大智度論 白話全本 · 冊12Dazhidulun — Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa · Complete Vernacular · Vol. 12

This fascicle is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the eighty-first chapter, "Illumination", composed by the noble Nāgārjuna and translated by the Tripiṭaka master Kumārajīva of the land of Kucha under the Later Qin; it is in the ninety-first fascicle.

Sūtra ①: Subhūti Asks How the Bodhisattva Path Is Made Complete, and the Buddha Answers That Practising the Six Perfections by the Power of Skilful Means without Finding the Three Things Is Precisely the Illumination of the Bodhisattva Path; Śāriputra's Fourfold Questioning—How One Trains in Prajñā, How One Can Train If There Is No Self-Nature to Be Destroyed or Followed, How Ordinary People and so on up to the Buddha Are Known If Dharmas Are without Nature, and How, Beings Being Known to Be without Anything Existent, One Teaches Them to Obtain the Fruits; the Buddha Answers with Not Destroying and Not Following, Not Grasping Dharmas, the Inverted Mind, and Teaching the Dharma While Abiding in the Two Truths, and Gives the Simile of a Conjurer Who Conjures Hundreds of Thousands of Myriads of Koṭi of People; Subhūti Asks Again about the Bodhisattva Path, and the Buddha Explains at Length the Marks of Practising Dānapāramitā to Bring Beings to Accomplishment and Purify Buddha-lands

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises the six perfections, the eighteen emptinesses, the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, the Buddha's ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, and the eighteen unshared dharmas, and yet does not make complete the bodhisattva path, he cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. World-Honored One! How should the bodhisattva-mahāsattva make complete the bodhisattva path, so as to be able to obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘If, when a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising prajñāpāramitā, by reason of the power of skilful means he practises dānapāramitā, not finding the giving that is practised, not finding the giver, not finding the recipient, and also not being far from these dharmas as he practises dānapāramitā—this is the illumination of the bodhisattva path. Thus, Subhūti! by reason of the power of skilful means the bodhisattva makes complete the bodhisattva path; having made it complete, he can obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Keeping morality, patience, vigour, meditative concentration, wisdom, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, are likewise.’

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva train in prajñāpāramitā?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘If a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, by reason of the power of skilful means he does not destroy form and does not follow form. Why? Because the nature of this form is without anything existent, he does not destroy it and does not follow it; and so on up to consciousness, likewise. Śāriputra! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, by reason of the power of skilful means he does not destroy and does not follow dānapāramitā. Why? Because the nature of dānapāramitā is without anything existent. And so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, likewise.’

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If dharmas have no self-nature that can be destroyed or can be followed, how can the bodhisattva-mahāsattva train in prajñāpāramitā, this place where all bodhisattva-mahāsattvas train? Why? If the bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not train in prajñāpāramitā, he cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘As you say, if the bodhisattva does not train in prajñāpāramitā, he cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; it is precisely because he is not apart from the power of skilful means that it can be obtained. Śāriputra! If, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, there were one dharma that could be found, he should grasp it; if it is unfindable, what would he grasp? Namely: this is prajñāpāramitā, this is dhyānapāramitā, this is vīryapāramitā, this is kṣāntipāramitā, this is śīlapāramitā, this is dānapāramitā; this is form, feeling, perception, constructions, consciousness; and so on up to this is anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Śāriputra! This prajñāpāramitā cannot be grasped as a mark, and so on up to all the dharmas of the buddhas cannot be grasped as a mark. Śāriputra! This is named not grasping prajñāpāramitā and so on up to the dharmas of the Buddha; this is what the bodhisattva-mahāsattva should train in. When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva trains within this, even the mark of training is unfindable, how much less prajñāpāramitā, the dharmas of the Buddha, the dharmas of bodhisattvas, the dharmas of pratyekabuddhas, the dharmas of śrāvakas, the dharmas of ordinary people! Why? Śāriputra! Among dharmas there is not one dharma that has self-nature. Among dharmas without nature such as these, which is an ordinary person, a srota-āpanna, a sakṛdāgāmin, an anāgāmin, an arhat, a pratyekabuddha, a bodhisattva, a Buddha? If there are none of these worthies and sages, how could there be dharmas? And on what basis, relying on these dharmas, would one distinguish and say: this is an ordinary person, a srota-āpanna, a sakṛdāgāmin, an anāgāmin, an arhat, a pratyekabuddha, a bodhisattva, a Buddha?’

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If dharmas are without nature, without substance, without root, and without foundation, how is it known that this is an ordinary person, and so on up to this is a Buddha?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘The form that is the place where ordinary people cling—does it have nature, does it have substance?’

‘No! World-Honored One! It is only by reason of an inverted mind. Feeling, perception, constructions, consciousness, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, are likewise.’

