the faculties of beings' minds are sharp or dull. Those of dull faculties have little wisdom, and so he restates it for them. Those of sharp faculties awaken after one or two statements and do not need it restated in all kinds of ways—just as a swift horse runs at a single stroke of the whip, while a nag goes only after many strokes. For causes and conditions of all these kinds, there is no fault in the sūtra's restating.

Entering the Emptiness of Own-Marks, Form Does Not Combine with the Prior Limit, the Posterior Limit, or the Present

The Buddha went on to say: furthermore, Śāriputra, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he enters the emptiness of the specific marks of dharmas. Having entered it, form does not make combining, nor does it make non-combining. Feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness do not make combining, nor do they make non-combining. Form does not combine with the prior limit. Why is this? Because he does not see the prior limit. Form does not combine with the posterior limit. Why is this? Because he does not see the posterior limit. Form does not combine with the present. Why is this? Because he does not see the present. Feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise.

The treatise explains. Earlier it was said that ‘emptiness, signlessness, and non-action have no combining and no non-combining’; now the cause and condition is stated again: because he enters the emptiness of specific marks, the five aggregates make no combining and make no non-combining. If all dharmas are empty of specific marks, there is here no combining and no non-combining. Combining means that dharmas are as their specific marks are—as the solid mark of earth and the knowing mark of consciousness: such specific marks are not in other dharmas; this is called combining. Non-combining means that the own-mark is not within its own dharma. To state the mark of dharmas briefly: without increase and without decrease. Form does not combine with the prior limit. Why is this? Because the prior limit is empty, without anything at all, only a name. If form has entered the past, it has ceased and there is nothing; how can it combine with the prior limit? As for the posterior limit, it does not yet exist and has not yet arisen; form ought not to combine with the posterior limit. Present form arises and ceases without abiding and so its marks cannot be grasped; form ought not to combine with the present. Furthermore, the Buddha himself states the cause and condition: form does not combine with the prior limit, nor is it non-combining—why is this? Because the prior limit cannot be seen. Form does not combine with the posterior limit, nor is it non-combining—why is this? Because the posterior limit cannot be seen. Form does not combine with the present, nor is it non-combining—why is this? Because the present cannot be seen. Feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise.

The Three Limits Do Not Combine with One Another, Because the Three Limits Are Called Empty; This Is Called Being in Accord

The Buddha went on to say: furthermore, Śāriputra, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, the prior limit does not combine with the posterior limit, the posterior limit does not combine with the prior limit, the present does not combine with the prior and posterior limits, and the prior and posterior limits do not combine with the present either, because the three limits are called empty. Śāriputra, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises in accord in this way—this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

The treatise explains. Question: how do the prior limit and the posterior limit combine? Answer: some people say that the dharmas of the three times all exist: future dharmas turn into the present, and the present turns into the past. For example, the lump of clay is present, the pot is future, and the earth is past. When the pot is completed, the pot is present and the lump of clay is past, and the breaking of the pot is future. This is combining. If there truly were the mark of three times, this would not be so, because the faults would be too many; this is what non-combining is. Furthermore, the so-called combining of the three times is like this: past dharmas act as causes for the past, future, and present times; present dharmas act as causes for the present and future times; dharmas of the future time act as causes for the future time. Again, past mind and mental concomitants take the dharmas of the three times as object, and future and present mind and mental concomitants are likewise. Mind and mental concomitants already cut off are able to take as object dharmas not yet cut off; mind and mental concomitants not yet cut off are able to take as object dharmas that can be cut off. In this way the causes, conditions, fruits, and retributions of the dharmas of the three times combine with one another; this is called combining. The bodhisattva does not make such combining. Why is this? As said earlier, the past has already ceased; how can it act as cause or as condition? The future does not yet exist; how can it act as cause and condition? The present does not abide even for a single moment; how can it act as cause and condition? This is called non-combining. Furthermore, the Buddha himself states the cause and condition: because the three times and their names are all empty, how can combining be spoken of?

Sarvajñā Is Not Joined with the Three Times—Past, Future, and Present

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, sarvajñā is not joined with the past time. Why? The past time cannot be seen—how much less is sarvajñā joined with the past time! Sarvajñā is not joined with the future time. Why? The future time cannot be seen—how much less is sarvajñā joined with the future time! Sarvajñā is not joined with the present time. Why? The present time cannot be seen—how much less is sarvajñā joined with the present time! Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains Why the Three Times Are Not Joined: The Three Times Are False, Sarvajñā Is Real, as True Gold Does Not Share One Mark with Worthless Iron

The treatise-author explains: When the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not contemplate sarvajñā (omniscience) as being the same as the past time. Why? The past time is false, while sarvajñā is a real dharma; the past time has the mark of arising and ceasing, while sarvajñā does not have the mark of arising and ceasing. The past time and past dharmas, when sought, cannot be found at all—how much less is sarvajñā joined with the past time!

Furthermore, the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: ‘When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not even see the past time—how much less is sarvajñā joined with the past time!’ The future and present times are likewise. For the future time, apart from the mark of arising and ceasing, the rest of the meaning is the same.

Furthermore, because there is time, three times are spoken of—past, future, and present. The meaning of this ‘time’ is as was said under ‘at one time’.

Furthermore, sarvajñā is the real wisdom of the Buddhas of the ten directions and the three times; but the three times arise from the falsehood of ordinary people—how could they be joined with sarvajñā? It is like true gold, which does not share one mark with broken iron.

Question: As is said in the chapter on Rejoicing, ‘the bodhisattva-mahāsattva recollects the sarvajñā, wisdom, and all kinds of merits of the Buddhas of the past and present, and dedicates them to unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening’—how then is it said that ‘the past and present times are not joined with sarvajñā’?

Answer: If one recollects sarvajñā with a clinging mind that grasps at marks, that is not called dedicating to unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening; it is like food laced with poison, which though fragrant and delicious at first, afterwards harms the body. If the bodhisattva discriminated the sarvajñā of the Buddhas of the past and present, then he would be joined with the three times; now, because he does not grasp at marks, there is no joining.

Question: The bodhisattva also recollects ‘the sarvajñā of those who will become Buddhas in the future time’, and also recollects of himself, ‘I shall attain sarvajñā’; this is called being joined with the sarvajñā of the future time—how can it be said to be ‘not joined’?

Answer: Sarvajñā goes beyond the three realms and leaves the three times; it is a mark of ultimate purity. The practitioner merely, through recollection, imagining, and discrimination, thinks: “I shall attain this sarvajñā.” It is like worldly dharmas: through recollection and imagining one supposes one will obtain something, yet this matter has not yet arisen and does not yet exist, its time has not arrived, its causes and conditions have not met, it has no location whatever—how could one be joined with it right now? It is just as if one were to take ghee tomorrow, and today already recalled its rank smell in advance.

Again, as the disciples of Kātyāyana say: ‘Awakening in the future time says to the bodhisattva: “If you can cultivate and complete a body with the marks and minor marks, I shall come and dwell in it.” It is like the daughter of a rich and noble family, free and unhindered, who sends a messenger to say to the son of a poor family: “Adorn your house and curtains well and have everything of every kind prepared, and I shall come and dwell in your home.”’ Such a statement is not in accord with the Dharma.

For this reason one may not join sarvajñā with the three times.

Question: Other dharmas are many; why speak only of sarvajñā?

Answer: This sarvajñā is where the bodhisattva is heading; he deeply wishes to attain it, and seeks it within the three times.

Question: Why is it not sought among conditioned and unconditioned dharmas?

Answer: Later it will be said that it is sought among all dharmas.

Form up to the Eighteen Elements Is Not Joined with Sarvajñā

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, form is not joined with sarvajñā, because form cannot be seen; feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise. The eye is not joined with sarvajñā, because the eye cannot be seen; ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are likewise. Form is not joined with sarvajñā, because form cannot be seen; sound, smell, taste, touch, and dharmas are likewise. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: The Five Aggregates and the Eighteen Elements Are ‘Matter’, the Six Perfections and Omniscience of All Kinds Are ‘Pure Seed’, and Why the Defiled Seed Is Not Spoken Of

Question: Why are only the five aggregates and the twelve sense-fields spoken of, and not the eighteen elements and the twelve causes and conditions?

Answer: They ought to have been spoken of! At times those who recite and uphold the text have forgotten and lost parts of it. How is this known? The five aggregates, the twelve sense-fields, the eighteen elements, and the twelve causes and conditions spoken of by the Buddha have ‘matter’, have ‘defilement’, and have ‘purity’. The five aggregates, the eighteen elements, the twelve sense-fields, and the twelve causes and conditions are called ‘matter’; they are not fixed as defiled and not fixed as pure; within them either fetters arise or wholesome dharmas arise; it is like a field, which can truly grow crops—whatever is sown in it can grow. The five aggregates, the eighteen elements, the twelve sense-fields, and the twelve causes and conditions—this is ‘matter’; the six perfections up to omniscience of all kinds—this is ‘pure seed’. The reason ‘defilement’ is not spoken of is that this bodhisattva's fetters are already thin and he does not use them to trouble himself; therefore it is not spoken of. Again, the bodhisattva's wisdom enters deeply and penetrates the emptiness of all dharmas; he has no afflictions of any kind and only gathers merits of all kinds. For this reason, the eighteen elements and the twelve causes and conditions ought to have been spoken of.

Just so, within ‘matter’ such as form, there should be no joining with sarvajñā. Why? Because this sarvajñā cannot be found within the three times; it also cannot be found within ‘matter’ such as form—these are all the coming together of worldly causes and conditions, without any fixed own-nature.

The Six Perfections and the Thirty-seven Limbs of the Path Are Not Joined with Sarvajñā

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, the perfection of giving (dānapāramitā) is not joined with sarvajñā, because the perfection of giving cannot be seen; up to prajñāpāramitā it is likewise. The four foundations of mindfulness are not joined with sarvajñā, because the four foundations of mindfulness cannot be seen; up to the limbs of the eightfold noble path it is likewise.’

The Treatise Explains: The Difference between the Worldly and the World-transcending Six Perfections; the Thirty-seven Limbs Are Not Joined Because They Tend toward Nirvāṇa

Question: The five aggregates and so on are worldly dharmas and may well not be joined with sarvajñā; how is it that the six perfections are also not joined with it?

Answer: The six perfections are of two kinds: the first is worldly, the second is world-transcending. It is because of the worldly perfection of giving that it is said they are not joined; the world-transcending perfection of giving ought to be joined.

Furthermore, while the bodhisattva practises the six perfections, his afflictions, fetters, and outflows are not yet completely cut off, and he cannot be joined with the Buddha's sarvajñā.

Furthermore, the Buddha says that the six perfections are empty; they cannot even be seen—how much less are they joined with sarvajñā! The thirty-seven limbs of the path are likewise.

Question: These six perfections are mixed with the path and the mundane, therefore (they may be not joined); the thirty-seven limbs of the path are the path that tends toward nirvāṇa—how are they not joined?

Answer: The thirty-seven limbs of the path are the dharma of the two vehicles, solely for nirvāṇa; the bodhisattva is for the Buddha path, therefore they are not joined.

Question: In the Mahāyāna chapter there are also the thirty-seven limbs of the path, and they too are the bodhisattva's path; how are they not joined with sarvajñā?

Answer: Some bodhisattvas, because of a clinging mind, practise the thirty-seven limbs of the path and mostly dedicate them to nirvāṇa; therefore the Buddha says they are not joined.

Even the Buddha's Qualities Are Not ‘Joined’ with Sarvajñā: The Mark of Joining Cannot Be Found

‘The ten powers of the Buddha up to the eighteen unshared dharmas are not joined with sarvajñā, because the ten powers of the Buddha up to the eighteen unshared dharmas cannot be seen. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: The Buddha-dharmas Are of Three Kinds; Not Joined Because the Outflows and Fetters Are Not Yet Exhausted

The treatise-author explains: These ten powers up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, though wondrous dharmas, are practised for the sake of sarvajñā; because the bodhisattva's outflows and fetters are not yet completely cut off, they ought not to be joined with sarvajñā.

Furthermore, dharmas such as the ten powers of the Buddha are of three kinds: first, those practised by the bodhisattva—though he has not yet attained the Buddha path, he gradually cultivates them; second, those attained by the Buddha, which the bodhisattva seeks through recollection, imagining, and discrimination; third, those attained by the Buddha's mind. The first two kinds ought not to be joined; the last kind, though it could be joined, the bodhisattva has not yet attained, and therefore they are not joined.

Furthermore, because of emptiness they cannot be seen; because they cannot be seen, they are not joined. That is why it is said each time ‘because they cannot be seen’.

The Buddha Is Not Joined with Sarvajñā; Awakening Is Not Joined with Sarvajñā

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, the Buddha is not joined with sarvajñā, and sarvajñā is not joined with the Buddha; awakening is not joined with sarvajñā, and sarvajñā is not joined with awakening.’

The Treatise Explains: The Buddha Is a Person, Sarvajñā Is a Dharma; Awakening and Sarvajñā, Two Knowledges, Do Not Arise in One Mind

Question: The bodhisattva and the bodhisattva's dharmas may well not be joined with sarvajñā; how is it that the Buddha and awakening are also not joined with it?

Answer: The Buddha is a person, sarvajñā is a dharma; a person is a provisional name, a dharma is causes and conditions. Because beings, up to the knower and the seer, are all non-existent, the Buddha too is non-existent—the one who is supreme and foremost among beings is what is called a Buddha; therefore they are not joined.

Furthermore, it is because of attaining sarvajñā that one is called a Buddha. If a Buddha attains sarvajñā, then he was already a Buddha beforehand and would not need sarvajñā; if one who is not a Buddha attains sarvajñā, how then can it be said ‘the Buddha attains sarvajñā’? For this reason, it is produced by causes and conditions coming together, and one may not say that there is a before and an after.

Furthermore, apart from the Buddha there is no sarvajñā, and apart from sarvajñā there is no Buddha; because of attaining sarvajñā one is called a Buddha, and because it is possessed by the Buddha it is called sarvajñā.

Question: Because the Buddha is a person he may well not be joined; awakening is the unsurpassed path—how is it not joined?

Answer: Awakening is called the Buddha's wisdom; sarvajñā is called the Buddha's wisdom of all things. The knowledge of the ten powers is awakening; the eleventh, knowledge according to reality, is called sarvajñā—these two knowledges cannot arise in one mind.

Furthermore, these Buddha-dharmas such as the ten powers, and the Buddha's awakening, are all held by the bodhisattva through recollection, imagining, and discrimination and are not real; only the sarvajñā attained by the Buddha is real. Now this awakening is the bodhisattva's awakening; in his mind it is false and not yet real—how could it be joined with sarvajñā?

Furthermore, in this sūtra the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions of not being joined.

The Buddha Is Sarvajñā; Not Practising Form as Existent or as Non-existent, and So On through Eight Pairs

‘Why? The Buddha is sarvajñā, and sarvajñā is the Buddha; awakening is sarvajñā, and sarvajñā is awakening. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā and practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not practise form as existent and does not practise form as non-existent, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise; he does not practise form as permanent and does not practise form as impermanent, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise; he does not practise form as suffering and does not practise form as bliss, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise; he does not practise form as self and does not practise form as not-self, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise; he does not practise form as quiescent and does not practise form as not quiescent, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise; he does not practise form as empty and does not practise form as not empty, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise; he does not practise form as having marks and does not practise form as signless, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise; he does not practise form as having action and does not practise form as without action, and feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are likewise. When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not have such a thought as: “I practise prajñāpāramitā, I do not practise prajñāpāramitā, I neither practise nor do not practise prajñāpāramitā.” Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains the View of Existence and the View of Non-existence: The Two Views Break the Middle Way; Only by Leaving the Two Extremes and Walking the Middle Way Is One in Accord

The treatise-author explains: If the bodhisattva contemplates the five aggregates as neither existent nor non-existent, and does not cling even to this, then at that time he is in accord with prajñāpāramitā. Why? All the world clings to two views—existence and non-existence. Those who follow the stream of birth and death mostly cling to existence; those who go against the stream of birth and death mostly cling to non-existence; those with much view of self cling to existence; those with much wrong view cling to non-existence.

Furthermore, those with much of the four views cling to existence; those with much wrong view cling to non-existence. Those with much of the two poisons cling to existence; those with much ignorance cling to non-existence. Those who do not know that the five aggregates are gathered and arise from causes and conditions cling to existence; those who do not know their gathering and arising cling to non-existence. Because they keep close to evil friends and to the books of those of the outside paths with wrong views, some fall into annihilation, into the view that there is no offence and no merit—these people of the view of non-existence cling to non-existence; the rest cling to existence. Or there are beings who say that everything is empty and cling in their minds to this emptiness; because they cling to this emptiness, it is called ‘the view of non-existence’. Or there are beings who say that all dharmas known by the six faculties exist—this is ‘the view of existence’. Those with much craving and desire cling to the view of existence; those with much evil view cling to the view of non-existence. Beings such as these cling to the view of existence and the view of non-existence.

These two views are false and not real, and they break the middle way. It is like a person walking along a narrow path with deep water on one side and a great fire on the other: both sides bring death; clinging to existence and clinging to non-existence, both are loss. Why? If dharmas definitely and really existed, there would be no causes and conditions; if they arise from the coming together of causes and conditions, then these dharmas have no own-nature, and having no own-nature is emptiness! If the non-existence of dharmas were real, there would be no offence and no merit, no bondage and no release, and also none of the various distinctions among dharmas.

Furthermore, people of the view of existence and people of the view of non-existence oppose each other; because they oppose each other there is right and wrong; because of right and wrong they dispute together; because there is dispute, all kinds of fetters arise; because of the fetters, karma is produced; because karma is produced, the gates of the evil paths are opened; within the real mark there is no opposition, no right and wrong, no strife!

Furthermore, those who cling to existence grieve and are vexed if things are impermanent; those who cling to non-existence commit all kinds of offences and, after death, fall into hell and suffer. Those who cling to neither existence nor non-existence have none of these faults of every kind; one ought to abandon these two extremes, and then one attains what is real.

Furthermore, whether these five aggregates are permanent or impermanent—neither is right! Why? If the five aggregates were permanent, there would be no arising and no ceasing; because there is no arising and no ceasing, there would be no offence and no merit; because there is no offence and no merit, there would be no wholesome or unwholesome fruit of recompense, and the world would be like the indestructible mark of nirvāṇa. Who would believe such false speech! Before one's eyes one sees death and weeping—this is the impermanence of beings; like grasses and trees withering and falling, flowers and fruits wearing away—this is the impermanence of outer things; when the great kalpa comes to its end, everything is destroyed—this is great impermanence. By causes and conditions of all these kinds, these five aggregates as permanent cannot be found at all.

Furthermore, impermanence is used to refute permanence, yet impermanence ought not to be taken as right. Why? If dharmas had the mark of impermanence, perishing moment by moment, then the six sense-faculties could not grasp the six sense-objects. Why? Because neither the inner mind nor the outer objects stay put, there ought to be no apprehending of objects and no knowing, and also no causes, conditions, and fruits of recompense of cultivation! Because the causes and conditions are many, the fruits of recompense are also many—this matter would then not be established. Again, the view of permanence and the view of impermanence are taken up and disputed together. By causes and conditions of all these kinds, the five aggregates as impermanent cannot be found at all.

Suffering and bliss, self and not-self, empty or real, having marks and signless, having action and without action—these meanings are as has been said earlier in many places.

As for ‘the five aggregates are quiescent’: because they are produced by causes and conditions they have no own-nature; because they have no own-nature they are quiescent; because they are quiescent they are like nirvāṇa. Because the three poisons blaze, they are not quiescent; because the fire of impermanence burns, they are not quiescent; because one does not cling to the real mark of the three poisons, they are not quiescent; because the three poisons each have separate marks, they are not quiescent. This meaning was not said earlier, so it is said here now.

If a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is able in this way to leave the two extremes and walk the middle way, he does not cling even to ‘practising prajñāpāramitā’. Why? Because the bodhisattva cannot be found, and prajñāpāramitā also cannot be found. He does not cling to ‘not practising prajñāpāramitā’ either. Why? The other ordinary people cannot contemplate the real mark of all dharmas as the bodhisattva does—how could it be said ‘I do not practise prajñāpāramitā’? He does not cling to ‘practising and not practising’ either, because both have faults. This is called the mark of being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.

Practising Prajñā Not for the Sake of the Six Perfections, nor Even for Suchness, Dharma-nature, and the Limit of Reality

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of prajñāpāramitā, and does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of the perfection of giving, the perfection of morality, the perfection of patience, the perfection of vigour, or the perfection of meditation. He does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of the stage of avaivartika, does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of bringing beings to maturity, and does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of purifying a Buddha-world. He does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of the ten powers of the Buddha, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, and the eighteen unshared dharmas. He does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of inner emptiness, and does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of outer emptiness, inner-and-outer emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, the emptiness of the highest meaning, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, beginningless emptiness, the emptiness of dispersal, the emptiness of nature, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of specific marks, the emptiness of the unfindable, the emptiness of non-existent dharmas, the emptiness of existent dharmas, and the emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas. He does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of suchness, dharma-nature, and the limit of reality. Why? Because when this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not destroy the marks of dharmas. Practising in accord in this way is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: Not Destroying the Marks of Dharmas; Two Kinds of People, the Deeply Attached and the Unattached

Question: The six perfections up to suchness, dharma-nature, and the limit of reality—these are the Buddha-dharma. If the bodhisattva does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of this Buddha-dharma, what further dharma could serve as the aim of practising prajñāpāramitā?

Answer: It is just as the Buddha himself says here: ‘No dharma can be destroyed, because he does not destroy the marks of dharmas; nor does he discriminate: this is giving, this is stinginess, up to this is the three realms, this is the limit of reality.’

Furthermore, some bodhisattvas are deeply attached in mind to these wholesome dharmas, and because of this attachment they can produce offences; for the sake of such people it is said: ‘These six perfections up to the limit of reality are all empty, without own-nature, like a dream, like an illusion; do not give rise to clinging! The true bodhisattva does not practise for this aim.’ Some bodhisattvas, with minds attached to nothing, practise the six perfections up to the limit of reality; for the sake of such people it is said that one practises prajñāpāramitā for the sake of these matters. As is said in a later chapter: ‘For the sake of fulfilling the six perfections, up to for the sake of teaching and transforming beings and purifying a Buddha-world, one practises prajñāpāramitā.’

Practising Prajñā Not for the Sake of the Five Supernormal Powers

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of the supernormal power of going at will, and he does not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of the divine ear, for the sake of the knowledge of others' minds, for the sake of the knowledge of past lives, for the sake of the divine eye, or for the sake of the supernormal power of the exhaustion of the outflows. Why? When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not even see prajñāpāramitā—how much less does he see the bodhisattva's supernormal powers! Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: The Five Supernormal Powers Are Like a Bird's Two Wings; the Warning Is Given Because Those without Skilful Means Grow Arrogant

Question: Earlier, under ‘the perfection of meditation’, the five supernormal powers were already explained in detail; why are they spoken of again now?

Answer: There they were spoken of by their general mark, without listing their names; here they are spoken of by their particular marks.

Furthermore, the fruit of recompense of merit is precisely the five supernormal powers; the bodhisattva who attains these five supernormal powers can benefit beings widely.

Furthermore, one who has loving-kindness, compassion, and prajñāpāramitā but lacks the five supernormal powers is like a bird without its two wings, which cannot fly high; like a strong man without weapons of any kind entering the enemy's ranks; like a tree without flowers or fruit, of no benefit; like a dry channel without water, moistening nothing. For this reason the five supernormal powers are spoken of again, and that they are spoken of separately among the other immeasurable Buddha-dharmas is in every case without fault.

Question: If so, why does the Buddha say ‘do not practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of the five supernormal powers’?

Answer: There are many bodhisattvas without skilful means who, having attained the five supernormal powers, look down on other bodhisattvas, and their minds grow arrogant and self-exalting; it is said for this reason. Why? The bodhisattva does not cling even to prajñāpāramitā, the mother of the Buddhas—how much less to the five supernormal powers!

Not Thinking: ‘I Will Fly by Supernormal Power to the Ten Directions and Make Offerings to the Buddhas’

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not have such a thought as: “By the supernormal power of going at will, I shall fly to the east and make offerings to and revere Buddhas as many as the sands of the Ganges; and likewise to the south, west, and north, the four intermediate directions, above, and below.”

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not have such a thought as: “With the divine ear I shall hear the Dharma spoken by the Buddhas of the ten directions.” He does not have such a thought as: “With the knowledge of others' minds I shall know what beings of the ten directions are thinking in their minds.” He does not have such a thought as: “With the power of knowing past lives I shall know what beings of the ten directions did in former lives.” He does not have such a thought as: “With the divine eye I shall see beings of the ten directions dying here and being born there.” Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā, and he is also able to ferry across immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of beings.’

The Treatise Explains: Uprooting the View of Self, Crushing Arrogance; All Dharmas Are Like an Illusion, without Coming or Going

The treatise-author explains: Although the names of the five supernormal powers were given earlier, here now their functions are spoken of.

Question: Why does the bodhisattva not have such a thought as ‘By the supernormal power of going at will, I shall fly to the ten directions and make offerings to and revere Buddhas as many as the sands of the Ganges’?

Answer: Because he has already uprooted the root of the view of self; because he has already shattered the mountain of arrogance; because he has well cultivated the three gates of liberation and the three samādhi. Though the Buddha's body is wondrous, it too enters the three gates of liberation; it is like a hot golden ball: though one sees that its colour and form are beautiful, it may not be touched with the hand.

Again, all dharmas are like an illusion, like a conjuration, without coming and without going, without near and without far, without any fixed mark. As with a conjured person—who goes and who comes? Because he does not grasp at the marks of supernormal power, of lands, of this and that, of near and far, there is no fault!

If, before the Buddha, he is able to abide in meditative absorption, transform himself into immeasurable bodies, and go to the ten directions to make offerings to the Buddhas, and yet discriminate nothing, it is because he has already cut off love of the Dharma. The other supernormal powers are likewise.

The bodhisattva who attains these five supernormal powers, for the sake of making offerings to the Buddhas, transforms himself into immeasurable bodies and manifests great supernormal might, and in the three evil destinies of the worlds of the ten directions ferries across immeasurable beings, as is said in the chapter on Rebirth.

Evil Māra Cannot Find an Opening, the Buddhas Protect Him, and Grave Offences Are Received Lightly in This Life

‘Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is able to practise prajñāpāramitā in this way, evil Māra cannot find an opening; all kinds of worldly affairs go as he wishes; the Buddhas of the ten directions, each as many as the sands of the Ganges, all together protect this bodhisattva, so that he does not fall into the stages of the śrāvaka and the pratyekabuddha; the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven also all protect this bodhisattva and let no obstacle arise; whatever grave offences this bodhisattva has, he receives them lightly in the present life. Why? Because this bodhisattva-mahāsattva extends a universal mind of loving-kindness over beings. Śāriputra! When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains the Five Benefits: Not Clinging Because of Ultimate Emptiness; the Two Powers of Loving-kindness and Prajñā

The treatise-author explains: Now this bodhisattva is praised: practising prajñāpāramitā as described above, he gains great merit; this is called the fruit of recompense of the power of the bodhisattva's wisdom and merit, and he gains these five kinds of benefit.

Question: Māra is the lord of the desire realm; the bodhisattva is a human being with the fleshly eye who has not attained mastery—how is it that Māra cannot find an opening?

Answer: It is just as the Buddha himself says here: ‘Because the Buddhas and the great gods protect him.’

Furthermore, because this bodhisattva practises the emptiness of specific marks, which is ultimately not to be found, he clings to no dharma at all; because he does not cling, he has no lapse or error; because he has no lapse or error, Māra cannot find an opening. It is like a person whose body has no sores: even lying in poisonous powder, the poison cannot get in; if there is a small sore, he will die without doubt.

Again, this bodhisattva's mind does not cling to the Buddhas and his mind bears no hatred toward the Māras; therefore Māra cannot find an opening.

Furthermore, because the bodhisattva deeply enters the perfection of patience and the samādhi of loving-kindness, no outer evil can harm him—namely water, fire, blades and weapons, and so on.

As for ‘all kinds of worldly affairs’: these are what is needed to sustain life—namely managing one's livelihood, arranging marriages harmoniously, planting fruit trees, opening wells along open roads, setting up guest-houses, and handling affairs in accordance with the Dharma—all go as he wishes. If he wishes to build stūpas and monasteries to make great merit, if he makes great giving, if he wishes to preach the Dharma to teach, transform, and liberate beings, all go as he wishes. Worldly affairs of all these kinds, whether great or small, can all go as he wishes in accordance with the Dharma. Why? Because this bodhisattva has, life after life, gathered the causes and conditions of immeasurable merit and wisdom.

Furthermore, because this bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, his mind does not cling to any dharma; because his mind does not cling, his fetters grow thin; because his fetters grow thin, he can produce deep and thick wholesome roots; because deep and thick wholesome roots arise, what he vows goes as he wishes.

Furthermore, because this bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, the great gods all revere him and keep him in mind, and praise and extol his name; the nāgas, ghosts, and others, hearing the gods speak of him, also come and help to accomplish his undertakings; therefore all kinds of worldly affairs go as he wishes.

Furthermore, this bodhisattva is protected and kept in mind by the Buddhas and empowered by their majestic virtue, and so everything goes as he wishes.

Question: The minds of the Buddhas of the ten directions are impartial; why do they especially protect and keep in mind this bodhisattva?

Answer: Because this bodhisattva's wisdom and merit are great; although the minds of the Buddhas are impartial, it is fitting that they protect and keep in mind this bodhisattva, so as to encourage and spur on the others.

Again, because this bodhisattva has gained a share of the breath of the Buddha's wisdom, he can know good and evil distinctly; none rewards and cherishes good people more than the Buddha, and therefore the Buddha protects and keeps him in mind.

Furthermore, the Buddha protects and keeps him in mind because he does not want him to fall into the stage of the śrāvaka or the pratyekabuddha. Why? When he enters emptiness, the signless, and non-action, it is because the Buddha protects and keeps him in mind that he does not fall; it is like fish roe, which can grow because the mother fish protects and keeps it in mind, and which spoils if it is not protected and kept in mind.

As for ‘the great gods protect him’: they do not want him to lose the practice he cultivates, because the gods imitate the Buddha's protecting and keeping in mind.

Again, the gods protect and keep him in mind because the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, is attached to nothing at all, takes no pleasure in worldly pleasures, and wishes only to teach and transform beings, and so dwells in the world; knowing that he is noble, they protect and keep him in mind.

As for ‘whatever grave offences he has’: these are grave offences from former lives for which he ought to have entered hell; because he practises prajñāpāramitā, he receives them lightly in the present life. It is like a prisoner guilty of a grave offence who ought to be put to death: someone with power comes to protect him, and he receives only a whipping and nothing more. Again, it is like a prince who, though he commits a grave offence, has it removed by a light penalty, because he was born into the royal lineage; the bodhisattva is likewise: because he can practise this prajñāpāramitā and gain real wisdom, he is thereby born into the Buddha-lineage; because he is born into the Buddha-lineage, although he has grave offences, how could he receive them heavily?

Furthermore, it is like an iron vessel, which can float on water because it is hollow, and sinks if it is solid in the middle. The bodhisattva is likewise: because the mind of wisdom with which he practises prajñāpāramitā is empty like space, he does not sink under grave offences; ordinary people, having no wisdom, sink under grave offences.

Furthermore, here the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: the reason he gains the five kinds of merit is that he extends a universal mind of loving-kindness over beings.

Question: Earlier it was said ‘because he practises prajñāpāramitā, he is complete in five kinds of merit’; why is it now said ‘because he extends a universal mind of loving-kindness over beings’?

Answer: Of what can produce immeasurable merit, nothing surpasses loving-kindness; this loving-kindness arises from prajñāpāramitā and gains immeasurable benefit.

Furthermore, that evil Māra cannot find an opening, that he is protected and kept in mind by the Buddhas, that grave offences are received lightly in this present life—this is the power of prajñāpāramitā; that all kinds of worldly affairs go as he wishes and that the gods protect him—this is the power of great loving-kindness.

Furthermore, there are two kinds of object: first, beings; second, dharmas. If this bodhisattva takes beings as his object, it is the mind of loving-kindness; if he takes dharmas as his object, it is practising prajñāpāramitā. This loving-kindness arises from prajñāpāramitā and follows the teaching of prajñāpāramitā; therefore it is said that loving-kindness has no fault.

Swiftly Attaining the Gates of Dhāraṇī and Samādhi; Always Meeting the Buddhas Wherever He Is Born

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he swiftly attains all kinds of dhāraṇī gates and all kinds of samādhi gates. Wherever he is born he always meets the Buddhas, and until he attains unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening he is never apart from seeing the Buddha. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: The Cause Spoken of within the Fruit; Accord Is of Two Kinds

The treatise-author explains: ‘The gates of dhāraṇī and samādhi’ are as said earlier.

As for ‘swiftly attains’: because of the causes and conditions of merit his mind is soft and pliant; because he practises the deep prajñāpāramitā, his mind of wisdom is keen; for this reason he attains swiftly. As said above, because there are the five kinds of merit, he attains swiftly.

As for ‘wherever he is born he always meets the Buddhas’: apart from prajñāpāramitā, the mother of the Buddhas, this bodhisattva is attached by love to none of all the other things of every kind; therefore wherever he is born he always meets the Buddhas. It is like a person who always delights in fighting: he is born into the Reviving Hell and there again takes up blades and staves to harm others. Because of much sexual desire, one constantly receives a womb, and is again born as a lustful bird. Because of much hatred, one is born again as a venomous beast, of the kind of snakes and vipers. People of much delusion are like moths that fling themselves into a flame, insects hidden in the earth, and so on. These bodhisattvas, because they love and revere the Buddha and the real-mark prajñāpāramitā, and because of the karma of cultivating the samādhi of recollecting the Buddha, always meet the Buddhas wherever they are born.

Furthermore, it is as said earlier under ‘the bodhisattva vows to see the Buddhas’.

As for ‘never apart from seeing the Buddha’: again, a person may see a Buddha in one life and never meet one again. As in the time of Vipaśyin Buddha, the king's brahmin preceptor, though he got to see the Buddha and the Saṅgha, reviled them with harsh speech, saying: ‘These people are like animals; they do not recognise a good man—they do not rise when they see me.’ Because of this offence, for ninety-one kalpas he fell among the animals.

Furthermore, because he deeply recollects the Buddha, he is never apart from the Buddha; because life after life he has well cultivated the samādhi of recollecting the Buddha; because he does not lose the bodhisattva mind; because he makes the vow not to be apart from the Buddha; because he vows to be born in an age that has a Buddha; because he plants the karma of meeting the Buddha and the condition continues unbroken—up to unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, he is never apart from seeing the Buddha.

Question: This is a matter of the fruit of recompense; how can it be called ‘being in accord with prajñāpāramitā’?

Answer: Because of being in accord with prajñāpāramitā one meets the Buddha; this is because at times the cause is spoken of within the fruit. Accord is of two kinds: first, accord of mind; second, what fits and accords with the bodhisattva's practice, namely being born in a good place, meeting the Buddhas, always hearing the Dharma, and right recollection—this is called accord.

Not Thinking: A Dharma Is Joined or Not Joined, Equal or Not Equal, with a Dharma

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not have such a thought as: “There are dharmas that, with dharmas, are either joined or not joined, either equal or not equal.” Why? This bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not see this dharma, with other dharmas, as either joined or not joined, either equal or not equal. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: Dharmas Are Not Joined in the Least Part; Equal and Unequal Both Cannot Be Seen

The treatise-author explains: Among all dharmas, no dharma is joined with a dharma. Why? Because dharmas are not joined in even the smallest part. It is like two fingers with four faces: one face of them is joined, three faces are not joined; since the unjoined are the greater part, why is it not called not joined?

Question: Because there is a place where they are joined, it is called joined; how can it be said ‘not joined’?

Answer: The place where they are joined is not the finger itself but one part of the finger; it is only one part of the finger, and there is no further finger-dharma besides. Because the two fingers come close to each other, they are provisionally named joined; there is no further dharma of joining besides.

Furthermore, colour, smell, taste, and touch are collectively named a finger; but only touch has the power of joining, while the other three have no joining. For this reason one may not say that fingers are joined.

Furthermore, it is like different kinds in the same place, which are not called joined, because their marks each differ; dharmas are likewise: the mark of earth is in earth, the mark of water is in water, the mark of fire is in fire—their own-natures thus each differ, and they are not called joined.

For this reason it is said ‘no dharma is with a dharma joined, either joined or not joined’.

As for ‘equal’: because all dharmas have one and the same mark, they are called ‘equal’. For all have marks, all have the mark of impermanence, all have the mark of suffering, all have the mark of emptiness and not-self, all have the mark of neither arising nor ceasing—because in this matter there is no difference, they are called ‘equal’.

As for ‘not equal’: it is because each has its separate mark. Like the mark of form and the mark of the formless, the mark of hardness and the mark of wetness—such things, each differing and not the same, are called ‘not equal’.

The bodhisattva does not see equal or not equal. Why? Because all dharmas are non-existent; because they are empty of own-nature there is no dharma; because there is no dharma they cannot be seen; because they cannot be seen there is neither equal nor not equal.

‘Equal’ and ‘joined’ are practising in accord; ‘not joined’ and ‘not equal’ are not in accord.

Question: Why is accord not spoken of to the end first, and only then praised?

Answer: Because listeners grow weary and slack; therefore the Buddha praises the merit of the fruit of recompense, so that the minds of those who hear may gain delight.

Not Thinking of Swiftly Attaining Dharma-nature; Not Seeing Any Dharma That Goes Outside Dharma-nature

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not have such a thought as: “I shall swiftly attain dharma-nature, or not attain it.” Why? Because dharma-nature is not a mark that can be attained. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not see any dharma that goes outside dharma-nature. Practising in accord in this way is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: Dharma-nature Is Signless, Neither Far nor Near; When Ignorance Is Removed, the Real Nature Appears Again

The treatise-author explains: ‘Dharma-nature’ is the real mark of all dharmas. Removing ignorance and fetters of every kind from the mind, and with pure, real contemplation attaining the original nature of all dharmas—this is called ‘dharma-nature’. ‘Nature’ is the name for what is real; because of beings' wrong contemplation they are bound, and because of right contemplation they are released.

The bodhisattva does not have such a thought as: ‘I shall swiftly attain dharma-nature.’ Why? Because dharma-nature is signless and has no far or near. Nor does he say: ‘I shall attain it after a long, long time.’ Why? Because dharma-nature has neither slowness nor length of time. The meaning of ‘dharma-nature’ is as said in the meaning of suchness, dharma-nature, and the limit of reality.

The treatise-author further explains: Because ignorance and afflictions of every kind enter into all dharmas, they make dharmas lose their own-nature; because their own-nature is lost, all are crooked and not upright. When the sage removes ignorance and the rest, the real nature of dharmas becomes manifest again; it is like dark clouds covering the pure nature of space: when the dark clouds are removed, the pure nature of space appears.

If there were a dharma that ignorance could not enter, that dharma would go outside dharma-nature; but this is not so! No dharma can go outside ignorance; therefore the bodhisattva does not see any dharma that goes outside dharma-nature. It is like the many streams that all return to the sea; like the minor kings enfeoffed in every region, who all belong to the wheel-turning sage king; like the many small lights, which all belong to the sun.

Not Thinking: Dharma-nature Discriminates Dharmas; This Dharma Can Attain Dharma-nature; Dharma-nature Is Not Joined with Emptiness

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not have such a thought as: “Dharma-nature discriminates dharmas.” Practising in accord in this way is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not have such a thought as: “This dharma can attain dharma-nature, or not attain it.” Why? This bodhisattva does not see that by this dharma one can attain dharma-nature, or not attain it. Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises in accord in this way, this is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, dharma-nature is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with dharma-nature. Practising in accord in this way is called being in accord with prajñāpāramitā.’

The Treatise Explains: What Accords with Dharma-nature Is Good; Prajñā and Dharma-nature Are Two Dharmas without Difference

Question: Why does he not have such a thought as ‘dharma-nature discriminates dharmas’?

Answer: Because clinging to dharma-nature and prizing dharma-nature, by these causes and conditions, give rise to fetters of every kind; therefore he does not have such a thought.

Question: If dharma-nature is empty, of one mark, signless, how does it discriminate dharmas?

Answer: Having attained this dharma-nature, having destroyed ignorance and afflictions of every kind and broken through to the real mark of all dharmas, only then does the mind become pure and wisdom become clear, knowing the reality of all dharmas; what accords with dharma-nature is good, what does not accord with dharma-nature is unwholesome. As when the brahmin ascetic Vatsa asked the Buddha, the World-Honored One: ‘Between heaven and earth, is there good and evil, fair and foul?’ The Buddha said: ‘There is.’ Vatsa said: ‘I have long since taken refuge in the Buddha; please explain it well for me!’ The Buddha said: ‘There are three kinds of evil and three kinds of good; ten kinds of evil and ten kinds of good, namely: greed is evil, the removal of greed is good; hatred and delusion are evil, the removal of hatred and the removal of delusion are good. Killing is evil, the removal of killing is good; up to wrong view is evil, the removal of wrong view is good. One who can distinguish good and evil as they really are is my disciple, enters dharma-nature, and is called one who has attained the path.’

The treatise-author further explains: What is ‘attaining dharma-nature’? Practising the limbs of the eightfold noble path and attaining the real mark of all dharmas, namely nirvāṇa—this is called ‘attaining dharma-nature’.

Furthermore, ‘nature’ is the name for the real mark of all dharmas, and ‘dharma’ is the name for prajñāpāramitā. The bodhisattva does not have such a thought as: ‘By practising prajñāpāramitā I attain this nature of all dharmas.’ Why? Prajñāpāramitā and the nature of all dharmas—these two dharmas are without difference, because both are ultimately empty; how could prajñāpāramitā be used to reach dharma-nature?

The treatise-author further explains: The bodhisattva does not contemplate dharma-nature as emptiness, and does not contemplate emptiness as dharma-nature. Practising emptiness one attains dharma-nature; taking dharma-nature as object one attains emptiness; for this reason there is no difference. Why? Because these two are ultimately empty.

The Eye-element up to the Mind-consciousness-element Are Not Joined with Emptiness; Accord with Emptiness Is Called the Foremost Accord

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, the eye-element is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with the eye-element; the form-element is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with the form-element; the eye-consciousness-element is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with the eye-consciousness-element; up to the mind-element is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with the mind-element; the dharma-element is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with the dharma-element; the mind-consciousness-element is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with the mind-consciousness-element. For this reason, Śāriputra! this accord with emptiness is called the foremost accord.’

The Treatise Explains: The Eye Is Existent, Emptiness Non-existent—How Could They Be Joined? Emptiness Is the Profound Treasury of the Buddhas of the Ten Directions, Hence Foremost

The treatise-author explains: As for ‘the eye-element is not joined with emptiness, and emptiness is not joined with the eye-element’: this says that the eye is existent and emptiness is non-existent—how could emptiness and existence be joined?

Furthermore, the bodhisattva discriminates by causes and conditions of every kind: when this eye is scattered, broken up, and destroyed to the end, the eye is then empty; in emptiness there is not even the name of the eye; it is because of relying on the root that there is ‘the eye is empty’. Emptiness too has no discrimination: this is the emptiness of the eye, this is the emptiness of what is not the eye. This is precisely the eye's not being joined with emptiness.

Again, emptiness does not arise from the causes and conditions of the eye. Why? Because these two dharmas are empty of themselves from the beginning. Up to the mind-consciousness-element it is likewise.

Question: Why are the five aggregates and other dharmas not spoken of here, but only the eighteen elements?

Answer: They ought to have been spoken of! At times those who recite and copy the text have forgotten and lost parts of it. Again, some say: if the eighteen elements are spoken of, all dharmas are entirely included. Some beings are confused about mind and form, and not confused about mental dharmas; they ought to hear of the eighteen elements and be ferried across, and therefore only the eighteen elements are spoken of.

Question: Why is it called the foremost accord?

Answer: Emptiness is the profound treasury of the Buddhas of the ten directions, the single gate of nirvāṇa; there is no other gate that can break through all wrong views and idle discourse; this accord cannot be spoiled and cannot be broken; therefore it is called foremost.

Furthermore, the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions of its being foremost, namely what is said next.

The Bodhisattva Who Practises Emptiness Does Not Fall into the Two Stages; Accord with Emptiness Surpasses Other Accords; Practising Emptiness Gives Rise to Great Loving-kindness and Compassion and Not to the Six Evil Minds

‘Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises emptiness does not fall into the stages of the śrāvaka and the pratyekabuddha; he can purify a Buddha-land, bring beings to maturity, and swiftly attain unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening. Śāriputra! Among all accords, accord with prajñāpāramitā is the very foremost, the most honoured, the most excellent, the most wondrous; nothing can surpass it! Why? This bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises accord with prajñāpāramitā, namely emptiness, the signless, and non-action; you should know that this bodhisattva is no different from one who has received a prediction, or is near to receiving a prediction. Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who is in accord in this way can do deep and thick benefit for immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of beings. This bodhisattva-mahāsattva also does not have such a thought as: “I am in accord with prajñāpāramitā; the Buddhas will give me a prediction; I shall be near to receiving a prediction; I shall purify a Buddha-land; I attain unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening and shall turn the Dharma wheel.” Why? This bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not see any dharma that goes outside dharma-nature, nor does he see any dharma that practises prajñāpāramitā, nor does he see any dharma that receives a prediction from the Buddhas, nor does he see any dharma that attains unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening. Why? When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not give rise to the notion of a self, the notion of a being, up to the notion of a knower and of a seer. Why? Because beings ultimately neither arise nor cease, beings have no arising and no ceasing; if a dharma has no mark of arising and mark of ceasing, how could this dharma practise prajñāpāramitā? Thus, Śāriputra! Because the bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not see beings, he practises prajñāpāramitā; because beings are not received, because beings are empty, because beings cannot be found, because beings are apart, he practises prajñāpāramitā. Śāriputra! Among all accords, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's very foremost accord is accord with emptiness; this accord with emptiness surpasses the other accords. When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises emptiness in this way, he can give rise to great loving-kindness and great compassion. When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises this accord, he does not give rise to a mind of stinginess, does not give rise to a mind of breaking the precepts, does not give rise to a mind of hatred, does not give rise to a mind of laziness, does not give rise to a scattered mind, does not give rise to a mind without wisdom.’

The Treatise Explains, Drawing the Section to a Close: Two Kinds of Emptiness; Sharp and Dull Faculties, Like One Predicted and Near to Prediction; Four Phrases on Beings; Breaking Stinginess without Breaking Giving

The treatise-author explains: As for ‘does not fall into the stages of the śrāvaka and the pratyekabuddha’: accord with emptiness is of two kinds: first, mere emptiness; second, the emptiness of the unfindable. One who practises only mere emptiness falls into the stages of the śrāvaka and the pratyekabuddha; one who practises the emptiness of the unfindable finds even emptiness not to be found, and so has nowhere to fall. Again, there are two kinds of emptiness: first, emptiness without skilful means, which falls into the two stages; second, emptiness with skilful means, which falls nowhere and goes straight on to unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening. Furthermore, if one originally has a deep and thick mind of compassion, one does not fall on entering emptiness; without the mind of great compassion one falls. By causes and conditions such as these, he does not fall into the two stages.

As for ‘can purify a Buddha-world and bring beings to maturity’: the bodhisattva, abiding in this accord with emptiness, is no longer obstructed by anything; he teaches and transforms beings, leading them to practise the ten wholesome courses of action and all wholesome dharmas. Because of the causes and conditions of beings' practising wholesome dharmas, the Buddha-land is pure; because they do not kill, lifespans are long; because they do not plunder and do not steal, the Buddha-land is abundant and at ease, and things arrive as soon as they are thought of. When beings practise wholesome dharmas in such ways, the Buddha-land becomes adorned.

Question: When beings are taught and transformed the Buddha-land becomes pure; why is it spoken of separately?

Answer: Although beings practise wholesome dharmas, it still requires the causes and conditions of the power of the bodhisattva's practice and vows, dedication, and skilful means for the Buddha-land to become pure; it is like the strength of an ox pulling a cart, which still requires someone to drive it before it can reach where it is meant to go; for this reason it is spoken of separately.

As for ‘swiftly attains’: practising this accord with emptiness, he has no obstruction and can swiftly attain unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening.

Question: First ‘accord with emptiness’ is spoken of, now ‘accord with prajñāpāramitā’ is spoken of, and afterwards ‘accord with the signless and non-action’ is spoken of—what is the difference?

Answer: There are two kinds of emptiness: first, the emptiness of prajñā; second, emptiness that is not of prajñā. When ‘accord with emptiness’ was spoken of first, listeners doubted, thinking ‘it is the emptiness of everything’; so it is said that this is ‘the emptiness of prajñāpāramitā’. Again, some doubted: ‘Only emptiness is said to be foremost; are the signless and non-action not foremost?’ Therefore it is said: ‘Accord with emptiness, the signless, and non-action is also foremost.’ Why? Emptiness is the signless, and if signless it is non-action; thus they are one, and only the names differ. Because it is the highest, it is called ‘most honoured’; because it breaks existence, it is called ‘most excellent’; because one who attains this accord no longer delights in anything else, it is ‘most wondrous’. As among all beings the Buddha is unsurpassed, among all dharmas nirvāṇa is unsurpassed, among all conditioned dharmas practising in accord with wholesome dharmas is ‘unsurpassed’. The rest of the meaning is as said in the chapter Praising Prajñā.

Question: If one can practise such an accord with emptiness, he ought to receive a prediction; how can it be said ‘no different from one who has received a prediction, or near to receiving a prediction’?

Answer: This bodhisattva is newly practising the path, has a body of flesh, has not yet attained the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas, and has not yet attained the pratyutpanna samādhi; only because of the power of wisdom can he in this way discriminate and enter deeply into emptiness; the Buddha praises the merit of his entering emptiness, and so it is said ‘no different from one who has received a prediction’. There are three kinds of bodhisattva—those who have already received a prediction, those who are like ones who have received a prediction, and those who are near to receiving a prediction. Those who have already received a prediction are as said in the Avaivartika chapter; these three kinds are as said here.