‘Śāriputra! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising prajñāpāramitā, by reason of the power of skilful means he sees that dharmas are without nature and without root, and for this reason he can arouse the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising prajñāpāramitā, how, by reason of the power of skilful means, does he see that dharmas are without nature and without root, and arouse the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising prajñāpāramitā, he does not, on seeing the root of dharmas, halt there in retreat and sinking and give rise to a mind of slackness. Śāriputra! The root of dharmas is in reality non-self, without anything existent, its nature ever empty; it is only by reason of inversion and delusion that beings cling to the aggregates, the sense-fields, and the elements. When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva sees that dharmas are without anything existent, their nature ever empty, empty of self-nature, he practises prajñāpāramitā, sets himself up like a conjurer, and teaches the Dharma for beings: for the stingy he teaches the dharma of giving, for those who break morality he teaches the dharma of keeping morality, for the angry he teaches the dharma of patience, for the slack he teaches the dharma of vigour, for those of scattered thought he teaches the dharma of meditative concentration, for the deluded he teaches the dharma of wisdom. He makes beings abide in giving and so on up to wisdom, and then proclaims for them the holy Dharma that can lead out of all suffering; by reason of this Dharma they obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna and so on up to obtaining the fruit of arhat and the pratyekabuddha path, and so on up to obtaining anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, having already come to know that these beings are without anything existent, still teaches them giving, keeping morality, and so on up to wisdom, and then proclaims for them the holy Dharma that can lead out of all suffering; by reason of this Dharma do they obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna and so on up to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi?’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising prajñāpāramitā, there is no fault of being with something to be attained. Why? Śāriputra! When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising prajñāpāramitā, he does not find beings; it is only that the continuity of empty dharmas is unbroken, and for this reason it is named a being. Śāriputra! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva abides in the two truths and teaches the Dharma for beings, namely worldly truth and the truth of the highest meaning. Śāriputra! Although within the two truths beings are unfindable, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practising prajñāpāramitā, by reason of the power of skilful means, still teaches the Dharma for beings. Beings hear this Dharma: even the self of this present life is unfindable, how much less the anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi that is to be obtained and the dharmas that are used! Thus, Śāriputra! when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising prajñāpāramitā, by reason of the power of skilful means he teaches the Dharma for beings.’

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! This bodhisattva-mahāsattva's mind is vast and great! Not one dharma is findable—whether one mark, or a different mark, or a specific mark—and yet he can thus take on the great adornment of the oath. By reason of this adornment he is not born in the realm of desire, not born in the realm of form, not born in the formless realm; he does not see the conditioned nature, does not see the unconditioned nature; and yet within the three realms he delivers beings, and also does not find beings. Why? Beings are neither bound nor released; because beings are neither bound nor released, they are without stain and without purity; because they are without stain and without purity, there is no discrimination of the five destinies; because there is no discrimination of the five destinies, they are without deeds and without afflictions; because they are without deeds and without afflictions, there also should not be retribution, nor should they, by reason of this retribution, be born within the three realms.’

The Buddha told Śāriputra: ‘Just so! Just so! It is as you say. If beings were first existent and afterwards non-existent, the buddhas and bodhisattvas would have fault. Dharmas and the birth and death of the five destinies are likewise: if they were first existent and afterwards non-existent, the buddhas and bodhisattvas would have fault. Śāriputra! Now, whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, the marks of dharmas abide constantly and do not differ; within this mark of dharmas there is already non-self: it is without beings, without a life, and so on up to without a knower and without a seer—how much less could there be form, feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness! If there are none of these dharmas, how could there be going and coming in the five destinies, or a place where beings are pulled out? Śāriputra! The nature of these dharmas is ever empty; for this reason the bodhisattva-mahāsattvas, hearing this mark of dharmas from the buddhas of the past, aroused the intent of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Within this there is not one dharma that I shall obtain, nor is there any place where beings definitely cling whose dharma cannot be left behind; it is only by reason of beings' inversion that they cling. For this reason the bodhisattva-mahāsattva arouses the great adornment of the oath and constantly does not retreat from anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. This bodhisattva does not doubt, saying: shall I be unable to obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi?—I shall certainly obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; having obtained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, I shall benefit beings with the real Dharma and make them leave inversion. Śāriputra! It is as a conjurer conjures up hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭi of people, gives them all kinds of food and drink and makes them full, and, delighted, cries aloud: I have obtained great merit! I have obtained great merit! What do you think? Within this, has anyone eaten and drunk and been made full?’

‘No! World-Honored One!’