Question: Since accord is thus said to be foremost and unsurpassed, why is he not given a prediction?

Answer: Because his other merits, skilful means, meditative absorptions, and so on have not yet been gathered—he has only wisdom—therefore he is not yet given a prediction. Furthermore, although this bodhisattva has sharp faculties and wisdom, because his other merits are not yet ripe, on hearing a prediction given face to face he might give rise to arrogance; therefore he is not yet given a prediction; the reason he is praised is to encourage and spur on his mind. A person of sharp faculties who practises this accord with emptiness is no different from one who has received a prediction; a person of dull faculties who practises this accord with emptiness is near to receiving a prediction.

To enable beings always to gain peace and security and to attain nirvāṇa—this is called ‘benefit’. Again, there are two kinds of benefit: first, freeing from suffering; second, giving happiness. Again, there are two kinds: extinguishing beings' bodily suffering and mental suffering. Again, there are three kinds: the happiness of the gods, the happiness of humans, and the happiness of nirvāṇa. Again, there are three kinds: leaving the three realms, and entering the three vehicles. In this way the bodhisattva-mahāsattva benefits beings to an immeasurable asaṃkhyeya degree. The meaning of ‘beings’ is as said earlier.

When worldly people have great achievements, they give rise to an arrogant mind and seek reward from others; because they seek reward, it becomes impure. The bodhisattva is not so: though he is in accord with prajñāpāramitā and benefits immeasurable beings, he has no thought of self and no arrogance, and so seeks no reward for his deeds; it is like the great earth, which though its service in benefiting the myriad things is deep and heavy, seeks no reward for it. For this reason it is said that this bodhisattva does not have such a thought as: ‘I am in accord with prajñā; the Buddhas will give me a prediction, or I shall be near to receiving a prediction; I shall purify a Buddha-land, attain the unsurpassed path, and turn the Dharma wheel.’ The meaning of ‘turning the Dharma wheel’ is as said earlier.

Question: What dharma goes outside dharma-nature?

Answer: What the Buddha speaks of here is precisely the one who practises prajñāpāramitā. The one who practises prajñāpāramitā is the bodhisattva; ‘the knower and the seer’ are beings. Within dharma-nature, beings turn into dharma-nature; for this reason the bodhisattva himself gives rise to no arrogant mind, seeks no share of gratitude from beings, and does not see the Buddhas giving him a prediction. Just as the bodhisattva is empty, so too is the Buddha; just as the practitioner is empty, so too is the one who attains unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening empty.

Why? The Buddha himself says: ‘When a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not give rise to the notion of a being, up to the notion of a knower and of a seer.’ When the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not even give rise to the notion of dharmas—how much less the notion of beings!

Why? The Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: ‘These beings ultimately do not arise; because they do not arise, they do not cease.’ If a dharma neither arises nor ceases, it is precisely the mark of dharma-nature, and dharma-nature is precisely prajñāpāramitā—how could it be prajñāpāramitā practising prajñāpāramitā?

What the bodhisattva calls ‘beings are not received’ means that the soul-self is not received; there is only a self that is falsely reckoned and clung to. ‘Beings are empty’ means that it is because the dharma of beings is without anything at all. ‘Beings cannot be found’ means that it is because, sought with real wisdom, they cannot be found. ‘Beings are apart’ means that it is because all dharmas are apart from their own marks. All dharmas being apart from their own marks is like fire being apart from the mark of heat and so on, as explained in detail under ‘the emptiness of marks’.

‘The foremost accord surpasses the other accords’ is as said above.

The bodhisattva, practising this emptiness of beings and emptiness of dharmas and entering deeply into accord with emptiness, recalls his original vow to ferry beings across; seeing beings mad, confused, deluded, and inverted, giving rise to clinging of every kind toward empty things, he then gives rise to the mind of great compassion: ‘Though I understand this matter, other people do not know it.’ Because of teaching and transforming them, he gives rise to great loving-kindness and great compassion.

He is also able never to give rise to the dharmas that ruin the six perfections. Why? The bodhisattva of the first arousing of the mind practises the six perfections mixed with the six evils; therefore the six perfections do not increase; because they do not increase, he cannot swiftly attain the path. Now, knowing the marks of all dharmas, he uproots these six evil dharmas. Why? The bodhisattva knows that giving is wholesome, and that the stingy mind is unwholesome and can make one fall among the hungry ghosts and into poverty. Though he knows that stinginess and greed are like this, yet because he cherishes his own body and craves the pleasures of the world, he still gives rise to a stingy mind. This bodhisattva can give light things but cannot give heavy things; he can give outer things but cannot give inner things. Because he clings to a self and clings to a recipient, and because he grasps at marks and clings to wealth, for this reason he ruins the perfection of giving; although he gives something, it is not pure. Because this bodhisattva practises accord with emptiness, he does not see that there is a self, nor does he see worldly pleasure—how could he give rise to clinging and ruin the perfection of giving!

Question: If it is because he does not see a self and does not see worldly pleasure that he does not ruin it, he also ought not to see giving—how then does he practise giving?

Answer: Although this bodhisattva does not see giving, he gives with a pure, empty mind, having this thought: ‘This giving is empty and without anything at all; I give because beings need it.’ It is like a small child who takes earth to be gold and silver: the elder does not see it as gold and silver, and so gives it as the child wishes, and in the end gives nothing at all. The other five dharmas are likewise.

For this reason, though both are equally empty, he breaks stinginess and does not break giving. Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, abiding in this accord with emptiness, is able never to give rise to these six evil minds.

Śāriputra Asks: From Where Does the Bodhisattva Who Cultivates Prajñā Die and Come, and Where Does He Go?

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises prajñāpāramitā in this way and is able to be in accord with prajñā in this way—from where did he die before coming to be born here? And when he dies from here, where will he go to be reborn?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘A bodhisattva who cultivates prajñā in this way and is able to be in accord with it in this way—some die in the Buddha-lands of other quarters and come to be born here, some die in the Tuṣita Heaven and come to be born here, and some die in the human path and come to be born here.

‘Śāriputra! Those who come from the Buddha-lands of other quarters are quickly able to be in accord with prajñāpāramitā; because they are in accord, when they give up their former body and come to be born here, all kinds of deep and wondrous essentials of the Dharma appear before them, and afterwards they are again able to be in accord with prajñā, and wherever they are born they are always able to meet the Buddhas.

‘Śāriputra! There is the bodhisattva bound to one more birth, who dies in the Tuṣita Heaven and comes to be born here; this bodhisattva does not lose the six perfections, and wherever he is born, all the dhāraṇī gates and all the samādhi gates are able to appear before him swiftly.

‘Śāriputra! There are also bodhisattvas who die among humans and are born again among humans; apart from the avaivartika, bodhisattvas of this kind are of duller faculties, cannot swiftly be in accord with prajñā, and the dhāraṇī gates and samādhi gates also cannot appear before them swiftly.’

Beings Are Ultimately Empty, So Why Still Ask “Whence Do They Come, Whither Do They Go”?—Answered by the Two Truths

What follows is the treatise's explanation.

Question: In prajñāpāramitā, beings are ultimately not to be found. As was said in the previous chapter: ‘Śāriputra! All beings are not to be found; even the various other names for beings—life-holder, living one, and so on up to knower and seer—are all empty and without real substance.’ Since this is so, why is it asked here, ‘whence do they come, whither do they go’? Another name for beings is precisely bodhisattva; since beings do not exist, bodhisattvas do not exist either; and the sūtra also says that a bodhisattva is only a name and has no real dharma. Why does Śāriputra ask this question?

Answer: In the Buddha's Dharma there are two truths: the first is worldly truth, the second is the truth of the highest meaning. In terms of worldly truth, it is said that there are beings; in terms of the truth of the highest meaning, it is said that beings are without anything at all.

Beings can moreover be divided into two kinds: those who know the mark of names and those who do not know the mark of names—just as when a secret password is set up in an army, some know it and some do not. They can also be divided into two kinds: those who are beginners and those who have trained long; those who cling and those who do not cling; those who are able to know the intent of others and those who are not. For those who do not know the mark of names, are beginners, cling, and do not know the intent of others, it is said, ‘there are no beings’; for those who know the mark of names, have trained long, do not cling, and are able to know the intent of others, it is said, ‘there are beings’.

Śāriputra, by the clarity of the divine eye, sees the births and deaths, the good and evil, of the beings of the six paths, and has no doubt about this; it is only that he does not know those bodhisattvas who come from immeasurable asaṃkhyeya worlds of other quarters, and so he asks. Again, there are great bodhisattvas who die from here and are born in immeasurable asaṃkhyeya Buddha-lands of other quarters; this is something Śāriputra's divine eye cannot see, and so he asks.

Furthermore, there are śrāvakas who see the bodhisattva cultivating the six perfections and long abiding in the midst of birth and death, who, because his afflictions are not yet exhausted, accumulates all kinds of worldly scriptures, inner and outer, yet does not realise and enter the limit of reality, and still has not escaped birth, old age, sickness, and death; and so, with pity and also with contempt, they say: ‘When these people die, since the three poisons are not yet exhausted, where will they fall? As the Buddha has said, ordinary people always keep the gates of the three evil paths open; in the three good paths they are only passing guests, while in the three evil places it is as if they had come home. The power of the three poisons is strong, and the sinful deeds accumulated through immeasurable past kalpas are thick, yet they do not take nirvāṇa; they will undergo the host of sufferings—truly pitiable!’ People of the small vehicle such as these pity and belittle the bodhisattva in just this way. Śāriputra, as the foremost great general of the Dharma among all the śrāvakas, knows that there is such a thing and wishes to make beings give rise to a mind of reverence toward the bodhisattva, and so he asks.

The Buddha then answers with three matters: the first is coming to be born from the Buddha-lands of other quarters, the second is coming from the Tuṣita Heaven, the third is coming from within the human path.

The Distinctions among the Three Places of Origin: Why the Tuṣita Heaven Alone Is Named and the Evil Paths Are Not Listed

Question: Those who come from the Buddha-lands of other quarters, because they are far away, Śāriputra does not know; but those who come from the Tuṣita Heaven and from within the human path—why does he not know them either? Answer: Śāriputra did not know only those who come from the Buddha-lands of other quarters, and so he asked; the Buddha then made distinctions according to what was fitting and answered that there are three places from which one comes to be born.

Question: Again, there are six paths in the world; why, among the gods, is coming from the Tuṣita Heaven specially spoken of, while within the human path the places are not distinguished in detail, and for those who come from the Buddha-lands of other quarters the path of gods and the path of humans are not distinguished either? Answer: Among the six destinies, three paths are evil paths; those who come from the evil paths, because of the causes and conditions of undergoing suffering, are slow and dull of mind and not equal to attaining the path, and so they are not spoken of.

Question: Again, among those who come from the three evil paths there are also some who attain the path. Like Śāriputra's great disciple, the bhikṣu Ox-Foot, who was born among oxen for five hundred lives and at last gained a human body with feet still like an ox's, yet realised arhatship; and again the bhikṣu Motouposhita, who was born among monkeys for five hundred lives and at last gained a human body and realised arhatship with the three clear knowledges and six supernormal powers, only he still liked to leap and jump, because of residual habit. These all attained the path; why is it said they are not equal to it? Answer: Although there are some who attain the path, they are few and not worth mentioning. Moreover, such people in former lives had deeply planted roots of goodness for nirvāṇa, and fell into the evil paths only because of some small error; once their sin was repaid and their roots of goodness had ripened, they attained the fruit of the path. What is spoken of here is not the śrāvaka path, but the sequence of former and later bodies of one who heads straight for unsurpassed awakening. It is like this: arising from a defiled mind, one cannot pass directly into the undefiled; in between there must be a wholesome defiled mind. Because the undefiled mind is precious, it is said that people who come out of the three evil paths are not equal to directly obtaining, in sequence, the mind of unsurpassed awakening. Gods, humans, and asuras are not like this.

The fetters of the lower three heavens are sharp and deep; the fetters of the upper two heavens are deep but not sharp; the fetters of the Tuṣita Heaven are neither deep nor sharp. Why is the Tuṣita Heaven alone spoken of? Because there a bodhisattva is always teaching the Dharma; from the other heavens some may come, but because they are rare they are not spoken of. Of the gods of the form realm, those who have attained the path no longer come down, and those who have not attained the path are attached to the taste of meditation and do not come down; because they relish that taste, their wisdom is dull, and so they are not spoken of. The asuras are the same as the lower two heavens and are not spoken of either.

Those who come from the Buddha-lands of other quarters come to be born here from before the seats of the Buddhas, and their faculties are keen and sharp. Why? Because they have removed the sins of immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas, and have also met the Buddhas, who instructed them according to their minds—like a knife sharpened on a good stone; and furthermore, because they constantly hear and recite prajñāpāramitā and rightly keep it in mind, they become sharper still. These causes and conditions make the bodhisattva's mind sharp. Those who come from among humans are the Buddha's disciples here who have heard prajñā and accumulated merit, who give up the body and are born again here or in another country; although there is no Buddha in the world, they meet the Buddha's Dharma, hear and receive it, write it out, rightly keep it in mind, and according to their strength cultivate merit and wisdom. Although the faculties of such people are dull, they are still equal to receiving prajñā; it is only because they have not seen a present Buddha that their minds are dull. Those who come from the Buddha-lands of other quarters have sharp faculties, and when they cultivate prajñā they are swiftly in accord with it; because they are in accord they always meet the Buddhas; the causes and conditions of meeting the Buddhas are as said before.

Question: Again, in the Tuṣita Heaven, why is only the one bound to one more birth spoken of, and not those bound to two or three more births? Answer: The human body is the place where sinful deeds, fetters, and afflictions gather; only a great bodhisattva dwells in it without being stained or burdened by it; as when a goose enters the water, the water cannot wet it, so too the bodhisattva is not stained by any worldly dharma. The Buddha himself stated its causes and conditions: ‘He does not lose the six perfections, and the dhāraṇī gates and samādhi gates swiftly appear before him.’ This bodhisattva ought to benefit beings in this world, while the other bodhisattvas are distributed through the ten directions; it is like this: when a person of great wisdom is already in one place, the other great wise ones go to other places; and so they are not spoken of. Again, some say that only the great one is mentioned, without being limited to the lesser. Again, some say that those who come to be born from the other heavens will be spoken of at length elsewhere. As for those who die among humans and are born among humans, they are not equal to the two places above; because in the human body the earth element is predominant, the body is heavy and the mind dull, and mind and the mental factors turn according to the strength or weakness of the body; and also because they are born through the causes and conditions of all kinds of deeds and fetters. Those who come from the two places, other quarters and the Tuṣita Heaven, are dharma-body bodhisattvas, who transform their bodies without measure to ferry beings across, and only so come to be born here; those who come from within the human path are all of fleshly body.

Question: Again, the avaivartika bodhisattva does not receive a body because of fetters and deeds; why is he still classed within the human path? Answer: He comes to be born here and attains avaivartika here, and has not yet given up the fleshly body; because his faculties are dull, the dhāraṇī and samādhi gates cannot appear before him swiftly, and therefore he also cannot swiftly be in accord with prajñā.

The Buddha Answers at Length about Later Lives: From One Buddha-land to Another Buddha-land, Never Apart from the Buddhas

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! As for what you asked, “when a bodhisattva in accord with prajñā dies from here, where will he be born”—such a bodhisattva goes from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, always meets the Buddhas, and is never apart from the Buddhas.

‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who, without skilful means, enters the first meditation and so on up to the fourth meditation, and also cultivates the six perfections; because this bodhisattva has attained meditative absorption, he is born in a long-life heaven, and when his lifespan there comes to its end he comes again to be born here, gains a human body, and meets the Buddhas, only his faculties are not sharp.

‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who enters the first meditation and so on up to the fourth meditation and also cultivates prajñā, yet, because he does not use skilful means, he gives up the meditations and is born in the desire realm; the faculties of this bodhisattva are also dull.

‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who enters the four meditations, the four immeasurables, and the four formless absorptions, cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eightfold noble path, and practises the ten powers and so on up to great kindness and great compassion; this bodhisattva, by the power of skilful means, is not born according to the meditations, not born according to the immeasurable minds, not born according to the four formless absorptions, but receives birth where there is a Buddha, and is never apart from the practice of prajñā. Such a bodhisattva will realise unsurpassed awakening in the Auspicious Kalpa.’

Why Later Lives Are Spoken of at Length: Is There or Is There Not Death and Birth?

Question: Śāriputra asked about former lives and later lives at the same time; why did the Buddha give only a threefold answer about former lives, but make extensive distinctions about later lives? Answer: People, with the fleshly eye, cannot see the past and the future, and so give rise to wrong doubt; although they doubt about both, the future world is where they will in the end receive recompense, and so distinctions are made about it at length. It is like this: a fire already extinguished need not be put out again, yet one must guard in many ways against a fire not yet arisen; and again, as in treating illness, an illness already cured need not be treated again, yet one must treat the illness about to break out.

Furthermore, the Buddha's eloquence is immeasurable and sovereign; though what Śāriputra asked was little, the Buddha expounded it at length. Just as when asked the one matter ‘in accord with prajñā’, the Buddha made all kinds of distinctions; it is like a poor man begging from a very rich person who loves to give—what he seeks is little, but what he is given is very much. The Buddha is also like this: complete in the wealth of immeasurable undefiled Buddha-dharmas, with great kindness and compassion he delights in giving; because Śāriputra asked briefly, he spoke at length for the great assembly.

Furthermore, in prajñā, by all kinds of causes, conditions, and similes, the dharma of emptiness is much spoken of. There are people who have newly aroused the mind who seize on the mark of emptiness and cling to this dharma of emptiness, and give rise to doubt regarding the causes and conditions of the deeds of birth and death: ‘If all dharmas are ultimately empty, without coming and without going, without leaving and without entering, how can there be birth again after death? Even the dharmas seen before our eyes should not exist—how much less receiving birth elsewhere after death, which cannot be seen!’ It is to cut off such wrong doubt and inversion that the Buddha, by all kinds of causes and conditions, speaks at length of there being death and there being birth.

Is There Truly Rebirth after Death?—The Treatise-Author Refutes the View of Annihilation

Question: There are no causes and conditions of death and birth at all. Why? Once a person dies he returns to extinction, and extinction is of three kinds: the first is being burned by fire into ash, the second is being eaten by worms into dung, the third is in the end returning to earth. Now we see only its extinction, and do not see some other thing coming out to receive a later body; because it cannot be seen, we know it does not exist!

Answer: If you say, ‘when the body is extinguished there is nothing’, then why do beings have the sorrow and joy, fear and dread practised in former lives? Just as a small child, as soon as it is born, either cries or laughs—this is because in a former life it was accustomed to sorrow and joy, and now, though no one teaches it, sorrow and joy continue of themselves. Again, just as a calf, as soon as it is born, knows to go toward its mother's milk, and pigs, sheep, and the like, not long after birth, know the coupling of female and male. Although sons and daughters are born of the same parents, yet in beauty and ugliness, wealth and poverty, intelligence and dullness, each is different; if there were no causes and conditions from former lives, there should not be such differences. By these causes and conditions it can be known that there truly are later lives.

You also say, ‘one does not see some other thing departing’: in the human body it is not only the eye faculty that can see; each of the six sense-faculties has what it knows—there are dharmas that can be heard, smelled, tasted, touched, and known; if even dharmas that can be heard cannot be seen, how much less dharmas that can be known! The dharma of there being birth and there being death is also something that can be seen and can be known; it is only that you, with the fleshly eye, cannot see it, while one with the divine eye sees it clearly. Just as one sees a person go out of one room and enter another room, so too is giving up this body and arriving at a later body. If the fleshly eye could see it, why seek the divine eye? If the fleshly eye could see it, then there would be no distinction between the divine eye and the fleshly eye, between the foolish person and the sage; since you take as your ground what is seen on a par with the animals, how could you see later lives?

As for the reasoning by which it can be known: when a person dies and is born, although there is no one thing that comes and goes, yet because the afflictions are not exhausted, body, sense-faculties, and mind continue and give rise again to body, sense-faculties, and mind; as for the deeds done by body, sense-faculties, and mind, it is also not that some one thing runs off to a later life, but from these causes and conditions one is born again and receives the recompense of a later life. It is like putting poison into milk: milk turns into curd, curd turns into butter; milk is not curd or butter, curd and butter are not milk, and although milk and curd change, all of them contain the poison. This body is also like this: the five aggregates of this life serve as causes and conditions and give rise again to the five aggregates of a later life; the continuity of constructions and deeds is not different, and so one receives recompense. Again, it is like a tree in winter: although it has no flowers, leaves, or fruit yet, once it meets its season they come forth in sequence. By such causes and conditions it is known that there truly are death and birth.

Furthermore, in the present world there are people able to know their past lives, just as a person who has travelled far, exhausted, falls asleep, and on waking remembers the road he has passed along. The inner and outer scriptures of all the sages also all say that there are later lives. Furthermore, when in the present world one does unwholesome dharmas and they stir too heavily, because anger, jealousy, doubt, and regret arise and trouble one within, the body then withers and the complexion is unhappy; if unwholesome evil dharmas do harm even like this, how much more when one actually produces deeds of body and deeds of speech! If one gives rise to wholesome dharmas and takes pure faith as the causal deed, the mind is pure and one obtains wisdom that accords with reality, the mind then becomes glad, the body light and supple, and the complexion harmonious and at ease. Since there are causes and conditions of suffering and pleasure, there is the wholesome and the unwholesome; since there truly is the wholesome and the unwholesome, it should be known that there must be later lives. It is only that beings do not see with the fleshly eye and their wisdom is thin and weak, and so they give rise to wrong doubt, and though they cultivate deeds of merit these too are shallow and thin. It is like a physician treating a king's illness: the king secretly had a mansion built for him, and the physician did not know it; only when he returned home and saw it did he regret not having done his utmost in treating the king.

Furthermore, what the sages say about present matters is true and trustworthy, and what they say about matters of later lives is all trustworthy too; just as when a person travels a dangerous road by night and a guide reaches out a hand to him, because he knows the guide is trustworthy he follows and goes along. By the wisdom of inference and by the words of the sages, it can be known that there truly are later lives. Since your fleshly eye is heavy with sin, your inferential wisdom is also thin, and you have no divine eye, and you are yourself without wisdom and also do not believe the words of the sages—how could you know later lives?

Ultimate Emptiness Does Not Rule Out Rebirth: The Samādhi of Recollecting the Buddha and the First Bodhisattva

Furthermore, in the Buddha's Dharma all dharmas are ultimately empty, yet they are not annihilated either; although birth and death continue, they are not permanent either; although the causes and conditions of deeds of immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas have passed away, they are still able to produce their recompense and are not extinguished—this is the subtle place that is hard to know. If all dharmas were entirely empty, then this chapter should not speak of rebirth—what wise person would contradict himself before and after? If the mark of death and birth really existed, then how could it be said that ‘all dharmas are ultimately empty’? In fact, ultimate emptiness is spoken of only to remove craving and clinging, wrong views, and inversions regarding dharmas; it is not spoken of in order to refute later lives. You doubt later lives because you lack the clarity of the divine eye, and so you wish to plunge yourself into sin and evil; it is to ward off these causes and conditions of sinful deeds that the Buddha speaks of all kinds of rebirth.

The Buddha's Dharma does not cling to existence, does not cling to non-existence, does not cling to both existence and non-existence, does not cling to neither existence nor non-existence, and does not cling even to ‘not clinging’; such a person then allows no one to find fault with him, just as when one hacks at empty space with a knife, in the end nothing is wounded. For beings he teaches the Dharma according to conditions, yet he himself clings to nothing. Therefore it is said in the Middle Treatise: all dharmas are real and also false; the reality of dharmas is itself false, yet they are neither real nor false; the limit of nirvāṇa is true and the limit of the world is also true; between nirvāṇa and the world there is no distinction, and even the finest difference between them is utterly not to be found. This is the mark of ultimate emptiness. Ultimate emptiness does not block the causes and conditions of the deeds of birth and death, and so it is said that there is rebirth.

Question: If prajñā is of one mark, that is to say, signless, how can there be ‘in accord with prajñā, going from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, always meeting the Buddhas’? Answer: Prajñā gathers in all dharmas, like the great ocean, which has nothing it does not contain; therefore one should not raise this as a difficulty. Furthermore, you yourself say that prajñā is of one mark and signless; if it is truly signless, how could any difficulty arise? You are seizing on a mark within the signless, and this is unreasonable. Furthermore, because of prajñā one cultivates the samādhi of recollecting the Buddha and other wholesome dharmas, and so one is born and meets the Buddhas. Furthermore, one who cultivates prajñā enters deeply into great compassion: just as a loving father, seeing his child die for the sake of something worthless, deeply pities him, because this child is dying only for a false and deceptive thing; the Buddhas are also like this—they know that all dharmas are ultimately empty and not to be found, yet beings do not know this and cling deeply within empty dharmas, and because of clinging fall into the great hells; therefore the Buddha enters deeply into great compassion. Through the causes and conditions of great kindness and compassion one obtains immeasurable merit, and because of immeasurable merit one is born and meets the Buddhas, going from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land. This bodhisattva dies here and is born there, dies there and again goes to be born elsewhere, and so on until he becomes a Buddha, never apart from the Buddhas—like a person with merit who goes from one great assembly to another great assembly. Or there are some who die here and are born there, and there, by the power of the five supernormal powers, go from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, making offerings to the Buddhas and ferrying beings across to liberation—this is the first kind of bodhisattva.

What is called ‘Buddha-land’ is three-thousand great-thousand worlds as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions, which together are called one Buddha-field. Although the spiritual power of the Buddhas can pervade everywhere, sovereign and unobstructed, the beings they ferry across still have their limits. What is called ‘the Buddhas being present’ means that a Buddha is actually dwelling within his Buddha-land.

The second kind of bodhisattva, without skilful means, enters the first meditation and so on up to cultivating the six perfections. What is called ‘without skilful means’ is that when he enters the first meditation he is not mindful of beings, and when he abides in it and when he emerges from absorption he is not mindful of beings either; he is only attached to the taste of meditation, and cannot join the first meditation with prajñā and practise them together. This bodhisattva's mind of kindness and compassion is thin, and his merit is also thin and scant; because his merit is thin and scant, he is drawn by the recompense of the first meditation and is born in a long-life heaven. Furthermore, he cannot dedicate the merit of the first meditation, together with beings, to unsurpassed awakening. Such being-without-skilful-means has immeasurable further meanings. What is called ‘long-life heaven’ refers to the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, whose lifespan is eighty thousand great kalpas. Some also say that all the formless absorptions are collectively named long-life heavens, because being without form they cannot be taught and are not equal to attaining the path, and they are always places of ordinary people; some also say that the heaven of non-perception is named long-life, likewise not equal to attaining the path; some also say that from the first meditation to the fourth meditation, except for the Pure Abodes, all are named long-life, because through relishing the taste and through wrong views they cannot receive the path. What is called ‘being born again among humans and meeting the Buddha’ is because he had already aroused the mind of unsurpassed awakening, or had gathered merit while in meditation. Why is this point stressed? Because there, attached to the taste of meditation, a wholesome mind is hard to produce. As is said in the sūtra: the Buddha asked the bhikṣus, ‘Is the soil on the fingernail more, or the soil on the ground more?’ The bhikṣus answered, ‘The soil of the ground is exceedingly more; there is nothing to compare it with.’ The Buddha then said that those who die in the heavens and are born again among humans are like the soil on the fingernail; those who fall into the hells are like the soil of the great earth.

Question: Again, the ‘dull faculties’ spoken of here—which of the twenty-two faculties is it? Answer: Some say it is the faculty of wisdom, which is able to contemplate dharmas, and which becomes dull through long attachment to the taste of meditation; some say it is the five faculties beginning with faith, which all help to accomplish the dharmas of the path, and which become dull through receiving recompense and relishing the taste; some say that the bodhisattva's eighteen faculties are all sharp because of pure merit and wisdom, and dull because of sin. The six faculties beginning with the eye are as said in the Lotus Sūtra. When the life faculty is not troubled by old age, sickness, poverty, or want, and one is at ease and receives pleasure, the life faculty is sharp. When the five faculties beginning with joy and pleasure are clearly aware, they are sharp; again, when receiving pleasure, one is able to know that pleasure has faults such as impermanence and does not give rise to greed and desire, and so it is sharp; the other feelings are also like this. The faculty of faith is firm, deep, and solid, able to believe what is hard to believe, and so it is sharp; the others too should be distinguished according to their marks in this way. The male faculty is pure, obtaining the mark of the sheathed organ, not attached to smooth and fine touch, and knowing desire to be a fault—this is sharp. Furthermore, because the three wholesome faculties are sharp, it is called sharp; the bodhisattva sometimes, in the three undefiled faculties, does not realise the limit of reality, and thereby shows their sharpness. What runs contrary to sharpness is dull.

Question: Again, since the third kind of bodhisattva is able to give up meditation, why is it said ‘without skilful means’? Answer: This bodhisattva, at the time of death, enters an unwholesome mind and gives up the skilful means of the meditative absorptions; or he enters a wholesome mind or an indeterminate mind bound to the desire realm and gives up the meditations, enters a mind of kindness and compassion and pities beings, thinking, ‘If I am born according to meditative absorption, I will not be able to benefit beings widely.’ Those born in the desire realm have ten places: the humans of the four continents and the six desire heavens; the three evil paths are where the bodhisattva is not born. The meaning of his dull faculties is as said for the second kind of bodhisattva.

The fourth kind of bodhisattva enters the stage, obtains the bodhisattva path, cultivates the thirty-seven limbs of the path, and is able to abide in the eighteen emptinesses and so on up to great kindness and great compassion; only this is named skilful means. The two kinds of bodhisattva above have only meditative absorption and practise the six perfections directly, and so they are without skilful means. The fourth kind of bodhisattva, by the power of skilful means, is not born according to meditative absorption or the immeasurable minds; because he cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to great kindness and great compassion, at the time of death he pities beings and vows to be born in the Buddha-lands of present Buddhas in other quarters and to continue to be in accord with prajñā—because he loves and delights in following prajñā.

Question: What kind of bodhisattva is this? Answer: The Buddha himself says he is a bodhisattva of the Bhadra kalpa; there are also those not of the Bhadra kalpa, but here only the great ones are taken. Question: Again, what is called bhadra? What is called kalpa? Answer: As the sūtra says, a bhikṣu asked the Buddha, ‘How long is it that is called one kalpa?’ The Buddha said, ‘Although I can tell it, you cannot know it; it can be understood by means of similes’: there is a city a hundred yojanas square and round, filled full with mustard seeds; a long-lived person takes away one seed every hundred years; the mustard seeds are taken away completely, yet the kalpa is still not exhausted. Again, there is a rock a hundred yojanas square and round, and a person every hundred years brushes it once with soft Kāśi folded cloth; the rock is worn away completely, yet the kalpa is still not exhausted. Of time, the shortest is one thought-moment among sixty thought-moments; the longest is named a kalpa. Kalpas are of two kinds: the first is the great kalpa, the second is the small kalpa.

The great kalpa is as in the similes above. When the kalpa is about to end, the minds of beings of themselves delight in distant separation; because they delight in separation, they remove the five hindrances and enter the first meditation, obtaining the joy and pleasure born of separation; on rising from absorption they call out in a loud voice: ‘Beings! Most to be loathed are the five desires; most secure is the first meditation.’ Beings, hearing the call, all of themselves in mind separate from the five desires and enter the first meditation; again of themselves they extinguish initial and sustained thought and enter the second meditation, and call out likewise; leaving the second meditation and the third meditation is likewise. Beings of the three evil paths of themselves obtain a wholesome mind, and at death are all born among humans; those with heavy sins are born in the hells of other quarters, as said in the Chapter on Niraya. At this time not a single being remains in the three-thousand great-thousand world; then two suns come out, and so on up to seven suns come out, and the great earth is entirely burned up, as the marks of the arising and perishing of the kalpa are spoken of at length in the section on the Eighteen Emptinesses. Again, some say that because three of the four great elements are active, there are three kinds of kalpa: either the fire kalpa arises, burning the great-thousand world up to the four places of the first meditation; or the water kalpa arises, sweeping away and destroying the great-thousand world up to the eight places of the second meditation; or the wind kalpa arises, blowing away and destroying the great-thousand world up to the twelve abodes of the third meditation. This is named the great kalpa.

Small kalpas are also of three kinds: because the outer three great elements break out, the world is destroyed; because the inner three poisons break out, beings are destroyed—namely famine, weapons, and pestilence. Again, some say that seasons and counts of years are named the small kalpa. As is said in the Lotus Sūtra: when Śāriputra becomes a Buddha, the true Dharma will abide in the world for twenty small kalpas, and the semblance Dharma will abide in the world for twenty small kalpas; the Buddha rose from samādhi and for sixty small kalpas spoke the Lotus Sūtra; many small kalpas together are named a great kalpa. ‘Kalpa’ is rendered in the language of Qin as ‘distinguishing the seasons’; ‘bhadra’ is rendered in the language of Qin as ‘good’. For thousands of myriads of kalpas that passed, they were empty and without a Buddha, but in this one kalpa a thousand Buddhas arise in the world, and the gods of the Pure Abodes rejoice; therefore it is named the Good Kalpa. How do the gods of the Pure Abodes know that in this kalpa there will be a thousand Buddhas? After the previous kalpa is exhausted, all is vast and empty; later there is a great water, and from the bottom of the water there well up a thousand shining lotus flowers of the seven jewels, which are the sign of the thousand Buddhas; from this the gods of the Pure Abodes come to know it. Therefore it is said, ‘this bodhisattva will realise unsurpassed awakening in this kalpa’.

By Skilful Means Not Born According to Meditation, He Is Born Again in Great Kṣatriya Clans to Bring Beings to Maturity

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who enters the four meditations, the four immeasurables, and the four formless absorptions, and by the power of skilful means is not born according to the meditations, but is born again in the desire realm—born perhaps into a great kṣatriya clan, a great brahmin clan, or a great householder family—in order to bring beings to maturity.’

Born by Deeds and the Dharma-Nature Body: Two Kinds of Bodhisattva

Question: There are two kinds of bodhisattva: the first receives birth according to deeds; the second obtains the dharma-nature body and, to ferry beings across, is born in the three realms in all kinds of transformation bodies, complete with the Buddha's merits, and ferries beings across to liberation. Which kind is spoken of here? Answer: This is a body born of the causes and conditions of deeds. Why? Because only by relying on the power of skilful means in entering the meditations is one able not to be born according to the meditations; the dharma-body bodhisattva transforms sovereignly and has little need of skilful means. The meaning of the skilful means of entering meditation has already been spoken of above.

Question: Again, since he does not follow meditative absorption, why is he born in the desire realm and not in the pure worlds of other quarters? Answer: What the bodhisattvas practise is not the same for each. Some bodhisattvas, in meditation, turn the mind and are born in the Buddha-lands of other quarters; the bodhisattva turning his mind to be born in the desire realm is also like this. Question: Again, being born in a Buddha-land of another quarter—does that count as the desire realm or not the desire realm? Answer: A Buddha-land of another quarter that is mixed, evil, and impure is named the desire realm; if it is pure, then there are no three evil paths and no three poisons, and not even the name of the three poisons or the name of the two vehicles, and there are no women either. There everyone has the thirty-two marks, and immeasurable light constantly illumines the world; in the space of a single thought-moment they can make immeasurable bodies, go to immeasurable worlds as many as the sands of the Ganges, ferry across immeasurable asaṃkhyeya beings, and return again to their own place. Because such a world is on the ground, it is not named the form realm; because it is without desire, it is not named the desire realm; because it has shape and form, it is not named the formless realm. The great bodhisattvas, through the causes and conditions of the deeds of pure merit, obtain separately a pure world that goes beyond the three realms; there are also those who, with great kindness and great compassion, pity beings and are born in this desire realm.

Question: Again, since at the time of death he gives up meditative absorption, why did he at first cultivate and train in meditative absorption? Answer: The mind of the desire realm is wild, scattered, and unassured; it is to make the mind supple and gather it in that one enters meditation; at the time of death, it is to ferry beings across that one gives rise to the mind of the desire realm. Question: Again, if he is born among humans, why is he born precisely into great families such as the kṣatriya and not elsewhere? Answer: Being born a kṣatriya is for the sake of having power, being born into a brahmin family is for the sake of having wisdom, being born into a householder family is for the sake of great wealth—all these can benefit beings; if one is born poor and destitute, one cannot even benefit oneself, so how could one benefit others? As for being born in the heavens of the desire realm, that is spoken of next.

Born in the Six Heavens of the Desire Realm, Bringing Beings to Maturity and Always Meeting the Buddhas

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! Again, there is a bodhisattva who enters the four meditations, the four immeasurables, and the four formless absorptions, and by the power of skilful means is not born according to the meditations; he is born perhaps in the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings, the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the Yāma Heaven, the Tuṣita Heaven, the Heaven of Delight in Transformation, or the Heaven Sovereign over Others' Transformations. There he brings beings to maturity, also purifies the Buddha-world, and always meets the Buddhas.’

The treatise-author says: This meaning is the same as above, only being born in the heavens is different. Question: The gods of the desire realm are attached to the five desires and hard to transform and ferry across; why is the bodhisattva born there and not among humans? Answer: Although the clinging mind of the gods is great, the bodhisattva's power of skilful means is also great. As it is said, in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three there is the Xufumo tree grove, where the noble gods among the gods, having wearied of and given up the five desires, stay and teach the gods; in the Tuṣita Heaven there is always the bodhisattva bound to one more birth, and the bodhisattvas are always able to hear the Dharma; the Secret-Traces Vajra strongman is also in the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings. In this way the gods are taught.

Entering the First Meditation, He Is Born in the Brahmā Heaven as the Great Brahmā King and Requests the Turning of the Dharma Wheel

The Buddha said: ‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who cultivates prajñā and by the power of skilful means enters the first meditation; dying here, he is born in the Brahmā heaven and becomes the Great Brahmā King; from the Brahmā heaven he travels from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, and wherever there are Buddhas who have attained unsurpassed awakening but have not yet turned the Dharma wheel, he requests them to turn the Dharma wheel.’

Question: Since he is born according to the first meditation, what skilful means is there still? Answer: Although he is born in the Brahmā heaven, he is not attached to the taste of meditation; he is mindful of the Buddha path, remembers his original vow, enters the mind of kindness, cultivates the samādhi of recollecting the Buddha, and at all times joins these with meditation; therefore it is named skilful means. Question: Again, why must he be the Brahmā king? Answer: The causes and conditions of the merit the bodhisattva has gathered are great, and life after life he is always the lord of beings; even when born among deer he becomes the deer king. Furthermore, this bodhisattva's original vow is to request the Buddhas to turn the Dharma wheel, and he should not be a god who is scattered and idle. Sometimes this three-thousand great-thousand world has no Buddha, and so he goes from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, seeking one who has just become a Buddha and has not yet turned the Dharma wheel; because the rule of the Brahmā king is that he should always request the Buddhas to turn the Dharma wheel.

The Bodhisattva Bound to Three More Births: Why He Still Cultivates the Practices, and the Harsh Words before Kāśyapa Buddha

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva bound to three more births who cultivates prajñā and by the power of skilful means enters the four meditations, the four immeasurables, and the four formless absorptions, cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eightfold noble path, enters the samādhi of emptiness, signlessness, and non-action, is not born according to the meditations, and is born where there is a Buddha and cultivates the pure life. If he is born in the Tuṣita Heaven, when his lifespan there comes to its end, complete in roots of goodness and not losing right mindfulness, surrounded and revered by countless hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭi of gods, he comes to be born here and realises unsurpassed awakening.’

Question: This bodhisattva of three more births already dwells on the tenth abiding-ground and is complete in all merits; why does he still cultivate and practise the practices? Answer: Because the mind has not yet entered nirvāṇa, there must be something it practises, namely the four meditations and so on up to the three samādhi. Furthermore, this bodhisattva, among gods and humans, displays the ways of an ordinary person, cultivating practice and seeking the path. Furthermore, although he is on the tenth abiding-ground, he still has the habit-energies of the afflictions, and there are still dharmas he does not know, and so he cultivates the path. Furthermore, although he practises deep practices and cultivates the thirty-seven limbs of the path and the three gates of liberation, he has not yet taken realisation, and now, in order to realise, he cultivates the practices further. Furthermore, although he is a great bodhisattva, before the Buddha he is still small; it is like a great mass of fire, which, though able to illumine things, cannot show itself in the light of the sun. As in the Sūtra of the Released Bowl, Maitreya Bodhisattva said to Mañjuśrī: ‘When I become a Buddha in my last body, even if there were Mañjuśrīs as many as the sands of the Ganges, they would not know the matter of my lifting a foot and setting a foot down!’ Therefore, although he is on the tenth abiding, he should still cultivate practice.

Question: Again, why does the bodhisattva of three more births not ferry beings across widely, but must be born before a Buddha? Answer: This bodhisattva has already ferried many across, and now, drawing near to becoming a Buddha, he ought to be before a Buddha; because it is not only by ferrying beings across that one can become a Buddha—the deep dharmas of the Buddhas also ought to be heard. Question: Again, if it is in order to inquire of the Buddha about matters that he is before the Buddha, then when Śākyamuni Buddha was a bodhisattva, why did he revile and abuse Kāśyapa Buddha with harsh words before Kāśyapa Buddha? Answer: This matter has already been spoken of above: the dharma-body bodhisattva ferries beings across with all kinds of transformation bodies; at times he displays and practises the ways of an ordinary person, having hunger and thirst, cold and heat, old age and sickness, hatred and love, anger and joy, praise and scolding, and so on—apart from the grave sins, he practises all the rest.

This Śākyamuni Bodhisattva was at that time the younger brother of Kāśyapa Buddha, named Uttara. The elder brother's wisdom was mature, and he did not like to talk much; the younger brother's wisdom was not yet complete, yet he liked debate, and people at the time thought the younger brother superior. The elder brother later left home and attained the Buddha path, and his title was Kāśyapa; the younger brother became the Qiliji teacher to the king of Jambudvīpa, had five hundred disciples, and taught the brahmins with the books of the brahmins, and these brahmins did not like the Buddha's Dharma. At that time there was a potter named Nandipāla, a five-precept disciple of Kāśyapa Buddha who had already attained the three paths, and who was a good friend of the king's teacher Uttara, because his mind was good and had pure faith. At that time Uttara was riding a golden chariot drawn by four white horses, going out of the city gate with his disciples; Nandipāla met him on the road; Uttara asked, ‘Where have you come from?’ He answered, ‘Your elder brother has already attained unsurpassed awakening; I am returning from making offerings to him; you can come along with me to see the Buddha, and so I have come to meet you.’ Uttara thought: ‘If I go straight to where the Buddha is, my disciples will surely become suspicious and wonder—you were always the winner in debate and wisdom, and now you go to make offerings; could it be out of love for your kin?—and so they will surely not follow me.’ Fearing only that he would cut off his disciples' causes and conditions for seeing the Buddha, he abided in the wisdom of the real mark of all dharmas, entered the wisdom of unsurpassed skilful means, and, to ferry his disciples across, uttered harsh words: ‘This bald-headed man—how could he attain the path of awakening!’ Nandipāla, this good friend, put on a show of anger, seized him by the hair, and pulled him, saying: ‘Will you still not stop?’ Uttara said to his disciples: ‘Things being so, I cannot stop now!’ Then teacher and disciples went together to the Buddha; as soon as they saw the Buddha's radiant marks, their minds became pure, and they went forward, bowed at the Buddha's feet, and sat down to one side. The Buddha taught the Dharma according to their intent; Uttara obtained immeasurable dhāraṇī gates, and all the samādhi gates opened, and the five hundred disciples also aroused the mind of unsurpassed awakening. Uttara rose from his seat and asked the Buddha to let him leave home and become a bhikṣu; the Buddha said ‘Welcome!’, and he at once became a śramaṇa. It can be seen that these harsh words appeared for the sake of skilful means, and that there was in fact no evil intent. Empty space could still be broken, water could be made fire, and fire could be made water, but the bodhisattva of three more births cannot give rise to anger even toward ordinary people, how much less toward the Buddha!

Question: Again, if this is so, why did the Buddha undergo the recompense of the eighth sin and six years of ascetic practice? Answer: The Dharma of the small vehicle and the Dharma of the Great Vehicle are not the same; if they were not different, there should not be the distinction of great and small. In the Dharma of the small vehicle, the secret, profound, deep dharma of the dharma-body bodhisattva and the immeasurable, inconceivable spiritual powers are not spoken of; mostly spoken of is the dharma of cutting off the fetters and taking nirvāṇa directly. Furthermore, if the Buddha did not undergo this recompense of the eighth sin, then those long-lived gods, spirits, immortals, dragons, and ghosts, seeing that there was this evil deed and yet no recompense was undergone, would think that there are no causes and conditions of the recompense of deeds; therefore, although the Buddha presently has no evil deed, he displays the undergoing of recompense. There are also causes and conditions in the present life: those of the outside paths believe in and cling to ascetic practice, and if the Buddha did not practise asceticism for six years, people would not believe, saying, ‘This prince is used to enjoyment and cannot practise asceticism’; therefore the Buddha practised asceticism for six years. The ascetics of the outside paths practise for three months, half a year, or a year, but no one is able for six years to eat only one sesame seed and one grain of rice each day; those of the outside paths took this as the extreme of ascetic practice, and if such a person says there is no path, then there truly is no path; and so they believed and accepted and entered the right path. For these two kinds of causes and conditions he practised asceticism for six years; it was not really the recompense of a sin. Why? The Buddhas have cut off everything unwholesome and accomplished everything wholesome; if the Buddha really underwent the recompense of a sin, then it could not be said that he has accomplished everything wholesome and cut off everything unwholesome.

Furthermore, in the Dharma of the small vehicle, the Buddha, for beings of small capacity of mind, says that even a bodhisattva of two more births reviled the Buddha with harsh words; but the bodhisattva of two more births does not even scold a small child—how could he really revile the Buddha? This is all skilful means for the sake of beings. How is it known? This Śākyamuni Buddha, at the time of Vipaśyin Buddha, was a great brahmin; seeing the Buddha and the community of monks eating gruel because of illness, he uttered the words, ‘People of this kind ought to eat horse-barley’; because of this sin he fell into the Black Rope and other hells, and after undergoing suffering for immeasurable lives, the causes and conditions of the remaining sin made him, though he had attained the Buddha path, still eat horse-barley for three months. It is further said in the Dharma of the śrāvakas: the Buddha, passing through three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, was always a man, always born in noble places, never lacked any of his faculties, always knew his past lives, and never fell into the three evil paths. From Vipaśyin Buddha until now it has been ninety-one kalpas; by your own Dharma, in ninety kalpas he should not have fallen into the evil paths at all, how much less in the last kalpa! Therefore it can be known that this is not a real event, but a teaching by skilful means.

Question: Again, the Buddha's two sins are spoken of in the Vinaya and the Miscellaneous Canon, and can be believed and accepted; but the statement that ‘after the three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, for a hundred kalpas he does not fall into the evil paths’—if from the first asaṃkhyeya he should not fall into the evil paths, why is only a hundred kalpas spoken of? The Buddha did not say this; it is only the saying of the debating masters of the Abhidharma Vibhāṣā! Answer: The Abhidharma is spoken by the Buddha; it is you śrāvakas who, following the Abhidharma, debated, and only this is named Vibhāṣā; there should be no error in it. Again, just as Bakula, by giving only one harītakī fruit to the Saṅgha, did not fall into the evil paths for ninety-one kalpas—how much less would the bodhisattva, who for immeasurable lives has given his own body in giving and cultivated all merits, fall into hell because of a small sin? In such a matter the Vibhāṣā should not be in error; so it is that the people of the small vehicle do not know the bodhisattva's skilful means. Furthermore, even granting what you say, that the Vibhāṣā is not in error: the Buddha himself tells of the bodhisattva's origins—when the bodhisattva was first born he walked seven steps and said with his own mouth, ‘The reason I am born is to ferry beings across’, and having said this he fell silent; for three years he was nursed, neither walking nor speaking, and only as he grew did he walk and speak as usual. All infants when young cannot walk or speak, and only as they grow do they come to have the ways of human beings; now how could the bodhisattva be able to walk and speak when first born, yet afterwards be unable? It can be known that this is because of the power of skilful means. If one accepts this skilful means, all the Buddha's words can be reconciled; if one does not accept it, they become one real and one false. By all kinds of causes and conditions such as these, it can be known that the harsh words were displayed to ferry beings across.

Question: Again, why is the bodhisattva of three more births born only in the Tuṣita Heaven and not elsewhere? Answer: If he came from a world of another quarter, those long-lived gods, dragons, ghosts, and spirits would seek where he came from and be unable to know, and would give rise to a doubting mind, thinking him an illusory conjuration. If he died among humans and was born among humans and then became a Buddha, humans would give rise to contempt and the gods would not believe either; by right it should be gods who come to transform humans, not humans who come to transform gods; therefore he comes to be born from the heavens—from a god he becomes a human, and humans then revere and believe him. In the formless realm there is no shape, and one cannot teach the Dharma, so he is not born there; in the form realm, although there is a form body with which one could teach the Dharma, the gods are deeply attached to the taste of meditation and cannot greatly benefit beings, so he is not born there either. In the lower three desire heavens the fetters are deep and thick, and the coarse mind is confused and disordered; in the upper two heavens the fetters are thick and the mind soft and not sharp; in the Tuṣita Heaven the fetters are thin and the mind soft and sharp, and it is always the dwelling-place of bodhisattvas. It is like a crown prince about to ascend the throne, who first keeps a fast of purification for seven days in a quiet chamber and then ascends the hall and receives the throne; the bodhisattva who is to succeed to Buddhahood is also like this: the Tuṣita Heaven is like the place of fasting; there, for the last time, he enjoys heavenly pleasure; when his life ends he comes down and, for the last time, enjoys human pleasure, and then attains right awakening. Immeasurable hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭi of gods surround him as he comes to be born here; because the bodhisattva in the past, in beginningless birth and death, went back and forth between the heavens and the human world, and this is now his last heavenly body and he will not again come to be born in the heavens, the gods all come to attend and see him off. When the bodhisattva's life there is exhausted he comes down and becomes a Buddha; among the gods, whether their life is exhausted or not, all make vows to be born below as the bodhisattva's patrons. Furthermore, the gods come down to guard the bodhisattva constantly, for fear that a koṭi of Māra-enemies might come to trouble and disturb the bodhisattva. This bodhisattva, born among humans, wearies of old age, sickness, and death and leaves home, and attains unsurpassed awakening, as said in the Sūtra of the Bodhisattva's Origins.