The Buddha said: ‘Just so, Śāriputra! From the first arousing of intent onward, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises the six perfections, the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, the four formless absorptions, the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eightfold noble path, the fourteen emptinesses, the three gates of liberation, the eight liberations, the nine successive absorptions, the Buddha's ten powers and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas; he makes complete the bodhisattva path, brings beings to accomplishment, and purifies buddha-lands, and yet there is no dharma of beings to be delivered.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What is the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva? Does the bodhisattva, practising this path, become able to bring beings to accomplishment and purify buddha-lands?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘From the first arousing of intent onward, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises dānapāramitā, practises śīla, kṣānti, vīrya, dhyāna, and prajñāpāramitā, and so on up to practising the eighteen unshared dharmas; he brings beings to accomplishment and purifies buddha-lands.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practise dānapāramitā and bring beings to accomplishment?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘There are bodhisattva-mahāsattvas who, when practising dānapāramitā, themselves give and also teach beings to give, saying thus: Good men! Do not cling to giving! Because you cling to giving, you will receive a body again; because of receiving a body, you will receive much suffering. Good men! Within the marks of dharmas there is no thing given, no giver, no recipient; the nature of these three dharmas is all empty; this dharma of the emptiness of nature cannot be grasped, and the mark of what cannot be grasped is precisely the emptiness of nature. Thus, Subhūti! when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising dānapāramitā, he gives to beings, and within this does not find the thing given, does not find the giver, does not find the recipient. Why? Dānapāramitā with nothing to be attained is alone named dānapāramitā. Because this bodhisattva does not find these three dharmas, he can teach and transform beings and make them obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna, and so on up to making them obtain the fruit of arhat, the pratyekabuddha path, and anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Thus, Subhūti! when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising dānapāramitā, he brings beings to accomplishment. This bodhisattva himself practises giving, also teaches others to practise giving, praises the dharma of giving, and rejoices in and praises those who practise giving. Having given thus, this bodhisattva is born in a great kṣatriya clan, a great brahmin clan, or a great householder family, or becomes a minor king, or becomes a wheel-turning sage king; at this time he gathers in beings with the four things. What are the four things? Giving, kind speech, beneficial action, and shared endeavour. Having gathered in beings with these four things, beings little by little abide in morality, the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, the four formless absorptions, the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eightfold noble path, and the emptiness, signless, and non-action samādhis; they obtain entry into the right position, obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna and so on up to obtaining the fruit of arhat, or obtain the pratyekabuddha path, or he teaches them so that they obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, saying thus: Good men! You should arouse the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; this anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi is simply easy to obtain! Why? There is not one fixed dharma that is a place where beings cling; it is only by reason of inversion that beings cling. Therefore you should yourselves leave birth and death, and should also teach others to leave birth and death; you should arouse the mind, so that you can benefit yourselves and should also be able to benefit others. Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva should practise dānapāramitā thus!

‘By the causes and conditions of practising this dānapāramitā, from the first arousing of intent onward he never, from beginning to end, falls into the evil destinies, and constantly becomes a wheel-turning sage king. Why? According to the cause he has planted, he obtains great retribution. When this bodhisattva is a wheel-turning sage king, seeing those who come begging, he has this thought: I have not received the retribution of this wheel-turning sage king for any other matter; it is only for the sake of benefiting all beings. At this time he says thus: This is your thing; take it yourself, do not hesitate, I begrudge nothing at all! For the sake of beings I receive birth and death; out of pity for you I am complete with great compassion. Practising this great compassion, he benefits beings, and yet does not find a real, fixed mark of beings; it is only because there is a provisional name that one can speak of beings; this name too is empty, like the sound of an echo, and its mark is in truth unspeakable. Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva should practise dānapāramitā thus, begrudging nothing among beings, even to not begrudging the flesh of his own body, how much less things outside the body! By reason of this dharma he can bring beings out of birth and death. What is this dharma? Namely dānapāramitā, śīlapāramitā, kṣāntipāramitā, vīryapāramitā, dhyānapāramitā, prajñāpāramitā, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, which make beings obtain liberation from within birth and death.

‘Again, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva abides within dānapāramitā, and having given, says thus: Good men! Come and keep morality; I shall supply you, so that you have no lack or shortage; clothing, food and drink, bedding, and so on up to the things needed to sustain life, I shall supply them all to you. You break morality because of lack and shortage; I shall supply what you need, so that you lack nothing at all, whether food and drink or even the seven jewels. You abide within this restraint of the precepts, and little by little you shall end all suffering, accomplish the three vehicles, and be delivered: whether by the śrāvaka vehicle, or the pratyekabuddha vehicle, or the Buddha vehicle.