The Bodhisattva with the Six Supernormal Powers: Birth-Body and Dharma-Body, Sporting in the Supernormal Powers

The Buddha said: ‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who attains the six supernormal powers and is not born in the desire realm, the form realm, or the formless realm, but goes from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, making offerings to, revering, honouring, and praising the Buddhas. Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who sports in the supernormal powers and goes from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, and wherever he arrives there is no vehicle of the śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas, and not even the name of the two vehicles. Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who sports in the supernormal powers, and wherever he arrives the lifespan is immeasurable. Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who sports in the supernormal powers, and wherever he arrives, if there is a place without Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, he praises the merits of the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha; because beings get to hear the name of the Buddha, the name of the Dharma, and the name of the Saṅgha, when they die there they are born before the Buddhas.’

The treatise-author explains: There are two kinds of bodhisattva: the first is the birth-body bodhisattva, the second is the dharma-body bodhisattva; one kind cuts off the fetters, the other kind does not cut off the fetters. The dharma-body bodhisattva cuts off the fetters and attains the six supernormal powers; the birth-body bodhisattva does not cut off the fetters, or, through separation from desire, attains the five supernormal powers. What is called ‘attaining the six supernormal powers’ is not being born in the three realms, travelling through the worlds, and making offerings to the Buddhas of the ten directions. What is called ‘sporting in the supernormal powers’ is going to the worlds of the ten directions to ferry beings across, raining down the seven jewels, and in the worlds he reaches, all are of the one vehicle and pure, with lifespans of immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas. Question: The bodhisattva ought to ferry beings across; why does he go only into the pure worlds of Buddhas of immeasurable life? Answer: There are two kinds of bodhisattva: one kind has a mind of kindness and compassion and acts mostly for beings; one kind mostly gathers the merits of the Buddhas. Those who delight in gathering much of the Buddhas' merits go to the worlds of the one vehicle, pure and of immeasurable life; those who love to act for beings go to places without Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha and make the sound praising the Three Jewels, as a later section says.

From the First Arousing of the Mind He Attains the Four Meditations and Four Immeasurables and Is Always Born Where He Benefits Beings

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who, at the first arousing of the mind, at once attains the four meditations, the four immeasurable minds, and the four formless absorptions, and cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas; this bodhisattva is not born in the three realms, but is always born where there is benefit for beings.’

The treatise-author explains: This bodhisattva is born perhaps in a world without a Buddha, perhaps in a world with a Buddha. A world that is impure has the three evil paths, poverty, and baseness; or he is born in a pure world. If he goes to a world without a Buddha, he benefits beings with the ten wholesome paths of action, the four meditations, and so on up to the four formless absorptions, causes people to believe in and turn toward the Three Jewels, proclaims the five precepts and the precepts of leaving home, and enables them to obtain the merits of meditative absorption and wisdom. Impure worlds are of two kinds: those with a present Buddha, and those after the Buddha's passing into extinction. After the Buddha's passing into extinction, whether leaving home or staying at home, he benefits beings in all kinds of ways with the giving of wealth and the giving of Dharma; if the Buddha is in the world, he makes all kinds of causes and conditions to lead beings to where the Buddha is. In pure worlds, beings whose merits are not yet complete he causes to be fulfilled; this is ‘benefiting beings in the places where he is born’.

Three Kinds of Bodhisattva of the First Arousing of the Mind: Three Similes, and the Original Vow of the Bhikṣu Dharma Treasury

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who, at the first arousing of the mind, at once practises the six perfections, ascends to the bodhisattva stage, and attains the ground of avaivartika. Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who, at the first arousing of the mind, at once attains unsurpassed awakening and turns the Dharma wheel, and after bringing great benefit to immeasurable beings enters nirvāṇa without remainder; after this Buddha's parinirvāṇa, his remaining Dharma abides either for one kalpa or for less than one kalpa. Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva who, at the first arousing of the mind, is at once in accord with prajñā, and with countless hundreds of thousands of koṭi of bodhisattvas goes from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land, in order to purify the Buddha-worlds.’

The treatise-author explains: There are three kinds of bodhisattva, of sharp faculties and firm mind, who before arousing the mind had long since gathered immeasurable merit and wisdom; such people meet a Buddha and hear the Dharma of the Great Vehicle, arouse the mind of unsurpassed awakening, at once practise the six perfections, enter the bodhisattva stage, and attain the ground of avaivartika. Why? Because they first gathered immeasurable merit, are of sharp faculties and firm mind, and also heard the Dharma from the Buddha. It is like travelling far: some go riding a sheep, some riding a horse, some go by supernormal power; the one riding the sheep arrives only after a long, long time, the one riding the horse somewhat faster, the one riding supernormal power arrives in the moment of a single thought. Since it is the mark of supernormal power, one should not doubt, ‘how can one arrive in the space of a thought?’ The bodhisattva is also like this: when he arouses the mind of unsurpassed awakening he at once enters the bodhisattva stage.

Some bodhisattvas, at the first arousing of the mind, though their mind is good, later mix it with all kinds of evil, and from time to time give rise to the thought, ‘I seek the Buddha path, and dedicate all merits to unsurpassed awakening’; such people, over a long, long time, passing through immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas, may arrive or may not arrive—because the causes and conditions of merit from former lives are thin, and moreover their faculties are dull and their minds not firm, like the one riding the sheep. Some people in former lives had a little merit and sharp faculties; after arousing the mind they gradually practise the six perfections, and passing through three, ten, or a hundred asaṃkhyeya kalpas they attain unsurpassed awakening, like the one riding the horse, who is sure to arrive. The third kind, riding supernormal power, is as said above. These three kinds of arousing the mind: the first has much sin and little merit, the second has much merit and little sin, the third practises only pure merit. The pure is further of two kinds: the first attains the bodhisattva path at the first arousing of the mind; the second stays for a while, makes offerings to the Buddhas of the ten directions, penetrates the bodhisattva path, and enters the bodhisattva stage, which is the ground of avaivartika. The meaning of ‘bodhisattva of the ground of avaivartika’ is as said before.

The next bodhisattva greatly wearies of the world; life after life he has always loved the true and loathed deceit; this bodhisattva too is of sharp faculties and firm mind and has long gathered immeasurable merit and wisdom; at the first arousing of the mind he at once attains unsurpassed awakening, at once turns the Dharma wheel, ferries immeasurable beings across, and enters nirvāṇa without remainder; his Dharma abides either for one kalpa or for less than one kalpa, and he leaves behind a transformation Buddha to ferry beings across. The Buddha has two kinds of supernormal power: the first at the present time, the second after his extinction. The meaning of ‘kalpa’ is as said above; the beings ferried across within one kalpa are also not few.

The next bodhisattva after that is also of sharp faculties and firm mind and has long gathered merit; on arousing the mind he is at once in accord with prajñā and attains the six supernormal powers, and together with immeasurable beings contemplates the pure worlds of the ten directions and adorns his own land. Just as when Amitābha Buddha, in a former life, was the bhikṣu Dharma Treasury, the Buddha led him everywhere through the ten directions and showed him the pure lands, enabling him to choose the pure and wondrous lands with which to adorn his own land.

The Leaping Absorption: How the Bodhisattva Moves Freely Forward and Back among the Absorptions

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a kind of bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising prajñāpāramitā, has already attained the four meditations, the four immeasurable minds, and the four formless absorptions, and is able to sport freely within these absorptions—first he enters the first meditation; rising from the first meditation he leaps straight into the absorption of cessation; rising again from the absorption of cessation he returns to enter, up to, the fourth meditation; rising from the fourth meditation he enters the absorption of cessation; rising from the absorption of cessation he enters the station of empty space; rising from the station of empty space he enters the absorption of cessation again; and in this way, going upward in order, he goes as far as entering the station of neither perception nor non-perception, and rising from the station of neither perception nor non-perception he enters the absorption of cessation. Śāriputra! In this way the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, practising prajñāpāramitā, enters the leaping absorption by the power of skilful means.’

Question: Since ordinary people cannot enter the absorption of cessation, how can the bodhisattva, the moment he rises from the first meditation, enter the absorption of cessation directly?

Answer: It is the Small Vehicle that speaks this way in the Abhidharma-vibhāṣā; it is not what the Buddha said in the Tripiṭaka. Moreover, the state of this bodhisattva is beyond the reach even of the śrāvaka sages, still less comparable to that of ordinary people. It is like the six-tusked white elephant: even with a poisoned arrow in his body, he still pitied the hostile hunter who shot it; a mind of compassion like this not even the arhats possess. If he was like this even in the body of an animal, how much more the bodhisattva who has obtained a human body, has already left desire behind, and has entered the meditations—is it possible that he still cannot enter the absorption of cessation?

Question: Again: if the bodhisattva attains the absorption of cessation, that can still be accepted; but the rule of the leaping absorption is that one cannot skip two levels, and to say ‘rising from the first meditation he goes as far as entering the absorption of cessation’—there is no such thing!

Answer: Although others also have the dharma of absorption, their power is small and they cannot leap very far; the bodhisattva has the power of immeasurable merit and wisdom, enters absorption deeply, and yet his mind does not cling, so he is able to leap far. It is like a great strongman among humans, whose single leap does not exceed three or four zhang; but a strongman of the heavens has no limit of number at all. In the dharma of the Small Vehicle, only leaping over a single level is allowed to count as the dharma of absorption; the bodhisattva's power of meditative absorption is great and his mind clings to nothing, so near or far follows his own intention.

Question: Once more: if it is put this way, then the leaping absorption is the great one—does that not mean the successive absorptions do not count as great?

Answer: Both are great. Why? Rising from the first meditation to the second, there is no other stray thought in between; in a single thought he enters; and so on up to the absorption of cessation, all is like this. The leaping absorption, for its part, rises from the first meditation and enters the third meditation directly, likewise without letting any other thought intervene, and so on up to the absorption of cessation, going upward in order and downward in reverse, all is like this. Some say: the leaping absorption is more excellent, the reason being that it both admits no other thought and is able to leap over; it is like a fine horse skilled at wheeling round, turning its body in every way as its rider wishes.

Not Taking the Fruits of the Two Vehicles, Yet Using the Eightfold Noble Path to Bring Beings to the Fruits

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising prajñāpāramitā, cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, yet does not take the fruit of the stream-enterer, the fruit of the once-returner, the fruit of the non-returner, the fruit of the arhat, or the path of the pratyekabuddha; only by the power of skilful means, in order to ferry beings across, he gives rise to the limbs of the eightfold noble path, and with this eightfold right path he enables beings to attain the fruit of the stream-enterer up to the path of the pratyekabuddha.’ The Buddha further told Śāriputra: ‘All the fruits and knowledges of the arhats and pratyekabuddhas are, for this bodhisattva-mahāsattva, his acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas. Śāriputra! You should know that this bodhisattva-mahāsattva, practising prajñāpāramitā, abides on the ground of the avaivartika.’

Question: Why is it not said that this bodhisattva cultivates the six perfections, but only that he attains the four foundations of mindfulness?

Answer: Whether it is said or not, one should know that this bodhisattva cultivates all the six perfections; it is only that among the thirty-seven limbs of the path he cultivates some and not others. That he does not realise and take the path of the śrāvaka or the pratyekabuddha is because he has great kindness and great compassion, and is also deeply complete in the power of skilful means and so on, as was said earlier.

Question: Again: if he himself does not take those fruits of the path, how can he use them to transform and ferry others?

Answer: This is the cause and condition stated by the Buddha himself—the fruits and knowledges of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are all the bodhisattva's acceptance of dharmas; it is only that he does not receive the names of those fruits of the path, and the fruits and knowledges are all gathered into the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas. Furthermore, it is only that he does not take the realisation; all else that should be cultivated he cultivates. Because he has attained the bodhisattva path, he is named ‘avaivartika’.

The Bodhisattva of the Auspicious Kalpa Who Purifies the Path to the Tuṣita Heaven

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who abides in the six perfections and has purified the path to birth in the Tuṣita Heaven; you should know that this is a bodhisattva of the Auspicious Kalpa.’

The treatise-author explains: Bodhisattvas each have their own path, each their own practice, each their own vow. By the causes and conditions of the deeds he has cultivated, this bodhisattva is born in the Tuṣita Heaven, enters the assembly of the thousand bodhisattvas, and becomes a Buddha in his turn. When there are marks such as these, one knows that he is a bodhisattva of the Auspicious Kalpa.

The Final-Birth Bodhisattva Who Deliberately Leaves the Four Truths Unrealised

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who cultivates the four meditations up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, yet has not realised the four truths; you should know that this is a final-birth bodhisattva.’

Question: This final-birth bodhisattva should be born in the Tuṣita Heaven; why is it also said that he attains the four meditations and so on?

Answer: This bodhisattva, born in the Tuṣita Heaven, attains the four meditations and so on once he has left desire behind. Furthermore, this successor-bodhisattva left desire behind long ago and is complete in the Buddha-dharmas; it is only by the power of skilful means, following the constant rule for successors, that he is born in the Tuṣita Heaven. As for ‘has not realised the four truths’: he deliberately leaves them unrealised; if he really took the realisation, he would become a pratyekabuddha; because he means to become a Buddha, he does not realise them.

Dull Faculties and Long Cultivation, Yet Awakening at Last

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who passes through immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas of practice and only then attains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

The treatise-author explains: Although this bodhisattva has planted wholesome roots and seeks anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, because his faculties are dull and he also mixes in other practices, it takes him a long time to attain it. But because the wholesome roots he has planted are deep, in the end he is certain to attain it.

Not Speaking of Useless Things: Self-Restraint in the Deeds of Speech

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who abides in the six perfections, is always diligent and vigorous, benefits beings, and does not speak useless words.’

The treatise-author explains: In the past this bodhisattva had the fault of harsh speech, so he aroused the bodhisattva mind and made a vow: ‘I will forever leave the four faults of the deeds of speech, and walk this path.’ Furthermore, this bodhisattva knows that within prajñāpāramitā all dharmas have no fixed mark, cannot be clung to, and cannot be pinned down by the marks of words, and so he knows: whatever can benefit people is the Buddha-dharma; if it cannot benefit people, then however fine it sounds, it is not the Buddha-dharma. It is like all kinds of good medicines: if they cannot cure the illness, they are not called medicine; even something such as earth picked up at hand, if it can cure the illness, only that is called medicine. For this reason, fearing that he might speak wrongly and mislead people, he does not speak useless words.

Cutting Off the Three Evil Paths with the Six Superknowledges

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises the six perfections, is always diligent and vigorous, benefits beings, and going from one Buddha-land to another, cuts off the three evil paths of beings.’

The treatise-author explains: This bodhisattva abides in the six superknowledges, goes to the worlds of the ten directions, and blocks the three unwholesome paths, upper, middle, and lower.

Putting Giving First to Bring Beings Ease and Joy

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who abides in the six perfections, puts giving first, and brings ease and joy to all beings: to those who need food and drink he gives food and drink; clothing, bedding, necklaces, flowers and incense, dwellings, lamps and candles—whatever they need, he supplies each one.’

The treatise-author explains: Bodhisattvas are of two kinds: the first can enable beings to leave suffering; the second can give beings ease and joy. There are again two kinds: the first pities the beings of the three evil paths; the second pities humans. This bodhisattva wishes to give beings ease and joy; because he pities humans, he gives them whatever they need.

Transforming His Body to Resemble a Buddha and Entering the Three Evil Paths to Teach the Dharma

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising prajñāpāramitā, transforms his body to resemble a Buddha and teaches the Dharma for the beings in the hells, and also teaches the Dharma for the beings among the animals and the hungry ghosts.’

Question: Why does this bodhisattva transform himself into a Buddha's body? Does this not seem like disrespect for the Buddha?

Answer: Some beings can be ferried across only on seeing a Buddha's body; others are ferried across only on seeing a wheel-turning sage king or some other bodily form; therefore he transforms his body into a Buddha. Furthermore, the world all calls the Buddha by the titles Great Compassion and World-Honored One; if he enters the hells in a Buddha's body, King Yama and the ghosts and spirits will not obstruct him—this is the teacher I revere; how could I stop him?

Question: Again: in the hells there is the burning of fire, there is constant suffering and pain, and the mind is constantly scattered, so they cannot take in the Dharma; how can they be transformed?

Answer: This bodhisattva, by the power of inconceivable supernormal abilities, breaks the cauldrons, extinguishes the fires, restrains the hell-wardens, and shines light upon them, causing the beings' minds to feel gladness and joy; only then does he teach them the Dharma, and as soon as they hear it they are able to receive and uphold it.

Question: Once more: then are there beings in the hells who attain the path?

Answer: Although they do not attain the path, they can plant the wholesome-root causes and conditions for attaining the path. Why? Because their offences are too heavy, and the time for attaining the path has not yet come. As for the path of animals, one must distinguish: some can attain the path and some cannot; for example, the nāga king Anavatapta, the nāga king Sāgara, and others have attained the bodhisattva path. On the path of ghosts and spirits, there are also those such as the yakṣas, the Vajra of Secret Traces, the Mother of Demons, and others who have already attained the path of seeing; these are all great bodhisattvas.

Transforming His Body Throughout the Ten Directions, Surveying and Gathering from Pure Lands, and Raising a Surpassing World of His Own

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising the six perfections, transforms his body to resemble a Buddha, goes everywhere to the Buddha-worlds of the ten directions as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, and teaches the Dharma for beings; he also makes offerings to the Buddhas, adorns and purifies Buddha-worlds, and listens to the Buddhas teach the Dharma; he observes and gathers the marks of the pure and wondrous lands of the ten directions and raises up a surpassing world of his own, in which the bodhisattva-mahāsattvas are all final-birth bodhisattvas.’

The treatise-author explains: This bodhisattva teaches the Dharma to all six destinies everywhere, and teaches the Dharma to the beings of the ten directions in a Buddha's body. If beings hear the instruction of a disciple, they do not necessarily believe and accept it; if they hear the Dharma spoken by the one who alone is honored, the Buddha, the sovereign one, they believe and accept his words. This bodhisattva makes offerings to the Buddhas and adorns worlds for the sake of two things: first, to hear the Dharma-gate of adorning worlds; second, to go to the Buddha-lands of the ten directions and gather the marks of pure worlds. By the causes and conditions of the deeds of this practice, he becomes all the more excellent and his radiance increases. Why? Because in this land all are final-birth bodhisattvas.

Question: Earlier it was already said, ‘the final-birth bodhisattva in the Tuṣita Heaven’; why is it now said again, ‘the bodhisattvas of the worlds of other directions are all final-birth’?

Answer: The final-birth bodhisattva in the Tuṣita Heaven is the constant rule of the three-thousand world; in other places it is not fixed. What is called the foremost purity is so because on turning from this body one at once becomes a Buddha.

The Thirty-Two Marks and Pure, Keen Faculties: Liberating Beings by the Three Vehicles

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising the six perfections, accomplishes the thirty-two marks and faculties that are pure and keen. Because his faculties are pure and keen, people love and revere him; because he is loved and revered, he gradually liberates beings by the dharmas of the three vehicles. Śāriputra! In this way, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, should train in purity of body and purity of speech.’

The treatise-author explains: This bodhisattva wishes beings to be ferried across as soon as they see his bodily form, so he adorns his body with the thirty-two marks. As for ‘faculties that are pure and keen’: the eye and the other faculties are bright and keen, surpassing those of others; the faculties among the mental factors, such as the faculty of faith and the faculty of wisdom, are also foremost in purity and keenness. Those who see him praise this as rare: “I have nothing like this!” So they love and revere this bodhisattva, believe and accept his words, are complete in the dharmas of the path life after life, and by the paths of the three vehicles enter nirvāṇa. These thirty-two marks and the eye and other faculties are all obtained from the purity of the causes and conditions of the deeds of body and speech, and so the Buddha says: ‘The bodhisattva should purify the deeds of body and speech.’

Attaining Pure Faculties Without Exalting Himself or Belittling Others

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising the six perfections, attains purity of the faculties, yet with these pure faculties does not exalt himself and does not look down on others.’

The treatise-author explains: Because this bodhisattva constantly, deeply, and purely practises the six perfections, he attains eye and other faculties that are pure and keen, and everyone loves and reveres him; the faculties among the mental-factor dharmas, such as wisdom, are pure and keen beyond compare, and all this is for ferrying beings across. The common way of the world is this: once someone has gained some distinction, the mind exalts itself and belittles others, giving rise to such a thought as: “You do not have this; I alone have it!” Because of this, one loses the Buddha path instead. It is as said in the sūtra: “If a bodhisattva slights other bodhisattvas, with each thought he falls one kalpa further from the Buddha path; he must pass through that many kalpas before he can cultivate the Buddha path anew.” Therefore he does not exalt himself and does not look down on others.

From the First Arousing of the Mind, Never Falling into the Evil Paths

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, from the first arousing of the mind, abides in the perfection of giving and the perfection of morality, and right up to the ground of the avaivartika never falls into the evil paths.’

The treatise-author explains: From the very beginning this bodhisattva fears the evil paths, and for all the merits he makes he vows not to fall. As for ‘right up to the ground of the avaivartika’: it is because during the interval before he reaches that ground he fears falling into the evil paths, and so he makes the vow. The bodhisattva thinks: “If I fall into the three evil paths, I cannot even ferry myself across—how could I ferry others? Moreover, while undergoing the suffering and torment of the three evil paths, because of anger and torment the fetters grow; I would again produce evil deeds and again undergo painful recompense; if it goes on like this without end, when would I ever practise the Buddha path?”

Question: Since the fruit of keeping the precepts is precisely not falling into the evil paths, why is giving also mentioned?

Answer: Keeping the precepts is the root of not falling into the evil paths, and giving can also keep one from falling. Furthermore, although a bodhisattva who keeps the precepts does not fall into the evil paths, he may be born poor among humans, unable to benefit himself and unable to benefit others; therefore he practises giving. The other perfections also each have their own use.

Never Abandoning the Ten Wholesome Practices

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who from the first arousing of the mind right up to the ground of the avaivartika never abandons the ten wholesome practices.’

The treatise-author explains: The Buddha said earlier that by keeping the precepts one does not fall into the evil paths, with giving following along; now, fearing that people still do not know how to practise the perfection of morality (śīla) right up to the ground of the avaivartika, he says further, ‘constantly practises the ten wholesome deeds’. Furthermore, earlier it was said that the bodhisattva's keeping of the precepts was not yet firm and needed giving to help it; now it is said that as long as he keeps the precepts firmly and does not abandon the ten wholesome deeds, he does not fall into the three evil paths.

Vowing to Be a Wheel-Turning Sage King: Establishing Beings in the Ten Wholesome Deeds

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, abiding in the perfection of giving and the perfection of morality, becomes a wheel-turning sage king, establishes beings on the path of the ten wholesome deeds, and also gives wealth and goods to beings.’

The treatise-author explains: Because of the causes and conditions of these two perfections, giving and morality, he becomes a wheel-turning sage king. Because he practises the perfection of morality, he is able to make beings believe and accept the ten wholesome deeds; because he practises the perfection of giving, he gives wealth and treasure to beings and his giving is never exhausted.

Question: Must all bodhisattvas practise these two perfections and become wheel-turning sage kings?

Answer: Not necessarily! Why? As in this very chapter, the bodhisattvas enter the Buddha path by all kinds of Dharma-gates. Some bodhisattvas hear of the conduct and ordinances of a wheel-turning sage king and consider that in that position they can benefit beings, and so they make such a vow; there are also bodhisattvas who, though they have planted the causes and conditions for becoming a wheel-turning sage king, have made no vow, and likewise obtain the recompense of a wheel-turning sage king. He himself practises these two perfections, and so he becomes a wheel-turning sage king, and he also teaches all beings to practise the path of the ten wholesome deeds, and himself also practises giving. The listeners then raise a doubt: “Does he become one for only a single life, or life after life?” Therefore what follows—

Becoming a Wheel-Turning Sage King for Immeasurable Thousands of Myriads of Lives and Making Offerings to the Buddhas

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, abiding in the perfection of giving and the perfection of morality, becomes a wheel-turning sage king for immeasurable thousands of myriads of lives, meets immeasurable hundreds of thousands of Buddhas, and makes offerings to them, reveres them, honors them, and praises them.’

The treatise-author explains: If a bodhisattva knows that becoming a wheel-turning sage king can greatly benefit beings, he becomes a wheel-turning sage king; if he himself knows that taking some other bodily form would benefit them more, then he takes that other body. Furthermore, it is in order to make great offerings to the Buddha by means of worldly dharmas that he becomes a wheel-turning sage king.

Illuminating with the Dharma: How the Bodhisattva Lights Up Beings

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who constantly illuminates beings with the Dharma and also uses it to illuminate himself; right up to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi he never parts from this illumination. Śāriputra! This bodhisattva-mahāsattva is already honored within the Buddha-dharma. Śāriputra! Therefore, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not let impurities of body, speech, and mind arise at random.’

The treatise-author explains: The bodhisattva above practised giving and morality and became a wheel-turning sage king; this one devotes himself to distinguishing the sūtras, reciting, recollecting, reflecting on, and distinguishing the dharmas, and uses this to seek the Buddha path. With the light of this wisdom he benefits himself and can also benefit beings; it is like a person lighting a lamp on a dark road, illuminating himself and illuminating others too. As for ‘never parts’: it means that for this reason he never parts from the light of wisdom, right up to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.

Furthermore, this bodhisattva practises the giving of Dharma purely, not seeking fame and gain, offerings, or reverence, not greedy for disciples, not relying on his own wisdom, neither exalting himself and belittling others nor mocking anyone; he only keeps in mind that the Buddhas of the ten directions remember beings with a kind mind, and I too should train in the Buddha path in this way: when teaching the Dharma, relying on nothing and clinging to nothing, doing it only for beings, so that they may know the real mark of all dharmas. Teaching the Dharma purely in this way, life after life he does not lose the light of wisdom, right up to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. As for ‘already honored’: it means that if all the bodhisattvas described above can be like this, they are honored by all beings. As for ‘does not let impurities of body, speech, and mind arise at random’: it means that one who can practise the pure giving of Dharma should not further give rise, in a mixed way, to evil deeds of body, speech, and mind. Why? If he gives rise to evil deeds of body, speech, and mind, the listeners may perhaps not believe and accept; if the deeds of mind are impure, wisdom is not bright; if wisdom is not bright, he cannot practise the bodhisattva path well. Furthermore, it is not only this one bodhisattva: all the bodhisattvas spoken of earlier who can practise this dharma are named ones who honor the Buddha's teaching. If bodhisattvas wish to practise the bodhisattva path, none of them should mix in offences; all evil, offending deeds they do not let arise at random. Those who practise in a mixed way find the practice of the path difficult and cannot quickly accomplish the Buddha path, because the causes and conditions of offending deeds ruin all kinds of merit.

Śāriputra Asks: What Are Impurities of Body, Speech, and Mind?

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What counts as the bodhisattva's impure deeds of body, impure deeds of speech, and impure deeds of mind?’

Question: Śāriputra is foremost in wisdom; how could he fail to recognise the evil deeds of body, speech, and mind?

Answer: Within the śrāvaka dharma Śāriputra does recognise them; it is only because the bodhisattva's matters are different that he does not know them; as the sūtra says, if a bodhisattva gives rise to the mind of a śrāvaka or a pratyekabuddha, this is the bodhisattva's breaking of the precepts. Therefore Śāriputra had a doubt, not knowing what is an offence for a bodhisattva and what is not an offence. Furthermore, Śāriputra knows the three unwholesome paths of body, the four unwholesome paths of speech, and the three unwholesome paths of mind, and that these are the offences of body, speech, and mind; yet here the Buddha's answer is: ‘If the bodhisattva grasps and clings to the marks of body, speech, and mind, this is the bodhisattva's offence of body, speech, and mind.’ For causes and conditions such as these, Śāriputra asks the question.

Grasping Marks Is Precisely the Bodhisattva's Offence of Body, Speech, and Mind

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘If a bodhisattva-mahāsattva gives rise to such a thought—this is body, this is speech, this is mind—grasping marks in this way and taking them as objects; Śāriputra! This is called the bodhisattva's offence of body, speech, and mind. Śāriputra! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not obtain body, does not obtain speech, does not obtain mind. Śāriputra! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, if he obtains body, obtains speech, obtains mind, then because of obtaining body, speech, and mind he is able to give rise to the mind of stinginess, the mind of breaking the precepts, the mind of anger, the mind of laziness, the mind of distraction, and the mind of delusion. You should know that this bodhisattva, when practising the six perfections, cannot remove the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind.’

The treatise-author explains: The Buddha makes clear to Śāriputra—the bodhisattva within the emptiness of dharmas does not see these three deeds, and this is freedom from offence; if he sees these three deeds, that is offence. In the śrāvaka dharma, only the ten unwholesome paths count as offending deeds; in the Mahāyāna, seeing that there is something done by body, speech, or mind counts as offence. Why? Because where there is something done and something seen, the doer and the seer are both false and deceptive. The coarse person has coarse offences; the subtle person has subtle offences. It is as when leaving the desire of the desire realm: the five desires and the five hindrances are evil offences, and the wholesome initial and sustained thought included in the first meditation is free from offence; when leaving the first meditation and entering the second, initial and sustained thought become offence, and the wholesome joy included in the second meditation is free from offence; and so on up to the station of neither perception nor non-perception, all is like this. Once one enters the real mark of all dharmas, every contemplation, every view, every dharma is named offence. Because people of the Small Vehicle fear the three evil paths, they take the ten unwholesome deeds as offence; people of the Great Vehicle name as offence every dharma that can give rise to clinging and grasping of marks and that runs counter to the three gates of liberation. Because the angle from which they look is different, it is named the Great Vehicle.

If one sees that these three deeds exist, then even without giving rise to evil, it does not count as firm; only not seeing these three deeds of body, speech, and mind is the root, and only this counts as firm. Because of the emptiness of dharmas, this bodhisattva does not see these three things; it is precisely by grasping and clinging to these three things that one gives rise to the mark of stinginess, the mark of breaking the precepts, the mark of anger, the mark of laziness, the mark of distraction, and the mark of delusion. Since the cause is absent, the fruit is also absent, just as where there is no tree there is no shade of a tree; if one is able to contemplate in this way, one can remove the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind.

Question: Earlier it said ‘offending deeds’; why does it now say ‘coarse deeds’?

Answer: Coarse deeds and offending deeds are not different; offence is precisely coarse and cannot be called subtle. Furthermore, śrāvakas call the unwholesome deeds of body and speech coarse, and the unwholesome deeds of mind subtle; they call fetters such as anger and wrong views coarse offences, and fetters such as craving and conceit subtle offences; they call the three evil thoughts—the thought of desire, the thought of anger, and the thought of harming—coarse, and the thought of kin, the thought of homeland, and the thought of not dying subtle, and only wholesome thought is called very subtle—but in the Mahāyāna all of these count as coarse, and so here coarse offences are spoken of.

How to Remove the Coarse Deeds of Body, Speech, and Mind

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva remove the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind?’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘If the bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not obtain body, does not obtain speech, does not obtain mind, such a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is able to remove the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind. Furthermore, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva who from the first arousing of intention practises the path of the ten wholesome deeds, and does not give rise to the śrāvaka mind or the pratyekabuddha mind—such a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is able to remove the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind.’

Question: What kind of subtle deeds of body, speech, and mind are they, such that what runs counter to them counts as coarse?

Answer: It is just as was said earlier. Furthermore, the deeds of ordinary people are coarse compared with the deeds of śrāvakas, and the deeds of śrāvakas are coarse compared with the Great Vehicle. Furthermore, stained deeds are coarse and unstained deeds are subtle; deeds that can produce the causes and conditions of painful feeling are coarse, and deeds that do not produce the causes and conditions of painful feeling are subtle; deeds with initial and sustained thought are coarse, and deeds without initial and sustained thought are subtle. Furthermore, seeing that there is a self, up to seeing that there is a knower and a seer, is coarse; if one does not see a self, up to a knower and a seer, and sees only the places of the three deeds, the five aggregates, the twelve sense-fields, and the eighteen elements, that is subtle. Furthermore, what has something seen is named coarse, and what has nothing seen is named subtle. Therefore the Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘If the bodhisattva does not obtain body, speech, and mind, then he removes the three kinds of coarse deeds.’ Furthermore, from the first arousing of intention abiding in ultimate emptiness, where all dharmas are unfindable, yet constantly practising the path of the ten wholesome deeds, and not giving rise to the śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha mind; with a mind that does not grasp marks, dedicating all wholesome roots to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi—this is called the bodhisattva's removal of the offence of coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind, and is named purity.

Purifying the Buddha Path: All Dharmas Are Unfindable

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising prajñāpāramitā and purifying the Buddha path, practises the perfection of giving, the perfection of morality, the perfection of patience, the perfection of vigour, and the perfection of meditation; this is called the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's removal of the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind.’ Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What is the Buddha path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva?’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘What is called the Buddha path means that the bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not obtain body, does not obtain speech, does not obtain mind, does not obtain the perfection of giving, up to not obtaining the perfection of prajñā, does not obtain śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas, does not obtain bodhisattvas, does not obtain Buddhas. Śāriputra! This is called the Buddha path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, and it is precisely because all dharmas are unfindable.’

The treatise-author explains: This bodhisattva purifies the Buddha path by the general mark of the six perfections.

Question: Śāriputra heard from the Buddha that ‘removing the three evils and removing the three coarse deeds is purifying the Buddha path’; why does he ask again now?

Answer: What was spoken of earlier is the mark of purity of the three deeds; what is spoken of now is the mark of purity of all dharmas; earlier it was stated briefly, now it is stated in terms of the particular marks. Earlier it spoke only of not obtaining the three deeds; now it speaks of not obtaining the six perfections, the worthies and sages, the bodhisattvas, and the Buddha—only this is called purifying the Buddha path, because all dharmas are unfindable. ‘Not obtaining body, up to not obtaining the perfection of prajñā’ is the emptiness of dharmas; ‘not obtaining śrāvakas, up to not obtaining Buddhas’ is the emptiness of beings. Abiding in these two emptinesses, the bodhisattva gradually attains the emptiness of all that is unfindable, and the emptiness of the unfindable is precisely the real mark of all dharmas. The meaning of this ‘emptiness of the unfindable’ is as was said earlier among the ‘eighteen emptinesses’.

Practising the Six Perfections, and No One Can Ruin Him

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising the six perfections, cannot be ruined by anyone.’ Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises the six perfections, how is it that no one can ruin him?’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘If the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising the six perfections, does not think that there is form, up to consciousness; does not think that there is the eye, up to the mind; does not think that there are forms, up to dharmas; does not think that there is the eye-element, up to the dharma-element; does not think that there are the four foundations of mindfulness, up to the limbs of the eightfold noble path; does not think that there is the perfection of giving, up to the perfection of prajñā; does not think that there are the ten powers, up to the eighteen unshared dharmas; does not think that there is the fruit of the stream-enterer, up to the fruit of the arhat; does not think that there is the pratyekabuddha, up to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises in this way increases the six perfections, and no one can ruin him.’

The treatise-author explains: The Buddha has distinguished the bodhisattvas for Śāriputra in all kinds of ways, and next says that there is a kind of bodhisattva whom no one can ruin from the moment he arouses the mind. Śāriputra, both astonished and glad, and revering the bodhisattvas, therefore asks: ‘The bodhisattva's fetters are not yet cut off, and he has not yet realised the dharma of the real mark; by what cause and condition can he not be ruined?’ The Buddha answers: ‘If the bodhisattva does not think that there is form, up to not thinking that there is anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; having attained this emptiness of dharmas, he also attains the emptiness of beings. If dharmas are empty, then that which contemplates emptiness is also empty. Abiding in this unobstructed prajñāpāramitā, no one can ruin him.’

Complete in Wisdom, Never Falling into the Evil Paths

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who abides in prajñāpāramitā and is complete in wisdom. Because of this wisdom, he never falls into the evil paths, is not born among wretched and evil people, and does not become a poor person; and the body he receives is not hated by humans, gods, or asuras.’

The treatise-author explains: This bodhisattva, from past lives onward, has loved wisdom, studied all scriptures and writings extensively, observed and reflected, listened to and gathered the dharmas, and by the power of his own wisdom investigated the real mark in all dharmas. Because he has attained the real mark of all these dharmas, he is deeply loved and kept in mind by the Buddhas. By the causes and conditions of this immeasurable wisdom and merit, he is complete in body and mind, constantly enjoys wealth and happiness, and has none of the various things that go against his wishes.

What Is the Bodhisattva's Wisdom?

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What is the wisdom of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva?’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘With this wisdom the bodhisattva-mahāsattva accomplishes seeing the Buddhas of the ten directions as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, hearing the Dharma, seeing the Saṅgha, and also seeing pure and adorned Buddha-lands. With this wisdom the bodhisattva-mahāsattva nevertheless does not form the notion of a Buddha, does not form the notion of a bodhisattva, does not form the notion of a śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha, does not form the notion of a self, does not form the notion of a Buddha-land. With this wisdom he practises the perfection of giving yet does not obtain the perfection of giving, up to practising the perfection of prajñā yet not obtaining the perfection of prajñā; he practises the four foundations of mindfulness yet does not obtain the four foundations of mindfulness, up to practising the eighteen unshared dharmas yet not obtaining the eighteen unshared dharmas. Śāriputra! This is called the wisdom of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva. With this wisdom he is able to be complete in all dharmas, and yet does not obtain any dharma.’

The treatise-author explains: Here the Buddha speaks of two kinds of wisdom: the first can distinguish and break down the dharmas without grasping marks; the second, with a mind that does not cling and without grasping marks, attains the seeing of the Buddhas of the ten directions and the hearing of the Dharma.

Question: How does one practise the perfection of giving and yet not obtain giving?

Answer: He does not grasp whether this giving is one or different, real or empty. This giving arises from the coming together of many causes and conditions; within this giving he enables beings to attain wealth and happiness and also encourages and assists the Buddha path; therefore he practises giving yet does not obtain giving. The meaning of ‘not obtaining’ is as was said earlier. Up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, all is likewise. This is called ‘the bodhisattva's wisdom is able to be complete in all dharmas and yet does not obtain the dharmas’.

Purifying the Five Eyes, and the Purity of the Fleshly Eye

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! There is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva who, when practising prajñāpāramitā, purifies the five eyes: the fleshly eye, the divine eye, the wisdom eye, the Dharma eye, and the Buddha eye.’ Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What counts as the purity of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's fleshly eye?’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘There are bodhisattvas whose fleshly eye can see a hundred yojanas; there are bodhisattvas whose fleshly eye sees two hundred yojanas; there are bodhisattvas whose fleshly eye sees one Jambudvīpa; there are bodhisattvas whose fleshly eye sees two continents, three continents, four continents; there are bodhisattvas whose fleshly eye sees a small-thousand world; there are bodhisattvas whose fleshly eye sees a middle-thousand world; there are bodhisattvas whose fleshly eye sees the three-thousand great-thousand world. Śāriputra! This is the purity of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's fleshly eye.’

Question: Why does the Buddha not say ‘practising prajñāpāramitā produces the five eyes’, but says ‘purifies the five eyes’?

Answer: The bodhisattva originally has the fleshly eye, and also has a share of the other four eyes; it is only that they are covered by offences and fetters and are not pure. It is like a mirror, whose nature is able to reflect clearly; because of accumulated grime it does not reflect; if the grime is removed, it reflects clearly as before. The bodhisattva practises the six perfections and extinguishes the dharmas of grime, so his eyes become pure. The fleshly eye is purified by the causes and conditions of deeds; the divine eye is purified by the causes and conditions of meditative absorption and of deeds; the other three eyes are purified by the causes and conditions of cultivating immeasurable wisdom and merit. The greatest bodhisattva has the most excellent fleshly eye, able to see the three-thousand great-thousand world.

Question: In the three-thousand great-thousand world there are a hundred koṭi Sumeru mountains, the Iron Ring mountains, hills and mounds, trees and so on, all of which are obstructions; how can one see through all of it? If one can see it, why the need for the divine eye? If one cannot see it, how can it be said here, ‘sees the three-thousand great-thousand world’?

Answer: He does not see through obstructions; rather, without any obstruction he gets to see the three-thousand world, as clearly as looking at the palm of his own hand. Furthermore, some say: the bodhisattva's divine eye is of two kinds—the first obtained from the power of meditative absorption, the second obtained as the recompense of the deeds of past lives. The divine eye born of the recompense of deeds is always present within the fleshly eye, so nothing in the three-thousand world can obstruct it; because the divine eye has opened up the obstructions, the fleshly eye gets to see. Therefore the fleshly eye borrows the name ‘divine eye born of recompense’, is always present, and has no need to gather the mind.

Question: Again: the Buddha is the World-Honored One and his power extends to everything; why does he see only one three-thousand great-thousand world and cannot see more?

Answer: If the fleshly eye could see beyond the three-thousand great-thousand world, why the need for the divine eye? It is precisely because the fleshly eye cannot reach there that one trains in the divine eye. Furthermore, the three-thousand great-thousand world arises all together at one time at the beginning of the kalpa and perishes all together at one time at the end of the kalpa; beyond the world there are countless yojanas that are all empty space, and in the empty space there is always wind. The fleshly eye runs counter to the wind; because of this contrariety it cannot pass beyond to see other worlds. Or there may be a bodhisattva who dwells at the edge of the domain of a three-thousand world; reckoning the distance in between, he too should be able to see the neighbouring worlds of other directions.

Question: Once more: why do bodhisattvas and Buddhas not accumulate immeasurable pure merit so that the fleshly eye can see farther?

Answer: The causes and conditions of the fleshly eye are false, deceptive, and impure; only the causes and conditions of the divine eye are pure; it is only when there is no divine eye that one forcibly cultivates the fleshly eye and forces it to see far. Furthermore, as the sūtra says, at the very farthest one sees no more than the three-thousand world; but the Buddha-dharma is inconceivable and the sūtras and dharmas are extremely many, so perhaps one can see farther, only it is not said here.

A bodhisattva a little less far along, who sees the Buddha path, can see a two-thousand middle world; because the pure deeds he has planted as causes and conditions are few, it is somewhat smaller; one less than that sees a small-thousand world; one less again sees four continents, one Mount Sumeru, one place of a sun and moon; and again there are those who see three continents, two continents, one continent, a thousand yojanas, down to a hundred yojanas. This is the smallest purity of the fleshly eye.

Question: Why not take ninety, eighty yojanas and so on as the smallest?

Answer: What a wheel-turning sage king sees already surpasses others; again, some people, through causes and conditions such as lighting lamps in past lives, obtain a firm eye-faculty and can see far; but however far, in the end they cannot see as far as a hundred yojanas. Therefore even the smallest among bodhisattvas can see a hundred yojanas.

Question: Again: the sun and moon are in the sky, forty-two thousand yojanas from the earth, and everyone can see them; why then can one not see a hundred yojanas? And what is there worth praising in being able to see a hundred yojanas?

Answer: Although the sun and moon are far off, they have their own light that reflects their forms back, and so people get to see them; other colors are not like this. Moreover, the sun and moon are so far away that, though seen, they are seen inverted. Why? The sun and moon are five hundred yojanas across, yet what is now seen is no bigger than a fan; being originally large yet seen as small—this is inverted and not true. The bodhisattva's fleshly eye is not like this!

Question: Once more: once the bodhisattva has attained the fleshly eye, what things can he see?

Answer: He can see all visible forms. As for the meaning of ‘form’, it has been explained in detail in the section on ‘the aggregate of form’.

The Purity of the Divine Eye

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What counts as the purity of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's divine eye?’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘The divine eye of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva can see all that is seen by the gods of the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings; can see what is seen by the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the Yāma Heaven, the Tuṣita Heaven, the Heaven of Delight in Transformations, and the Heaven Sovereign over Others' Transformations; can see what is seen by the Brahmā king, up to what is seen by the Akaniṣṭha Heaven. What the bodhisattva's divine eye sees, the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven do not know and do not see. Śāriputra! The divine eye of this bodhisattva-mahāsattva can see the beings in the Buddha-worlds of the ten directions, as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, dying in this place and being born in that. Śāriputra! This is the purity of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's divine eye.’

The treatise-author explains: The bodhisattva's divine eye is of two kinds: the first obtained as recompense, the second obtained by cultivating meditation. The one obtained as recompense is always used together with the fleshly eye; only in the dark of night is the divine eye used alone. The recompense divine eye that ordinary people obtain sees only the four continents and the gods of the desire realm, and can see downward but not upward; the recompense divine eye that the bodhisattva obtains, however, can see the three-thousand great-thousand world. As for what is seen by the divine eye obtained through meditative absorption and leaving desire, it is as said earlier in ‘the knowledge of the divine eye among the ten powers’. With this divine eye the bodhisattva sees, without any obstruction, the births and deaths, good and evil, beauty and ugliness, and the causes and conditions of good and evil deeds of the beings in worlds of the ten directions as numerous as the sands of the Ganges. What he sees fully encompasses what is seen by the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Akaniṣṭha Heaven, and goes beyond it too; yet these heavens cannot know what the bodhisattva's divine eye sees. Why? Because this bodhisattva has already left the three realms, has attained the body born of dharma-nature, and has attained the ten powers of a bodhisattva. For causes and conditions such as these, the bodhisattva's divine eye is pure. The remaining discussion of the bodhisattva's divine eye is as said in ‘Praising the Five Supernormal Powers of the Bodhisattva’.

The Purity of the Wisdom Eye

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What counts as the purity of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's wisdom eye?’ The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘The bodhisattva of the wisdom eye does not give rise to such a thought: that there is a dharma which is conditioned or unconditioned, worldly or world-transcending, with outflows or without outflows. This bodhisattva of the wisdom eye has no dharma he does not see, no dharma he does not hear, no dharma he does not know, no dharma he does not cognise. Śāriputra! This is the purity of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's wisdom eye.’

The treatise-author explains: The fleshly eye cannot see things beyond obstructions, nor can it see far, and therefore one seeks the divine eye. Although the divine eye can see, it too is false and deceptive: it sees marks of one and different, grasps the marks of male and female, grasps the marks of all kinds of things such as trees; what it sees are false, deceptive dharmas made of many things coming together, and therefore one seeks the wisdom eye; in the wisdom eye there are no such faults.

Question: If so, what then is the mark of the wisdom eye?

Answer: Some say that right view within the eightfold noble path is the mark of the wisdom eye, because it can see the real mark of the five aggregates of clinging and break the inversions. Some say that the wisdom which can take nirvāṇa as its object is named the wisdom eye, because its object cannot be ruined, so this wisdom is not false. Some say that only the wisdom associated with the three gates of liberation is called the wisdom eye, because it can open the gate of nirvāṇa. Some say that when wisdom is present, can contemplate the reality-limit, penetrates clearly and deeply, and comprehends and knows completely—only this is called the wisdom eye. Some say it is that which can penetrate dharma-nature, passing straight through without obstruction. Some say that the concentrated mind clearly knowing the suchness of the marks of dharmas—only this is called the wisdom eye. Some say that the emptiness of dharmas is called the wisdom eye. Some say that when, within the emptiness of the unfindable, there is not even the emptiness of dharmas—only this is called the wisdom eye. Some say that the eighteen emptinesses are all the wisdom eye. Some say that delusion and wisdom are neither one nor different; worldly dharmas are not different from the world-transcending, and world-transcending dharmas are not different from the worldly; worldly dharmas are precisely the world-transcending, and world-transcending dharmas are precisely the worldly. Why? Because their difference is utterly unfindable. All contemplations are extinguished, all the movements of mind turn back and have nowhere to go, all words and speech are extinguished, and the mark of worldly dharmas is like nirvāṇa, no different—such wisdom is what is called the wisdom eye.

Furthermore, here the Buddha himself says: ‘The bodhisattva of the wisdom eye, among all dharmas, does not think of conditioned or unconditioned, does not think of worldly or world-transcending, does not think of with outflows or without outflows, and so on.’ Only this is called the wisdom eye. If a bodhisattva sees the conditioned, the worldly, and what has outflows, he falls into the view of existence; if he sees the unconditioned, the world-transcending, and what is without outflows, he falls into the view of non-existence. Abandoning both these views of existence and non-existence, and walking the middle way with the wisdom that is free of idle discourse—only this is called the wisdom eye. Having attained this wisdom eye, there is no dharma he does not see, hear, know, or cognise. Why? Because having attained this wisdom eye, he can break crooked dharmas and dharmas of ignorance; whether general marks or particular marks, it is so with each.

Question: Arhats and pratyekabuddhas also attain the wisdom eye; why is it not said of them that ‘there is no dharma they do not see, no dharma they do not hear, no dharma they do not know, no dharma they do not cognise’?

Answer: The wisdom eye is of two kinds: the first of the general mark, the second of the particular mark. Śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas see only the general marks of dharmas, namely impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and so on; the Buddha contemplates the dharmas with the wisdom of both general and particular marks. Although śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have the wisdom eye, it is measured and limited. Furthermore, although the wisdom eye of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas sees the real mark of dharmas, because their causes and conditions are few, their wisdom eye is also small and cannot illuminate dharma-nature everywhere; it is like a lamp whose oil and wick, though pure, cannot illuminate widely because it is small. The wisdom eye of the Buddhas illuminates the real nature of dharmas through and through, to its very edge and bottom, so there is no dharma it does not see, hear, know, or cognise; it is like the great fire at the end of the kalpa burning the three-thousand world, whose light illuminates everything. Furthermore, if the wisdom eye of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas truly knew every dharma, how would they differ from the all-knowing one? And what use would there be in the bodhisattva's accumulating merit, wisdom, and ascetic practice life after life?