‘Again, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva abides within dānapāramitā; if he sees beings in anger, hatred, vexation, and rage, he says thus: Good men! For what causes and conditions are you angry and vexed? I shall give you what you need; whatever you want, take it from me, I shall supply it all to you so that you lack nothing at all, whether food and drink, clothing, and so on up to the things needed to sustain life. This bodhisattva abides within dānapāramitā and teaches beings patience, saying thus: Within all dharmas there is nothing firm and substantial; that at which you are angry—its causes and conditions are empty and without firm substance; they are all born from false recollection and imagining; you have no root. In your anger you ruin your minds, revile with evil mouths, set upon one another with knives and staves, and even take people's lives! Do not, because of giving rise to anger over these false dharmas, fall into the hells, among the animals, among the hungry ghosts, and into the other evil destinies, and receive immeasurable suffering. Do not, because of these false and unreal dharmas, make sinful deeds; because of these sinful deeds you will not even obtain a human body, how much less be born in the age of a Buddha! All of you! The age of a Buddha is hard to meet, a human body is hard to obtain; do not lose the good time! If you lose the good time, you cannot be saved. This bodhisattva-mahāsattva teaches and transforms beings thus; he himself practises patience, also teaches others to practise patience, praises the dharma of patience, and rejoices in and praises those who practise patience. This bodhisattva makes beings abide in patience, and little by little by the three vehicles they end all suffering. Thus, Subhūti! the bodhisattva-mahāsattva abides in dānapāramitā and makes beings abide in patience.

‘Subhūti! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva abide in dānapāramitā and make beings vigorous? Subhūti! The bodhisattva sees beings slack and speaks these words: Why are you slack? Beings say: Because our causes and conditions are few. When this bodhisattva is practising dānapāramitā, he says to them all: I shall make your causes and conditions complete, whether giving, or keeping morality, or patience. With various causes and conditions such as these I make you complete. These beings, by the causes and conditions of obtaining the bodhisattva's benefit, have vigour of body, vigour of speech, and vigour of mind; because of vigour of body, vigour of speech, and vigour of mind, all wholesome dharmas are complete, and they train in the noble dharmas without outflows; because of training in the noble dharmas without outflows, they shall obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna and so on up to the fruit of arhat and the pratyekabuddha path, or obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Thus, Subhūti! when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising dānapāramitā, he abides in the vigour pāramitā and gathers in beings.

‘Subhūti! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, when practising dānapāramitā, teach and transform beings and make them cultivate dhyānapāramitā?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘The bodhisattva sees beings' minds scattered and says thus: You may cultivate meditative concentration! Beings say: Because our causes and conditions are not complete. The bodhisattva says: I shall make causes and conditions for you; by reason of these causes and conditions, your minds will not follow initial and sustained thought, nor run off scattered. Beings, by reason of these causes and conditions, sever initial and sustained thought, enter the first dhyāna, the second dhyāna, the third dhyāna, and the fourth dhyāna, and practise the minds of kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity. Beings, by the causes and conditions of these meditative concentrations and immeasurable minds, can cultivate the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eightfold noble path; when cultivating the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, little by little they enter the three vehicles and obtain nirvāṇa, never, from beginning to end, losing the path. Thus, Subhūti! when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising dānapāramitā, he gathers in beings with dhyānapāramitā and makes them practise dhyānapāramitā.

‘Subhūti! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practise dānapāramitā and gather in beings with prajñāpāramitā? Subhūti! The bodhisattva sees beings deluded and without wisdom, and says thus: Why do you not cultivate wisdom? Beings say: Because our causes and conditions are not yet complete. The bodhisattva abides within dānapāramitā and says thus: The means for obtaining wisdom that you need, take from me, namely giving, keeping morality, patience, vigour, and entering meditative concentration. Once these causes and conditions are complete, you should reflect thus: When reflecting on prajñāpāramitā, is there any dharma that can be found? Can self, or beings, or a life, and so on up to a knower and a seer, be found? Can form, feeling, perception, constructions, consciousness, or the realm of desire, the realm of form, the formless realm, or the six perfections, or the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, or the fruit of srota-āpanna, or the fruits of sakṛdāgāmin, anāgāmin, and arhat and the pratyekabuddha path, or anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, be found? When these beings reflect thus, within prajñāpāramitā there is no dharma that can be found, no place that can be clung to; if they do not cling to dharmas, at this time they do not see that dharmas have arising and ceasing, have stain and purity; they do not discriminate: this is hell, this is animals, this is hungry ghosts, this is the host of asuras, this is gods, this is humans; this is keeping morality, this is breaking morality; this is a srota-āpanna, this is a sakṛdāgāmin, this is an anāgāmin, this is an arhat, this is a pratyekabuddha, this is a Buddha. Thus, Subhūti! when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising dānapāramitā, he gathers in beings with prajñāpāramitā.

‘Subhūti! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva abide within dānapāramitā and gather in beings with śīlapāramitā, kṣāntipāramitā, vīryapāramitā, dhyānapāramitā, and prajñāpāramitā, and so on up to the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path? Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva abides within dānapāramitā and benefits beings with the requisites of offering. By the causes and conditions of this benefit, beings can cultivate the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of supernormal power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven limbs of awakening, and the eightfold noble path; beings practise these thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path and obtain liberation within birth and death. Thus, Subhūti! the bodhisattva-mahāsattva gathers in beings with the holy Dharma without outflows.