Question: It is with the Buddha eye that the Buddha knows every dharma, and that is not the wisdom eye; why is it now said that ‘the wisdom eye knows every dharma’?

Answer: When one becomes a Buddha, the wisdom eye changes its name and is called the Buddha eye, because ignorance and the other afflictions, together with their habit-energies, have all been extinguished, so it is clear with regard to all dharmas. It is as said in ‘the Buddha eye’: ‘There is no dharma it does not see, hear, know, or cognise.’ Therefore the fleshly eye, the divine eye, the wisdom eye, and the Dharma eye all lose their original names upon becoming a Buddha, and are named only the Buddha eye. It is like the four great rivers of Jambudvīpa, which lose their original names when they flow into the great ocean. Why? The fleshly eye is born of the afflictions and deeds with outflows, and is false, deceptive, and not real; only the Buddha eye has no deceptive dharma. The divine eye, too, arises from the coming together of the causes and conditions of meditative absorption, so it is false and deceptive and cannot see things as they really are. The wisdom eye and the Dharma eye, because the habit-energies of the afflictions are not yet exhausted, are not ultimately pure, and so they must be relinquished. In the Buddha eye there is no error; it reaches to the very limit! Therefore the wisdom eye of the arhats and pratyekabuddhas cannot be ultimately pure, and so it cannot see every dharma.

Question: Again: the Buddha presently has a fleshly eye obtained as recompense, which can see forms; how is this so?

Answer: Although the fleshly eye gives rise to eye-consciousness, the Buddha does not follow it in using it and does not take it as real; as said in ‘the Sovereign Supernormal Powers of the Noble Ones’, the Buddha told Ānanda: ‘Among the pleasing forms that are seen, give rise to a mind of aversion; when the eye sees displeasing forms, give rise to a mind of non-aversion; or when seeing forms, give rise neither to the sense of the foul nor to the sense of the not-foul, but give rise only to a mind of equanimity.’ In this way the fleshly eye has nothing to do. Furthermore, some say that on attaining the noble path the five senses are all purified and differ from what they were originally. Furthermore, the ultimate emptiness of all dharmas and the unobstructed penetration of all dharmas—these two taken together are precisely the wisdom eye.

The Purity of the Dharma Eye: From Cutting Off the Three Fetters to the Bodhisattva's Nineteen Kinds of Discerning Knowledge

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How is it that a bodhisattva-mahāsattva's Dharma eye is pure?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘With the Dharma eye the bodhisattva-mahāsattva knows: this person is a follower-by-faith, this person is a follower-by-Dharma, this person is a signless practitioner; this person practises the emptiness gate of liberation, this person practises the signless gate of liberation, this person practises the non-action gate of liberation. He obtains the five faculties; because he obtains the five faculties he obtains the uninterrupted samādhi; because he obtains the uninterrupted samādhi he obtains the knowledge of liberation; because he obtains the knowledge of liberation he cuts off the three fetters—the view of self (the view of the existence of the aggregates), doubt, and clinging to precepts and observances (clinging to fasts and precepts)—and this person is then named a srota-āpanna. This person further obtains the path of contemplation, and greed, anger, and delusion gradually thin out, and he will obtain the state of sakṛdāgāmin; advancing further on the path of contemplation, he cuts off greed and anger and obtains the state of anāgāmin; advancing still further on the path of contemplation, he cuts off attachment to form, attachment to the formless, ignorance, conceit, and restlessness, and obtains the state of arhat. Again, this person practises the three gates of liberation—emptiness, the signless, and non-action—obtains the five faculties; through the five faculties he obtains the uninterrupted samādhi; through the uninterrupted samādhi he obtains the knowledge of liberation; because of the knowledge of liberation he knows that all dharmas that have a gathering-into-arising are dharmas that can cease, and thereupon he accomplishes pratyekabuddhahood. This is the bodhisattva's purity of the Dharma eye.

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva knows: a certain bodhisattva, at the time of the first arousing of intent, practises the perfection of giving up to the perfection of prajñā, accomplishes the faculty of faith and the faculty of vigour, and his roots of goodness are pure and deep; because of the power of skilful means he takes on a body in order to ferry beings across—born either into a great kṣatriya clan, or into a great brahmin clan, or into a great householder family; or born in the heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Heaven Sovereign over Others' Transformations; this bodhisattva, dwelling there, brings beings to maturity, gives beings whatever they delight in, also purifies Buddha-worlds, meets the Buddhas, and makes offerings to them, reveres them, honours them, and praises them, all the way until he accomplishes unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, and never at any point falls to the ground of the śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas—this is the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's purity of the Dharma eye.

‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva knows in this way: he knows that this bodhisattva is retrogressing with regard to unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, and knows that that bodhisattva is non-retrogressing with regard to unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening; he knows that this bodhisattva has already received the prediction of unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, and knows that that bodhisattva has not yet received the prediction of unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening; he knows that this bodhisattva has already reached the avaivartika ground, and knows that that bodhisattva has not yet reached the avaivartika ground; he knows that this bodhisattva is already complete in supernormal powers, and knows that that bodhisattva is not yet complete in supernormal powers; he knows that this bodhisattva, being already complete in supernormal powers, is able to fly to worlds in the ten directions as many as the sands of the Ganges, see the Buddhas, and make offerings to them, revere them, honour them, and praise them; he knows that this bodhisattva has not yet obtained supernormal powers and is about to obtain them; he knows that this bodhisattva is about to purify a Buddha-world, or has not yet purified a Buddha-world; that this bodhisattva has already brought beings to maturity, or has not yet brought beings to maturity; that this bodhisattva is extolled by the Buddhas, or is not extolled by the Buddhas; that this bodhisattva draws near to the Buddhas, or does not draw near to the Buddhas; that this bodhisattva's lifespan is limited, or his lifespan is limitless; that when this bodhisattva becomes a Buddha his assembly of bhikṣus is limited, or his assembly of bhikṣus is limitless; that when this bodhisattva attains unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, he takes bodhisattvas as his saṅgha, or does not take bodhisattvas as his saṅgha; that this bodhisattva is about to undergo ascetic practice and difficult practice, or does not undergo ascetic practice and difficult practice; that this bodhisattva is one bound to a single further birth, or is not yet one bound to a single further birth; that this bodhisattva has already received his final body, or has not yet received his final body; that this bodhisattva is able to sit at the seat of awakening, or is not able to sit at the seat of awakening; that this bodhisattva has Māra, or has no Māra. In this way, Śāriputra! This is the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's purity of the Dharma eye.’

The Treatise Explains the Dharma Eye: Why the Five Eyes Arise One from Another in Sequence, and Why the Dharma Eye Alone Leads Beings into the Dharma

What follows is the treatise-author's explanation.

The treatise-author explains: When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva first arouses the mind, he sees with the fleshly eye the beings of the world undergoing all kinds of suffering and affliction, and kindness and pity arise in his mind; so he trains in the meditations and cultivates and obtains the five supernormal powers, and with the divine eye he sees everywhere the beings of the six paths undergoing all kinds of bodily suffering and mental suffering; because his pity grows greater, he seeks the wisdom eye in order to rescue them. Having obtained the wisdom eye, he sees that the marks of beings' minds are of all different kinds, and he considers how to enable beings to obtain this true Dharma; therefore he seeks the Dharma eye, in order to lead beings and cause them to enter the Dharma; that is why it is named the Dharma eye.

As for ‘this person is a follower-by-faith, this person is a follower-by-Dharma’: this refers to the time of first entering the path without outflows—a person of dull faculties is named a follower-by-faith, because this person at first attains the path by relying on the power of faith, and so is named a follower-by-faith; a person of sharp faculties is named a follower-by-Dharma, because this person attains the path by being able to discriminate dharmas, and so is named a follower-by-Dharma. These two kinds of people, within the fifteen mind-moments of the path of seeing, are also both named signless practitioners. Past this point, one is named either srota-āpanna, or sakṛdāgāmin, or anāgāmin. Within the fifteen mind-moments one is extremely swift, and no one can grasp his marks; that is why it is named signless.

Some people, from the beginningless world onward, have always been straightforward by nature and have loved and delighted in what is true; some people love to practise relinquishment; some people in life after life have always loved wholesome stillness. Those who love what is true attain the path by the emptiness gate of liberation, because among all things true, emptiness is foremost; those who love relinquishment attain the path by practising the non-action gate of liberation; those who love wholesome stillness attain the path by practising the signless gate of liberation.

Question: Why is it said ‘obtains the five faculties’?

Answer: Some say that all noble paths are named the five faculties, because the five faculties are able to establish the noble path. Although the eight faculties are all wholesome, the three faculties without outflows among them have no distinction of their own, so only the five faculties are spoken of.

The samādhi that is associated with the moment of taking the fruit is named ‘the uninterrupted samādhi’; having obtained this samādhi, one then obtains the knowledge of liberation, and with this knowledge of liberation one cuts off the three fetters and attains the realisation of the fruit.

As for ‘the view of the existence of the aggregates’: it is the view that grasps at ‘I’ or ‘mine’ arising within the five aggregates of clinging.

As for ‘doubt’: it is being unable to give rise to faith in the Three Jewels and the four truths.

As for ‘clinging to fasts and precepts’: it is grasping at the teachings of the ninety-six kinds of outside paths, clinging to such a teaching and falsely imagining that by means of it one will obtain liberation from suffering.

Question: The fetters cut off by seeing the truths are ten; when one obtains the fruit of srota-āpanna, why is it said that only three fetters are cut off, and not said that seven fetters are cut off?

Answer: If ‘the view of the existence of the aggregates’ is spoken of, all the fetters of views have already been spoken of completely, just as it is said in the sūtra: ‘The view of the existence of the aggregates is the root of the sixty-two views.’ If a person clings to a self, he further reflects in this way: Is the self permanent? Or impermanent? If he holds it to be impermanent, he falls into annihilation and gives rise to wrong view, saying there is no wrongdoing and no merit. If he holds it to be permanent, he falls into the view of permanence and gives rise to clinging to fasts and precepts; falsely reckoning, he hopes to attain the path, or he cultivates the bliss of merit in future lives; to obtain these two things he clings to precepts. Again, in seeking the causes and conditions of suffering and pleasure, he says they are made by a god, and thus gives rise to clinging to views. Therefore, if ‘the view of the existence of the aggregates’ is spoken of, the two views, the extreme view and wrong view, are wholly included; if ‘clinging to fasts and precepts’ is spoken of, clinging to views has already been spoken of completely. The remaining four fetters have not yet had their roots pulled out, so they are not spoken of. These ten fetters, among what is cut off in the three realms with respect to the four truths, when divided out, make eighty-eight proclivities.

The srota-āpanna up to the pratyekabuddha, and the discrimination of the content of the śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha paths, are as was said earlier.

The bodhisattva's Dharma eye is of two kinds: the first discriminates and knows the gateways by which śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas attain the path through skilful means; the second knows the gateways by which bodhisattvas practise the path through skilful means. The matters of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas have already been spoken of earlier in various places; now the bodhisattva's Dharma should be discriminated.

Suppose the bodhisattva knows that a certain bodhisattva deeply practises the six perfections, and because his afflictions have thinned, with the faculty of faith, the faculty of vigour, and skilful means, he takes on a body in order to ferry beings across. This bodhisattva is a fleshly body of birth and death; he has not yet obtained the Dharma-body of the Dharma-nature with its supernormal powers; therefore the three faculties without outflows are not spoken of, because he has not yet become free of desire. In this life he cultivates the merit of giving and accomplishes the faculty of faith and the faculty of vigour, and in a later life he is born into a great kṣatriya clan, up to the Heaven Sovereign over Others' Transformations. This is knowing the cause first and knowing the fruit afterwards.

Furthermore, as for ‘this bodhisattva does not retrogress’: it is just as ‘the marks of non-retrogression’ spoken of earlier, and also as spoken of later in the chapter ‘Avaivartika’; the opposite of this is named retrogressing. Non-retrogressing bodhisattvas are of two kinds: first, those who have already received the prediction; second, those who have not yet received the prediction—just as is said among the four kinds of prediction in the Śūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra.

As for ‘complete in supernormal powers’: it is being able, in worlds of the ten directions as many as the sands of the Ganges, to transform simultaneously into immeasurable bodies, making offerings to the Buddhas, hearing the Dharma, expounding the Dharma, and ferrying beings across. One such as this, whom none apart from the Buddha can equal, is the bodhisattva of the final body; the opposite of this is named not complete. Furthermore, having nothing lacking within one's own ground is named complete; not yet being accomplished within each ground is not complete.

As for ‘obtaining supernormal powers’, there are two kinds: some use them and some do not use them. As for ‘not yet having obtained supernormal powers’: some bodhisattvas, because they have newly aroused the intent, have not yet obtained supernormal powers; or because they have not yet become free of desire, or because of a lazy mind, or because they practise other Dharma-gates—all these count as not yet having obtained them; the opposite of the above is ‘obtaining’.

As for ‘purifying a Buddha-world, not yet having purified a world’: it is as was said earlier.

As for ‘bringing beings to maturity’, there are two kinds: some first accomplish merit themselves and then ferry beings across; some first bring beings to maturity and afterwards accomplish merit themselves. It is like when the Buddha Jewel Flower was about to enter nirvāṇa: he observed the minds of two bodhisattvas, namely the Bodhisattva Maitreya and the Bodhisattva Śākyamuni. In the Bodhisattva Maitreya, his own merit was accomplished but his disciples were not yet matured; in the Bodhisattva Śākyamuni, his disciples were matured but he himself was not yet accomplished. Bringing a great multitude of people to maturity is difficult; accomplishing oneself is easy. Having considered in this way, the Buddha Jewel Flower entered a jewelled cave in a valley of the Snow Mountains, and his body emitted light. At that time the Bodhisattva Śākyamuni saw the Buddha, his mind became pure, and standing on one foot for seven days and seven nights he praised the Buddha with a single verse; by virtue of this cause and condition he leapt over nine kalpas. Knowing in this way is knowing the bodhisattva who has already brought beings to maturity and the bodhisattva who has not yet brought beings to maturity.

As for ‘extolled by the Buddhas’: it is as was said earlier; the opposite of this is named ‘not extolled’.

As for ‘draws near to the Buddhas’, ‘limitless lifespan’, ‘a limitless saṅgha of bhikṣus’, ‘taking bodhisattvas alone as the saṅgha’, and ‘not undergoing ascetic practice’: these are as was said at the end of the First Chapter.

As for ‘one bound to a single further birth’: some are known by their features, just as the seer Asita observed his bodily marks and knew he would become a Buddha in this life. The brahmin Shanruo, seeing the milk-rice gruel, knew that the one who would become a Buddha that day ought to eat it. Again, it is like the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, Avalokiteśvara, the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, and others, who, seeing that this bodhisattva has marks like those of the Buddhas, know that he will become a Buddha—and so on in this way.

As for ‘sitting at the seat of awakening’: some bodhisattva sees the place where a certain bodhisattva walks, and beneath the earth there is a vajra ground holding this bodhisattva up; he also sees gods, nāgas, ghosts, and spirits holding all kinds of offerings and bringing them to the seat of awakening—and so on in this way—and then knows that he will sit at the seat of awakening.

As for ‘having Māra’: in former lives, when he obstructed others in practising the path and in the various causes and conditions of seeking the Buddha path, he did not like to cultivate the mind of kindness, and preferred to cultivate emptiness and other Dharma-gates—through causes and conditions such as these, because in former lives he ruined others' practice of the path, Māra therefore comes to ruin his.

Question: How is it that a bodhisattva of the final body still has to undergo the recompense of evil deeds and be ruined by Māra?

Answer: Bodhisattvas enter the Buddha path through all kinds of gates: some enter the Buddha path through the gate of compassion, some through the gate of vigour and wisdom. This bodhisattva practises the gate of vigour and wisdom and does not cultivate the mind of compassion, because he prefers to cultivate vigour and wisdom. It is like a noble person who, although he has all kinds of fine clothes, sometimes wears only one and does not wear the rest; the bodhisattva is also like this: he cultivates all kinds of practices to seek the Buddha path, and sometimes practises only the path of vigour and wisdom and lets the mind of kindness and compassion rest. Ruining others' practice of the path comes about because of overweening pride. The long-lived gods, the nāgas, and the ghosts and spirits do not recognise skilful means; when they see the causes and conditions of the bodhisattva's evil conduct, if he were not to receive the recompense they would give rise to the view of annihilation, and therefore the Buddha manifests receiving the recompense. Therefore, although there are no real causes and conditions of wrongdoing and yet there really is Māra, it is by the power of skilful means that having Māra is manifested.

In this way, all the various gates of skilful means of the śrāvakas, the pratyekabuddhas, and the bodhisattvas are able to cause beings to enter the path; this is named ‘the purity of the Dharma eye’.

The Purity of the Buddha Eye: Entering the Vajra-like Samādhi and Attaining Omniscience of All Kinds; Prajñā Can Give Rise to the Five Eyes

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How is it that a bodhisattva-mahāsattva's Buddha eye is pure?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with the mind that seeks the Buddha path, enters in sequence the vajra-like samādhi and attains omniscience of all kinds. At that time he accomplishes the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, the eighteen unshared dharmas, and great kindness and great compassion. This bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with omniscience of all kinds, among all dharmas has no dharma he does not see, no dharma he does not hear, no dharma he does not know, no dharma he does not cognise. Śāriputra! This is the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's purity of the Buddha eye at the time he attains unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening. In this way, Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who wishes to obtain the five eyes should train in the six perfections. Why? Śāriputra! These six perfections gather in all wholesome dharmas completely—whether the dharmas of the śrāvakas, the dharmas of the pratyekabuddhas, the dharmas of the bodhisattvas, or the dharmas of the Buddhas. Śāriputra! If there is a true word that is able to gather in all wholesome dharmas completely, it is prajñāpāramitā. Śāriputra! Prajñāpāramitā is able to give rise to the five eyes; a bodhisattva who trains in these five eyes attains unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening.’

The Treatise Explains the Buddha Eye: Three Kinds of Kindness and Compassion, and the Nine Tiers of What the Five Eyes See in Common

The treatise-author explains: The bodhisattva, dwelling in the ten grounds, is complete in the six perfections up to omniscience of all kinds. The bodhisattva enters the vajra-like samādhi and breaks through the residual habits of all the afflictions; at that very moment he attains the unobstructed liberation of the Buddhas, and immediately the Buddha eye arises—that is, omniscience of all kinds, the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, up to great kindness and great compassion and the other merits; this is named ‘the Buddha eye’.

Question: Wisdom and the seeing of things are the marks of an eye; how can great kindness and compassion and the rest also be named ‘eye’?

Answer: Because all the merits are associated with the wisdom eye, they are all together called eye. Furthermore, the mind of kindness and compassion is of three kinds: that which takes beings as its object, that which takes dharmas as its object, and that which has no object. Ordinary people take beings as the object; śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas at first take beings as the object, and later take dharmas as the object; the Buddhas are skilled in cultivating ultimate emptiness, and so it is named objectless; therefore kindness and compassion are also named the Buddha eye.

The Buddha eye has been spoken of; now the use of the Buddha eye is spoken of: this eye has no dharma it does not see, does not hear, does not know, does not cognise. Furthermore, some say: ‘Bodhisattvas of the tenth abode are no different from the Buddha—like Samantabhadra, Mañjuśrī, the One Who Observes the Sounds of the World, and others, who are complete in the Buddha's merits such as the ten powers and yet do not become Buddhas; this is for the sake of ferrying beings across on a vast scale.’ Doubt arises because of this. Therefore the marks of the Buddha eye are spoken of—among the beings and all the dharmas of the ten directions, there is nothing it does not see, nothing it does not hear. These bodhisattvas are great in comparison with other bodhisattvas, but compared with the Buddha they cannot know everything; just as moonlight, though great, does not show under sunlight.

Question: The eye has the mark of seeing; how can ‘hearing’ be spoken of?

Answer: The wisdom of beings arises from the six sense faculties and is able to know the six sense objects. Some say that the Buddha has things he does not hear, just as it is said in the scriptures of the outside paths that there may be things he does not hear; therefore it is said that the Buddha's wisdom has nothing it does not hear. Again, of the wisdom produced by the causes and conditions of ear-consciousness—of what this wisdom knows it is said ‘there is no dharma it does not hear’.

Question: Why are what three consciousnesses know combined into one, while what three consciousnesses know is separated into three—the eye being named seeing, the ear being named hearing, the knowing of the mind being named cognising, and the consciousnesses of nose, tongue, and body being named sensing?

Answer: Those three consciousnesses (eye, ear, and mind) have many dharmas that aid the path, so they are spoken of separately; the other three consciousnesses are not so, so they are spoken of together. These three consciousnesses (nose, tongue, and body) know only worldly matters, so they are combined into one; the other three consciousnesses know both the worldly and the world-transcending, so they are spoken of separately. Furthermore, these three consciousnesses take only indeterminate dharmas as their object; the other three consciousnesses take as object sometimes the wholesome, sometimes the unwholesome, sometimes the indeterminate. Furthermore, these three consciousnesses are able to give rise to the causes and conditions of the three vehicles—as the eye sees the Buddha and the Buddha's disciples, the ear hears the Dharma, and the mind weighs and rightly recollects. Because of all kinds of differences such as these, the matters known by the six consciousnesses are divided into four divisions.

As for omniscience of all kinds: it is like a person's eye, which sees the near and does not see the far, sees the inner and does not see the outer, sees the coarse and does not see the subtle, sees the east and does not see the west, sees this side and does not see that side, sees what is joined together and does not see what is scattered apart, sees the time of arising and does not see the time of ceasing.

Seen by the fleshly eye, not seen by the divine eye: because the eye faculty is accomplished, yet he is an ordinary person not yet free of desire, he therefore has no divine eye.

Seen by the divine eye, not seen by the wisdom eye: because an ordinary person obtains the supernormal power of the divine eye, he therefore has no wisdom eye.

Seen by the wisdom eye, not seen by the Dharma eye: a śrāvaka sage not yet free of desire, who does not know the various paths for ferrying beings across, therefore has no Dharma eye.

Seen by the Dharma eye, not seen by the Buddha eye: a bodhisattva who has obtained the knowledge of the kinds of paths and knows the various paths for ferrying beings across, not yet having become a Buddha, therefore has no Buddha eye.

Furthermore, seen by the fleshly eye and the divine eye, not seen by the wisdom eye, the Dharma eye, or the Buddha eye: because an ordinary person's eye faculty is accomplished and he obtains the supernormal power of the divine eye, he therefore has no wisdom eye, Dharma eye, or Buddha eye.

Seen by the fleshly eye and the wisdom eye, not seen by the Dharma eye or the Buddha eye: a śrāvaka sage whose eye faculty is accomplished; not knowing the various paths for ferrying beings across, he therefore has no Dharma eye, and because he is a śrāvaka he therefore has no Buddha eye.

Seen by the fleshly eye and the Dharma eye, not seen by the Buddha eye: a bodhisattva who has first obtained the acceptance of non-arising and has not yet received the body born of the Dharma-nature obtains the knowledge of the kinds of paths; not yet having become a Buddha, he therefore has no Buddha eye.

Seen by the divine eye and the wisdom eye, not seen by the Dharma eye or the Buddha eye: a śrāvaka sage free of desire obtains the supernormal power of the divine eye; because he is not a bodhisattva he has no knowledge of the kinds of paths, having no knowledge of the kinds of paths he therefore has no Dharma eye, and because he is a śrāvaka he therefore has no Buddha eye.

Seen by the divine eye and the Dharma eye, not seen by the Buddha eye: one who obtains the bodhisattva's supernormal powers and knows the various paths for ferrying beings across; not yet having become a Buddha, he therefore has no Buddha eye.

Seen by the wisdom eye and the Dharma eye, not seen by the Buddha eye: a bodhisattva obtains the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas; having obtained the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas, he is able to observe the causes and conditions by which all beings attain the path, and ferries them across to liberation by all kinds of paths; not yet having become a Buddha, he therefore has no Buddha eye.

Furthermore, seen by the fleshly eye, the divine eye, and the wisdom eye, not seen by the Dharma eye or the Buddha eye: a śrāvaka sage whose eye faculty is accomplished obtains the supernormal power of the divine eye; because he has no knowledge of the kinds of paths he therefore has no Dharma eye, and because he is a śrāvaka he therefore has no Buddha eye.

Seen by the divine eye, the wisdom eye, and the Dharma eye, not seen by the Buddha eye: a bodhisattva with a body born of the Dharma-nature, complete in the six supernormal powers, ferrying beings across by all kinds of paths; not yet having become a Buddha, he therefore has no Buddha eye.

Furthermore, seen by the fleshly eye, the divine eye, the wisdom eye, and the Dharma eye, not seen by the Buddha eye: a bodhisattva who has first obtained the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas and has not yet given up the fleshly body obtains the bodhisattva's supernormal powers, and the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas and the knowledge of the kinds of paths are both already complete; not yet having become a Buddha, he therefore has no Buddha eye.