‘Again, Subhūti! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva teaches and transforms beings, he says thus: Good men! Take from me the things you need, whether food and drink, clothing, bedding, incense and flowers, and so on up to the seven jewels and the various other things needed to sustain life; you should gather in beings with these, and through the long night you will have benefit, ease, and happiness. Do not have this thought, saying that these things are not mine. Through the long night, for the sake of beings, I have accumulated these things; you should take these things as no different from your own things. He teaches and transforms beings and makes them practise giving, keeping morality, patience, vigour, meditative concentration, and wisdom, and so on up to making them obtain the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, the Buddha's ten powers and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, and also makes them obtain the fruit of the dharma without outflows, namely srota-āpanna and so on up to the fruit of arhat, the pratyekabuddha path, and anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Thus, Subhūti! when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practising dānapāramitā, he should teach and transform beings thus, so that they may leave the three evil destinies and all the suffering of going and coming in birth and death.

‘Again, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva abides in śīlapāramitā and teaches and transforms beings, saying thus: Beings! For lack of what causes and conditions do you break morality? I shall make complete causes and conditions for you, whether giving and so on up to wisdom, and the various things needed to sustain life. This bodhisattva abides in śīlapāramitā, benefits beings, and makes them practise the ten wholesome paths and be far from the ten unwholesome paths. These beings keep the precepts: they do not break the precepts, do not let the precepts be deficient, do not let the precepts be turbid, do not let the precepts be mixed, do not grasp at the precepts; and little by little by the three vehicles they end suffering. What is said thus with śīlapāramitā as the head is just as was said of dānapāramitā; the other four pāramitās are likewise.’

What follows is the treatise-author's explanation of the preceding sūtra passage.

Treatise ①: Why Ask Again—Illumination and Completeness Are One Meaning; Skilful Means Lies in Being Free of the Two Sides

The treatise-author asks:

It has already been said earlier: ‘If a bodhisattva practises the six perfections and the other dharmas that aid the path but does not make complete the bodhisattva path, he cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi’; now Subhūti ought himself to know ‘practising the six perfections and the rest, and making complete the bodhisattva path, one should obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi’—why then does he ask again?

The treatise-author answers:

Subhūti is not in doubt about ‘how one obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi’; what he now asks is only ‘how one makes complete the bodhisattva path and so obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi’.

The Buddha answers: ‘If a bodhisattva employs the six perfections and the other dharmas, and is able to practise because they come together by the power of skilful means—at that time, he makes complete the bodhisattva path. The power of skilful means is this: not definitely finding the three things of giving and the rest, and yet not departing from these three things, he practises dānapāramitā; at that time, this is the illumination of the bodhisattva path.’

Illumination and completeness are one and the same meaning. If a bodhisattva definitely finds the three things of giving and the rest, he falls straight into the inversion of permanence and commits the faults of grasping at marks, clinging to dharmas, and the rest; if he does not find these three things, he falls to the side of annihilation, clings to emptiness, and on the contrary gives rise to wrong views and the various other afflictions, and so parts from the bodhisattva path. If a bodhisattva is far from these two sides—because of emptiness, he gives up giving and the rest, which are false and deceptive dharmas that are only provisional names; because of the real mark of all dharmas, he is far from the view that clings to emptiness and holds that there is no giver and no recipient; as the mark of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi is, so he contemplates this giving too, without difference. Giving such as this is what is named complete. And so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas: it is likewise.

Treatise ① (continued): Śāriputra Asks about Training in Prajñā—Not Destroying Form, Not Following Form

Śāriputra, in the assembly, heard the Buddha say to Subhūti: ‘The retribution of the very deep prajñā is of great benefit.’ Though there is benefit, there is no definite nature; how then is one to train in it?

The Buddha answers: ‘When a bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not destroy form and does not follow form; this is named training in prajñāpāramitā.’ From the first arousing of the mind, in order to know the real dharma, the bodhisattva constantly practises prajñāpāramitā; next, according to what is fitting, he practises giving and the other dharmas. For this reason it is constantly said: ‘When the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he practises giving and the other dharmas.’

Not destroying form means not saying that this form is impermanent, not saying that this form is empty and without anything existent; this is named not destroying form.

Not following form means not, as the eye sees form, grasping at marks and giving rise to clinging.

Further, not saying ‘this form is permanent, is impermanent, is suffering, is happiness, and so forth’—this is named not following form. Permanence, impermanence, and the rest are all not the real mark of form.

Further, not saying ‘the root of this form comes from the nature of the world, or comes from atoms, or comes from the Great Sovereign Heaven’, nor saying ‘it comes from time’, nor saying ‘it arises spontaneously’, nor saying ‘it is forcibly born without cause and without condition’.

Things such as these are named not following and not destroying. Here the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: ‘Because the nature of this form is non-existent, there is no following and no destroying.’ The nature being non-existent means this: this form exists from the coming together of all the four elements and is provisionally named form; within it there is no definite dharma called form. It is as was said earlier in ‘the refutation of form’. Because this form arises from the coming together of causes and conditions, it is without nature; if it is without nature, it is the emptiness of nature. If one can obtain the emptiness of nature of this mark of form, that is training in prajñāpāramitā. And so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas: it is likewise.

Treatise ① (continued): If There Is No Self-Nature That Can Be Destroyed or Followed, How Does One Train in Prajñā—the Prajñāpāramitā without Grasping

Śāriputra asks again: ‘World-Honored One! If dharmas have no self-nature that can be destroyed or followed, how then does the bodhisattva train in prajñāpāramitā? Not training in prajñāpāramitā, one does not obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi!’

The Buddha approves Śāriputra's meaning and himself states the causes and conditions: ‘If a bodhisattva practises the six perfections by employing the power of skilful means, this person, though he knows that dharmas are empty, is able to give rise to prajñāpāramitā. Śāriputra! If a bodhisattva seeks all dharmas and finds even a little fixed nature, then they can be grasped and clung to; now the bodhisattva truly and really seeks and searches out all dharmas, yet does not find anything definite and real—that is to say, this is prajñāpāramitā, this is dhyānapāramitā, and so on up to this is the eighteen unshared dharmas: these dharmas are all unfindable; because they are unfindable, what is there that can be grasped? Śāriputra! This is named the bodhisattva's prajñāpāramitā without grasping. The bodhisattva should train in this prajñāpāramitā without grasping.’ Not grasping itself is unfindable, how much less prajñā and the other dharmas! Because all dharmas are without nature.

Treatise ① (continued): If All Dharmas Are without Nature, How Does One Know That This Is an Ordinary Person, and So On up to a Buddha

Śāriputra asks again: ‘If all dharmas are without nature, how then does one know that this is an ordinary person, and so on up to that this is a Buddha?’

The Buddha answers: ‘Though all dharmas have no fixed mark that is their root, ordinary people cling because of inversion. When the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, by the power of skilful means he sees that all dharmas have no root, and arouses the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

Because this bodhisattva practises deeply in all dharmas being empty of nature, he does not see that any dharma has a root; because he does not see it, he is not slack and does not retrogress; he knows clearly and distinctly that all dharmas are non-self, without any existent nature, their substance-nature ever empty. It is only that beings, because of delusion and inversion, cling to these aggregates, elements, and sense-fields. At this time, the bodhisattva reflects on and weighs the very deep mark of quiescence of dharmas, while beings deeply cling to what is false, deceptive, and inverted. The bodhisattva then sets himself up like a conjurer, and with various supernormal powers and transformations teaches the Dharma and delivers people, like what is made by conjuring, without hatred and without love, teaching the Dharma with an equal mind—that is, for stingy and greedy people he teaches giving and the rest of the six dharmas; further he teaches them a still more superior dharma, causing them to leave birth and death and obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna, and so on up to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.

Treatise ① (continued): Beyond the Six Perfections, What Dharma Is More Superior—the Holy Dharma of the Four Truths, the Dharma of Going Forth

The treatise-author asks:

Beyond the six perfections, what dharma is there that is more superior? Why does it say that he further teaches them a superior dharma?

The treatise-author answers:

Here it is not the pāramitās that are spoken of; it is only that for stingy and greedy people giving is taught, and so on up to for deluded people wisdom is taught. The Dharma of the buddhas and the bodhisattvas has an initial part and a later part. The initial dharmas are giving and keeping morality; by receiving and upholding the dharma of morality and the retribution of giving, one can obtain the blessings and happiness of the heavens. Further, they teach them that the flavour of the five desires has little benefit and much loss, and that to receive a worldly body is only decline and suffering; they praise the dharma of leaving the world and severing craving and desire, and only after that do they teach them the four truths, causing them to obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna. Here the bodhisattva, only because he wishes to cause beings to obtain the Buddha path, first teaches them to practise these six dharmas. The wholesome wisdom spoken of here is not counted as included in the three gates of liberation; this wholesome wisdom can give rise to giving and the other wholesome dharmas, can extinguish stinginess and greed, anger, and the other evil dharmas, and can cause beings to obtain birth in the heavens. How is this known? Because there is still a more superior dharma.

The superior dharma is the holy Dharma of the four truths, the dharma of going forth. The dharma practised by all the sages is named the holy Dharma; going forth from birth and death in the three realms is named the dharma of going forth. Because the Dharma is taught by way of these four truths, according to the causes and conditions of beings' faculties and natures, they are caused to obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna, and so on up to obtaining the omniscience of all kinds. Here, though those initial six dharmas are not spoken of, since giving and the rest are spoken of, one should know that they are already included within it.

Further, the bodhisattva teaches these six dharmas for the sake of the Buddha path; only because beings' resolve is low and they themselves take up the Small Vehicle, ‘giving and keeping morality, birth in the heavens and receiving retribution, the initial six dharmas, and so forth’ are not spoken of.