With such cases as these, one cannot be named ‘there is no dharma not seen, not heard, not sensed, not cognised’. Only when one contemplates dharmas with the Buddha eye is it named ‘there is nothing not seen, nothing not heard, nothing not sensed, nothing not cognised’. The five sense objects, discriminated according to their meaning, are also like this.

The three vehicles and the other wholesome dharmas are the causes and conditions of the five eyes. All wholesome dharmas are gathered in by the six perfections; these six perfections take prajñāpāramitā as their root. Therefore it is said: ‘Prajñāpāramitā is able to give rise to the five eyes; a bodhisattva who gradually trains in these five eyes will before long become a Buddha.’

The Perfection of Supernormal Powers: With the Six Supernormal Powers Every Matter Goes as One Wishes, All Empty by Own-Nature, Except as Done for the Mind of Sarvajñā

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, cultivates the perfection of supernormal powers. With this perfection of supernormal powers he undergoes all kinds of matters that go as he wishes: he is able to shake the great earth; he transforms one body into countless bodies, and returns countless bodies again into one body; he is sovereign in both vanishing and appearing; he passes through mountains, walls, and trees without obstruction, as if moving through empty space; he treads on water as if treading on earth; he rides the air like a flying bird; he emerges from and sinks into the earth as if coming out of and going into water; his body emits smoke and flame like a great mass of fire; water comes forth from his body like the streams of the Snow Mountains; the sun and moon have great majestic virtue and a power hard to withstand, yet he is able to stroke them with his hand; up to reaching the Brahmā heaven, he is sovereign in his body. Nor does he cling to this supernormal power of doing as he wishes; the matters of the supernormal power and his own self are both unfindable, because they are empty by own-nature, separated by own-nature, and non-arising by own-nature. He does not have this thought: “I have obtained the supernormal power of doing as I wish”—except as done for the mind of sarvajñā, omniscience. In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, obtains the realisation-by-knowledge of the supernormal power of doing as one wishes.

‘This bodhisattva, with the pure divine ear that surpasses the human ear, hears two kinds of sound: divine sounds and human sounds. Nor does he cling to this supernormal power of the divine ear; the divine ear, the sounds, and his own self are all unfindable, because they are empty by own-nature, separated by own-nature, and non-arising by own-nature. He does not have this thought: “I have this divine ear”—except as done for the mind of sarvajñā. In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, obtains the realisation-by-knowledge of the supernormal power of the divine ear.

‘This bodhisattva knows as it really is the minds of other beings: if it is a mind with desire, he knows as it really is that it is a mind with desire; a mind free of desire, he knows as it really is that it is a mind free of desire; an angry mind, he knows as it really is as an angry mind; a mind free of anger, he knows as it really is as a mind free of anger; a deluded mind, he knows as it really is as a deluded mind; a mind free of delusion, he knows as it really is as a mind free of delusion; a mind of craving, he knows as it really is as a mind of craving; a mind without craving, he knows as it really is as a mind without craving; a mind with grasping, he knows as it really is as a mind with grasping; a mind without grasping, he knows as it really is as a mind without grasping; a collected mind, he knows as it really is as a collected mind; a scattered mind, he knows as it really is as a scattered mind; a small mind, he knows as it really is as a small mind; a great mind, he knows as it really is as a great mind; a concentrated mind, he knows as it really is as a concentrated mind; a disordered mind, he knows as it really is as a disordered mind; a liberated mind, he knows as it really is as a liberated mind; an unliberated mind, he knows as it really is as an unliberated mind; a surpassable mind, he knows as it really is as a surpassable mind; an unsurpassable mind, he knows as it really is as an unsurpassable mind. Nor does he cling to this mind! Why? Because this mind is not the mark of mind and is inconceivable, and because it is empty by own-nature, separated by own-nature, and non-arising by own-nature. He does not have this thought: “I have obtained the realisation-by-knowledge of others' minds”—except as done for the mind of sarvajñā. In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, obtains the realisation-by-knowledge of the supernormal power of knowing others' minds.

‘This bodhisattva, with the supernormal power of the realisation-by-knowledge of former lives, recollects one mind-moment up to a hundred mind-moments, recollects one day up to a hundred days, recollects one month up to a hundred months, recollects one year up to a hundred years, recollects one kalpa up to a hundred kalpas, countless hundreds of kalpas, countless thousands of kalpas, countless hundreds of thousands of kalpas, up to countless hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭi of kalpas of lives; he recollects: in such a place I had such a clan, such a name, such a birth, such food, abode so long, had such a limit of life, such a length of life, underwent suffering and pleasure thus; I died in this interval and was born in that place, died in that place and was born in this place—all with its marks and its causes and conditions. Nor does he cling to this supernormal power of former lives; the matters of the supernormal power of former lives and his own self are both unfindable, because they are empty by own-nature, separated by own-nature, and non-arising by own-nature. He does not have this thought: “I have this supernormal power of former lives”—except as done for the mind of sarvajñā. In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, obtains the realisation-by-knowledge of the supernormal power of former lives.

‘This bodhisattva, with the divine eye, sees beings at the time of death and the time of birth, the handsome and the ugly, those in evil places and those in good places, whether great or small; he knows that beings follow the causes and conditions of their deeds: these beings, because they have accomplished evil deeds of body, accomplished evil deeds of speech, and accomplished evil deeds of mind, and further because of the causes and conditions of slandering the noble ones and holding wrong views, at the breaking up of the body and the end of life fall into the evil paths and are born in hell; these beings, because of the causes and conditions of having accomplished wholesome deeds of body, accomplished wholesome deeds of speech, and accomplished wholesome deeds of mind, not slandering the noble ones, and holding right view, at the end of life enter the good paths and are born in the heavens. Nor does he cling to this supernormal power of the divine eye; the matters of the supernormal power of the divine eye and his own self are both unfindable, because they are empty by own-nature, separated by own-nature, and non-arising by own-nature. He does not have this thought: “I have this supernormal power of the divine eye”—except as done for the mind of sarvajñā. In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, obtains the realisation-by-knowledge of the supernormal power of the divine eye. He also sees the deaths and births of beings in worlds of the ten directions as many as the sands of the Ganges, up to their being born in the heavens. The other four supernormal powers are also like this.

‘As for this bodhisattva-mahāsattva's supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows: although he obtains the supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows, he does not fall to the ground of the śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas; even up to unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, he does not rely on any other dharma. Nor does he cling to this supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows; the matters of the supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows and his own self are both unfindable, because they are empty by own-nature, separated by own-nature, and non-arising by own-nature. He does not have this thought: “I have obtained the supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows”—except as done for the mind of sarvajñā. In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, obtains the realisation-by-knowledge of the supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows.

‘In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, is complete in the perfection of supernormal powers; having become complete in the perfection of supernormal powers, he then increases unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening.’

The Treatise Explains the Supernormal Powers: The Simile of the Jewels, and How the Supernormal Powers of the Outside Paths Differ from Those of the Sages

The treatise-author explains: It is like the great ocean, in which there are all kinds of jewels: some can kill poison, some can ward off ghosts, some can break sickness, some can remove cold and heat, hunger and thirst, and some can give people whatever they wish; jewels such as these are immeasurable and countless. The ocean of the Great Vehicle is also like this: it has all kinds of bodhisattva-jewels—some bodhisattvas can break the three evil paths, some can open the three good gates, some can give rise to the five eyes, some can practise the perfection of supernormal powers. For this reason bodhisattvas are able to do extraordinary and rare things; that is, by taking much of the mark of space and little of the mark of earth, they can shake the great earth at will. One body can transform into many bodies, and many bodies can merge into one body; empty space is always filled with fine dust; this person, through the causes and conditions of freedom from desire and of merit, gathers the particles of dust to make the bodies and makes them all alike.

Some say: The non-humans revere this bodhisattva who is free of desire, enter into his body, and whatever transformation his mind intends, they are all able to transform. A wheel-turning sage king has not yet become free of desire, and because he has only a little in the way of causes and conditions of merit, the ghosts and spirits are still made to serve him—how much more the one who is free of desire and practises the immeasurable minds!

Furthermore, this mind has no fixed place of dwelling, whether within or without, whether great or small; because of the power of meditative concentration his mind is pliant and supple, swiftly pervades the bodies, and returns quickly too. It is like a thousand-headed nāga, which has two thousand eyes and two thousand ears, and a thousand mouths besides, and its mind can use them all at once; if a nāga with its coarse body is still like this, how much more a bodhisattva!

Some say: The affairs of the person who sits in meditation—all the power and force he has—are inconceivable; therefore one body can transform into immeasurable bodies, and immeasurable bodies can merge into one body.

As for being unobstructed by stone walls: it is taking the mark of empty space in the stone wall, so that the particles of dust open apart, like a stake driven into the earth.

As for treading on water: because he takes much of the mark of earth, he treads on water as if treading on earth; because he takes much of the mark of water, he enters the earth as if entering water; because he takes much of the mark of fire, his body emits smoke and fire.

As for stroking the sun and moon: it is by the inconceivable power of the supernormal powers that his hand is made to reach the sun and moon; because he enters the fire concentration, the moon cannot make him cold; because he enters the water concentration, the sun cannot make him hot.

Question: The power of these supernormal powers can reach even into the fourth meditation; why is it said here ‘only up to the Brahmā world is he sovereign in his body’?

Answer: This has already been said earlier: because Brahmā's heaven is the first gate, saying ‘the Brahmā world’ wholly includes the entire form realm. Again, worldly people all esteem the Brahmā king, regarding him as the lord of the world. Again, this bodhisattva does not wish to display his sovereignty within the scattered mind of the desire realm, so it is only among those free of desire that he is able to act.

In this way the marks of the supernormal powers are immeasurable and countless; in order to make them easy to understand, a few similes have been given briefly.

The outside paths have two faults with regard to these supernormal powers: first, they give rise to the mind of I and mine, thinking ‘I am able to bring this about’, and become arrogant; second, they cling to these supernormal powers, just as a greedy person clings to treasure. Therefore the supernormal powers of the outside paths are not equal to the supernormal powers of the sages. The bodhisattva, with regard to this power of supernormal powers, knows that all dharmas are by own-nature unarisen, and therefore does not cling; he keeps in mind only omniscience of all kinds, for the sake of ferrying beings across.

The other five supernormal powers are also like this: each is discriminated according to its dharma, its marks are spoken of first, and afterwards it is always brought to emptiness. The remaining meaning of the six supernormal powers is as spoken of for the meaning of the five supernormal powers in the chapter ‘Praising the Bodhisattvas’.

Because these six supernormal powers benefit beings broadly, it is said: ‘Being complete in obtaining supernormal powers such as these, one increases unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening.’

Abiding in the Six Perfections and Purifying the Path of Sarvajñā: Each One Is Ultimately Empty, Making No Discrimination between Giving and Receiving

The Buddha said: ‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, abides in the perfection of giving and purifies the path of sarvajñā, ultimately empty, because he does not give rise to a stingy mind.

‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, abides in the perfection of morality and purifies the path of sarvajñā, ultimately empty, because he clings to neither offence nor non-offence.

‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, abides in the perfection of patience and purifies the path of sarvajñā, ultimately empty, because he is not angry.

‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, abides in the perfection of vigour and purifies the path of sarvajñā, ultimately empty, because his body and mind are vigorous and do not slacken or rest.

‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, abides in the perfection of meditation and purifies the path of sarvajñā, ultimately empty, because he is not scattered and does not relish its taste.

‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, abides in the perfection of prajñā and purifies the path of sarvajñā, ultimately empty, because he does not give rise to a deluded mind.

‘In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, abides in the six perfections and purifies the path of sarvajñā; because of ultimate emptiness, there is no coming and no going, no giving and no receiving, neither morality nor transgression, neither patience nor anger, neither advancing nor slackening, neither concentration nor disorder, neither wisdom nor folly.

‘At this time the bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not discriminate between giving and not giving, keeping the precepts and breaking the precepts, patience and anger, vigour and laziness, a concentrated mind and a disordered mind, wisdom and folly; nor does he discriminate harm, contempt, or reverence. Why? Śāriputra! In the dharma of non-arising, there is no one who receives harm, no one who receives injury, no one who receives contempt or reverence.

‘Śāriputra! A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises prajñāpāramitā obtains merits such as these, which the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas do not have. Having obtained these merits completely, he brings beings to maturity, purifies Buddha-worlds, and attains omniscience of all kinds!’

The Treatise Explains the Ultimate Emptiness of the Six Perfections: The Vajra Mountain in Winds from Four Sides, a Mind Unchanged by Abuse or Praise

The treatise-author explains: This bodhisattva, first arousing the intent, practises prajñāpāramitā, and gradually cultivates the other merits, namely the perfection of giving and the rest. The bodhisattva abides in the perfection of giving and cultivates the path of sarvajñā, contemplating all dharmas as ultimately empty and not giving rise to a mind of stinginess and greed; because of these two things, he opens up the path of sarvajñā. Why? In ultimate emptiness there is no stinginess or greed; because the root of stinginess and greed has been cut off, he is complete in the perfection of giving; because he is complete in the perfection of giving, he adorns prajñāpāramitā; and so on up to prajñāpāramitā, which, because of ultimate emptiness, never gives rise to a deluded mind. Why? Here the Buddha himself says: ‘All dharmas neither come nor go, there is no giving and no receiving, up to neither wisdom nor folly.’

Question: If one is able to contemplate in this way and practise the six perfections, what benefit is obtained?

Answer: Here the Buddha himself says: this bodhisattva does not think that there is something given, nor that there is nothing given. If he thinks there is something given, he falls into false dharmas, and further clings to giving and his mind becomes arrogant. If he thinks there is nothing given, he falls into wrong view. This discourse on giving is the first gate in the Buddha-Dharma—how could it be said not to exist? And so on up to not thinking that there is folly or that there is wisdom.

This person is like a vajra mountain: wind rises on its four sides, yet cannot make it waver. At this time, whether someone abuses this bodhisattva or someone praises him, his mind is no different in either case. Why? Here the Buddha himself says: ‘In the dharma of non-arising, there is no one who abuses, no one who harms, no one who reveres.’ Śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, when they meet someone who does them harm, are unable to have a deep mind of kindness and compassion, and only either remain silent or go far away. The bodhisattva is not like this: he is able to deepen his mind of kindness, love that person like a child, and ferry him across to liberation by skilful means; for this reason he surpasses all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas and is able to teach and transform all beings; because his patience, kindness and compassion, and skilful means are deep and thick, and further because of the causes and conditions of pure deeds that follow his vows, he is able to purify a Buddha-world. Because this Dharma is already complete, before long he will attain omniscience of all kinds.

Giving Rise to an Equal Mind toward All Beings: Attaining the Equality of Dharmas, and Being Kept in Mind in This Present Life by the Buddhas of the Ten Directions

The Buddha said: ‘Furthermore, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising prajñāpāramitā, gives rise to an equal mind toward all beings; having given rise to an equal mind toward all beings, he attains the equality of all dharmas; having attained the equality of all dharmas, he establishes all beings within the equality of dharmas. This bodhisattva-mahāsattva, in this present life, is protected and kept in mind by the Buddhas of the ten directions, and is also protected and kept in mind by all bodhisattvas and all śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. Wherever this bodhisattva is born, his eye never sees unlovely forms, up to his mind never sensing unlovely dharmas. In this way, Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva who practises prajñāpāramitā does not fall short of unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening.’

The Treatise Explains the Equality of Beings and the Equality of Dharmas: The Recompense in This Life and in Later Lives from Accomplishing the Two Equalities

The treatise-author explains: If the Buddha were to speak broadly of the marks of the bodhisattvas, he could not finish speaking of them even if he exhausted kalpas; now, at the end of this chapter, the Buddha speaks briefly of their marks. These marks are sufficient to be what all bodhisattvas practise in common; that is, because of great kindness and great compassion, because of first arousing the mind to ferry all beings across, because of training in the equal mind of the Buddhas in contemplating beings, because all dharmas are empty by own-nature—because of causes and conditions such as these, he gives rise to an equal mind toward all beings; having obtained this equal mind, he attains the equality of all dharmas.

As for ‘the equality of all dharmas’: the meaning of the equality of beings and the equality of dharmas spoken of earlier should now be spoken of again. Having kindness and pity for beings of the four modes of birth and single-mindedly wishing to benefit them is named the equality of beings. Contemplating the four foundations of mindfulness and not seeing that there is a body is named the equality of dharmas; the four right efforts and the other sets of four dharmas are also like this.

Furthermore, keeping in mind that the beings of the five paths are all sunk in impermanent old age, sickness, and death—this is named the equality of beings. Cultivating the five faculties of faith and the rest, as well as the five supernormal powers, and single-mindedly wishing to ferry these beings across—this is named the equality of dharmas.

Furthermore, cultivating among beings the merits of patience, kindness and compassion, and the like, the merit is immeasurable; because the merit is immeasurable, the mind becomes supple; because the mind is supple, one swiftly obtains meditative concentration; because one cultivates meditative concentration, the mind becomes pliant as one wishes; because the mind is pliant as one wishes, one breaks through the worldly long and short, male and female, white and black, and so on, and enters the dharma of the single mark, that is, the signless. Having obtained this equality of dharmas, one causes all beings to obtain this equality of dharmas.

This bodhisattva obtains these two kinds of equality; because he accomplishes immeasurable merit and wisdom, he obtains the recompense in this present life of being kept in mind by the Buddhas and kept in mind by others. Keeping in mind that arises from affectionate attachment is all false; only the keeping in mind of the Buddhas is true keeping in mind, because it is without affectionate attachment. If even the Buddhas protect and keep this person in mind, how much more the śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas! If even the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas who have cut off the fetters lovingly keep him in mind, how much more ordinary people not yet free of desire! Because the bodhisattva is born from the causes and conditions of merit, he obtains immeasurable present-life recompense such as this.

As for the places where he is born in later lives, his eye never sees evil forms. What are called evil forms are those able to give rise to painful feeling; sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and dharmas are likewise, up to whatever is able to give rise to a sorrowful mind. It is like the six heavens of the desire realm, where what the six sense faculties encounter are all pure and wondrous five desires, delighting at will. If beings who have planted only a little merit are still born in the heavens like this, how much more the bodhisattva, whose merit and true wisdom are immeasurable and boundless, and who is protected and kept in mind by the Buddhas of the ten directions and all the other worthies and sages!

Three Hundred Bhikṣus Give Up Their Robes and Arouse the Mind, and the Buddha Smiles and Gives the Prediction; Ten Thousand People Vow to Be Born in Pure Lands

At that time, when this chapter on prajñāpāramitā was being spoken, three hundred bhikṣus rose from their seats, offered to the Buddha the robes they were wearing on their bodies, and aroused the mind of unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening. The Buddha at that moment smiled, and light of all kinds of colours issued from his mouth.

At this time the venerable Ānanda rose from his seat, arranged his robe, joined his palms, placed his right knee on the ground, and said to the Buddha: ‘Through what cause and condition does the Buddha smile?’

The Buddha told Ānanda: ‘These three hundred bhikṣus, from now on, after passing through sixty-one kalpas, will become Buddhas, all bearing the name Great Mark. These three hundred bhikṣus, after giving up this body, will be born in the land of Akṣobhya Buddha; and sixty thousand the gods of the desire realm have all aroused the mind of unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening, and in the Dharma of Maitreya Buddha they will leave home and practise the Buddha path.’

At this time, by the Buddha's majestic spiritual power, the fourfold great assembly here saw a thousand Buddhas in each of the ten directions; these worlds of the ten directions were adorned and pure, such as this Sahā world could not equal.

At this time ten thousand people made a vow, saying: ‘We shall cultivate pure vows and practices, and because of our pure vows and practices we shall be born in those Buddha-worlds.’

At this time the Buddha, knowing the deep minds of these good men, smiled again, and light of all kinds of colours issued from his mouth.

Ānanda arranged his robe, joined his palms, and said to the Buddha: ‘Through what cause and condition does the Buddha smile?’

The Buddha told Ānanda: ‘Do you see these ten thousand people?’ Ānanda said: ‘I see them!’

The Buddha said: ‘When these ten thousand people end their lives here, they will be born in those worlds, and will never be apart from the Buddhas; later they will become Buddhas, all bearing the name Adornment King.’

The Treatise Explains That Giving Up the Robes Is Not Breaking the Precepts, the Eight Causes and Conditions of the Buddha's Smile, and the Inconceivability of the Recompense of Deeds

Question: Just as the Buddha laid down the precepts, a bhikṣu's three robes should not be lacking; why did these bhikṣus break the perfection of morality in order to practise the perfection of giving?

Answer: Some say: ‘The Buddha laid down the precepts only after twelve years had passed; when these bhikṣus gave their robes, the precepts had not yet been laid down.’ Some say: ‘These bhikṣus had other robes of pure giving, and the thought arose in their minds that they would receive them, and therefore they gave.’ Some say: ‘These bhikṣus had many acquaintances and many who knew them, and could immediately obtain robes again; the matter did not need to pass the night.’ Furthermore, some say: ‘These bhikṣus heard the Buddha say, “Bodhisattvas who practise the perfection of giving, because the power and force of their merits are immeasurable, are able to be associated with prajñāpāramitā”; their minds leapt up greatly, and they immediately gave their robes, with no other thought—they did not deliberately break the precepts.’ Furthermore, these bhikṣus knew that the Buddha-Dharma is ultimately empty and without anything to cling to, and had cut off love for the Dharma; the Buddha laid down the precepts for the sake of worldly truth, not for the highest meaning. These bhikṣus heard from the Buddha the highest meaning as well as the six perfections of giving and the rest; they heard of the various great powers of the bodhisattvas, and pitied beings who, covered by the afflictions, cannot obtain these bodhisattva merits; therefore they gave rise to the mind of great compassion, and for the sake of beings aroused the intent toward unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening; therefore they gave their robes. If someone fails to keep the precepts out of greed, anger, fear, wrong view, an irreverent mind, or contempt for the Buddha's words, only then is it named breaking the precepts; these bhikṣus had none of these minds, and so they have no offence of breaking the precepts.

Question: Why did the Buddha smile?

Answer: Laughter is of various kinds: some people laugh on seeing entertainments of music and dancing girls; some people laugh while harbouring anger within; some people laugh out of arrogance; some people laugh because they look down on other things; some people laugh from joy when a matter is accomplished; some people laugh on seeing what should not be done being done; some people, harbouring deceit in their minds, laugh as a pretence of praising the good; some people laugh on seeing something rare. The Buddha now saw that because the bhikṣus gave a single kāṣāya robe, in a future age they would accomplish the work of a Buddha; this is rare, and therefore he smiled.

Question: Why is it always Ānanda who asks about the Buddha's smile, while the other bhikṣus do not ask?

Answer: These bhikṣus are not close to the Buddha, and because their minds are much filled with reverent awe, they do not dare to ask themselves. Ānanda is skilled at knowing people's features and knows the intentions of the bhikṣus; moreover, seeing the Buddha smile, because of doubt he has this thought: ‘The Buddha has no mark of beings and no mark of dharmas, and knows the three realms to be like a dream, like an illusion; what matter could now make the Buddha smile? The Buddha is like Sumeru, king of mountains, like the great earth, like the great ocean; he is not moved by small causes and conditions.’ Therefore he asks about the cause and condition of the smile.

The Buddha told Ānanda: ‘The continuity of the recompense of the causes and conditions of deeds is inconceivable! These three hundred bhikṣus, after passing through sixty-one kalpas from now, will become Buddhas, bearing the name Great Mark; during the sixty-one kalpas these people are of sharp faculties, meet Buddhas expounding the Dharma, and are associated with prajñāpāramitā, and therefore these people swiftly become Buddhas.’ Because these bhikṣus had not yet obtained the divine eye, they were themselves in doubt, not knowing where they would be born, fearing that they would be unable to accumulate the merits and unable to reach the Buddha path; therefore the Buddha said: ‘After giving up this body, they will be born in the world of Akṣobhya Buddha.’

The sixty thousand the gods of the desire realm, certainly because of the causes and conditions of merit shared in former lives, aroused the mind of unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening together with the three hundred bhikṣus; these are to be ferried across by Maitreya, and therefore the Buddha said: ‘In Maitreya's time they will leave home.’ Now the Buddha predicted that the bhikṣus would be born in the world of Akṣobhya Buddha, so these people all wished to see the pure worlds of the Buddhas; therefore the Buddha caused the great assembly to see a thousand Buddhas in each of the ten directions. This fourfold assembly saw these pure and adorned Buddha-worlds, saw that the bodies of the Buddhas were larger than Mount Sumeru, surrounded by great assemblies of bodhisattvas bound to a single further birth, their Brahmā voices reaching through immeasurable and boundless worlds; each looked down upon his own body, and because of pity for beings, in order to seek the immeasurable Buddha-Dharma, vowed to be born in those Buddha-worlds, as is said in ‘The Practices and Vows of the Pure World’. The causes and conditions of the smile are as was said earlier. When these ten thousand people end their lives here, they will be born in those lands. Because the causes and conditions of the deeds that lead them to be born in those lands are complete, and further because they have accumulated deep, thick, immeasurable merit here, they will never be apart from the Buddhas. Because they aroused the mind on seeing the adorned Buddha-worlds, they are all named the Buddha Adornment King.