Treatise ① (continued): Is Nothing to Be Attained Something to Be Attained—the Bodhisattva Abides in the Two Truths and Teaches the Dharma for Beings

Śāriputra said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Earlier it was said that the bodhisattva is a dharma ultimately unfindable; now he teaches the Dharma for beings who are without anything existent, causing them to obtain the dharma without anything existent, namely the fruit of srota-āpanna and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds. World-Honored One! The bodhisattva now, because he has obtained the dharma without anything existent, is able to cause beings to obtain the dharma without anything existent—then is not this nothing to be attained something to be attained after all?’

The Buddha answers: ‘When the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, there is no fault of having something to be attained! Why? Because when the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā he does not see beings and does not see dharmas; it is only the coming together of causes and conditions that is provisionally named a being.’

The bodhisattva abides within the two truths and teaches the Dharma for beings, not teaching emptiness alone and not teaching existence alone; for the sake of those who love and cling he teaches emptiness, for the sake of those who grasp at marks and cling to emptiness he teaches existence; in the two places of existence and non-existence he is stained by neither. Thus by the power of skilful means he teaches the Dharma for beings: ‘Beings! Now my body, and I myself, are still unfindable, how much less can one speak of being about to obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi!’

Treatise ① (continued): The Vast and Great Mind—without Bondage and without Release; the Simile of Planting a Tree in Space

Śāriputra joyfully said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! The bodhisattva truly has a vast and great mind!’

As for the vast and great mind, here the causes and conditions are themselves stated, namely: ‘There is no dharma that can be found, whether as one mark or as a different mark.’ As when people of the world buy and sell, there must be an exchange; the person of great mind is not so. Taking support in nothing, he is able to arouse the great adornment; because of the great adornment he is not born in the three realms, and he also pulls beings out and rescues them, causing them to leave the three realms, and yet beings are unfindable; because they are neither bound nor released, all dharmas are empty. From long ago, the afflictions and inversions have all been false, deceptive, and unreal, and so it is named without bondage; since bondage does not exist, release too does not exist. Bondage is stain; release is purity. Because there is no purity and no stain, there is no discrimination of the six destinies; because the six destinies are not discriminated, there are no deeds of sin and no deeds of merit; because deeds of sin and deeds of merit do not exist, there are no afflictions that can give rise to deeds of sin and merit; when deeds of sin and merit do not arise, there also should be no retribution. Thus, within the ultimate emptiness of all dharmas, to take on the great adornment—this is what is rare! It is as a person plants a tree in space, and the tree's leaves, flowers, and fruit give much benefit.

The Buddha approved Śāriputra's meaning.

Treatise ① (continued): If They Existed Before and Do Not Exist Now, There Is Fault—All Dharmas Are Empty from the First

Because Śāriputra raised a difficulty against this emptiness, the Buddha both answers him and approves him—he approves him because he speaks of emptiness, and answers him because he raises a difficulty against emptiness—namely: ‘Śāriputra! If beings and all dharmas existed before and do not exist now, then the buddhas, the worthies, and the sages have fault.’ The fault is this: causing beings to enter nirvāṇa without remainder, forever extinguishing form and all dharmas; on entering into emptiness, everything is without anything existent; because in this way they annihilate beings and all dharmas, there is fault.

Śāriputra! Beings and all dharmas are from the first non-existent; whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, they abide constantly and do not differ; this is the real mark of all dharmas; for this reason there is no birth and death in the six destinies, nor are there beings who can be pulled out and rescued. Śāriputra! All dharmas are from the very beginning empty, and so the bodhisattva, hearing in the presence of the buddhas that dharmas have such a mark, therefore arouses the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and has this thought: ‘Within awakening too there is no dharma that can be found, nor is there a real, definite dharma that makes beings cling so that they cannot be delivered; it is only because beings are deluded, mad, and inverted that they cling to this false and deceptive dharma.’

Therefore the bodhisattva arouses the great adornment and does not retrogress from anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and has this thought: ‘I shall certainly obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; it is not that I shall not obtain it; having obtained it, I shall benefit beings with the real dharma; because beings are benefited, beings will then be able to get out from within inversion.’

Treatise ① (continued): The Simile of the Conjurer—the Conjurer Does Not Really Exist, So How Can He Serve as a Simile

In order to make this matter clear, the sūtra speaks the simile of the conjurer: the conjurer is the bodhisattva; the gardens, huts, and pavilions that the conjurer conjures up are the six perfections and the other dharmas for delivering beings; the elephants, horses, men, and women that the conjurer conjures up are the beings whom the bodhisattva delivers. As the conjurer is only one body, yet by the power of his conjuring arts conjures up beings, gardens, huts, pavilions, and the rest to entertain beings; if the conjurer takes what he himself has conjured as real and seeks favour from the people he has conjured, then he is a madman! The bodhisattva is likewise: hearing from the buddhas that all dharmas are empty of nature, like an illusion, he benefits beings with giving and the rest; if he wishes to seek favour and meritorious reward, that is inversion.

The treatise-author asks:

The dharma of conjuring and spell-craft really exist; only the things conjured can be said to be false. Now, since beings are empty and the bodhisattva too is empty, and the bodhisattva does not conjure up beings, how can this be used as a simile?

The treatise-author answers:

Within the real mark of all dharmas there are not even dharmas, how much less beings! Another name for beings is conjurer; since the conjurer really does not exist, why say ‘the conjurer exists and what is conjured does not exist’? It is just as you take the conjurer to exist really and what is conjured not to exist, whereas the sages contemplate the conjurer and the things conjured as without difference. A simile is spoken in order to make a matter clear, taking only a little point of likeness in it as the simile—why take the whole of it to make a difficulty? As when a lion is used as a simile for a king: the lion among the herds of beasts has nothing it fears, the king among his subjects is sovereign and without difficulty, and so it is used as a simile; why then must one find fault over the difference of four legs and the bearing of fur? The Buddha teaches the dharma of the emptiness of nature: all dharmas are empty, and yet there still are beings; therefore conjuring is spoken of as a simile. I now speak this simile in order to break beings' clinging; how is it that you turn round and again take beings to make a difficulty?

Treatise ① (continued): The Path of Bringing Beings to Accomplishment and Purifying Buddha-lands—Teaching and Transforming by the Power of Skilful Means without Letting Them Cling

At that time, Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What is the path of bringing beings to accomplishment and purifying buddha-lands?’

Though Subhūti knew the bodhisattva path, because the very deep emptiness of nature is spoken of within it and those who listen will give rise to doubt, he therefore asked.

The Buddha answers: ‘The bodhisattva, from the first arousing of the mind, practises the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas; this is the bodhisattva path; practising this path, he brings beings to accomplishment and purifies buddha-lands.’

Subhūti asks again: ‘How does one practise this dharma and bring beings to accomplishment?’

Subhūti's meaning is: if this dharma is empty of nature, and beings too are empty of nature, how then can they be brought to accomplishment?

The Buddha answers: ‘By the power of skilful means, the bodhisattva teaches and transforms beings with the dharma of giving, but does not teach them to cling to giving as real.’ The skilful means is this: the bodhisattva tells beings: ‘You good men! Come and give, but do not cling to this giving.’ As is said in the sūtra. Because of giving, beings are born in places of wealth, nobility, ease, and happiness; because of the causes and conditions of wealth, nobility, ease, and happiness they give rise to the pride of self and to arrogance; because the pride of self and arrogance increase, they destroy wholesome dharmas; because they destroy wholesome dharmas, they fall into the three evil destinies; therefore the bodhisattva first teaches: ‘Do not cling to giving!’ Only, by means of this giving, and further by cultivating the keeping of morality and the other wholesome dharmas, he dedicates all these dharmas to nirvāṇa. Why? Because this real mark of all dharmas, which is the emptiness of nature, cannot be grasped as a mark. Thus by the power of skilful means the bodhisattva teaches and transforms beings, causing them to obtain the fruit of srota-āpanna and so on up to the Buddha path.

Treatise ① (continued): Practising Giving Himself and Also Teaching Others to Give—Practising Giving in Four Ways, He Is Born into a Noble Clan

This bodhisattva himself practises giving and also teaches beings to give. If he does not himself give, perhaps someone will say: ‘If giving is a good dharma, why do you not practise it yourself?’ Therefore the bodhisattva first himself gives. Further, the bodhisattva deeply loves wholesome dharmas, and giving is the first gateway, so he practises this giving. Again, the bodhisattva has deep kindness and compassion for beings; though his mind of kindness and compassion is vast, it cannot fill all beings, so he first practises giving, so that their minds become soft and they can be guided. The causes and conditions of giving can bring birth in families of the four castes and as a wheel-turning king; further, with the four means of gathering he gathers in beings, and little by little with the dharma of the three vehicles causes them to obtain nirvāṇa. He teaches others to give, praises the dharma of giving, and joyfully praises those who practise giving—this is because he deeply loves giving, and seeing others practising it together with him, he therefore joyfully praises them. Further, he regards beings with a mind of pity; if he sees them cultivating merit, he is glad for them, as a kind father, seeing his son do good, is glad at heart. This person practises giving in four ways, and so he is born among noble clans such as the kṣatriya.

Having taken them in by giving, little by little he teaches them keeping morality, meditative concentration, and the rest, and so on up to causing them to obtain the path of the pratyekabuddha. Or he sees among beings one who has aroused the great mind and has a little mind of kindness and compassion; this person, because he fears the long duration of birth and death, becomes slack in mind and retrogresses; by the power of skilful means the bodhisattva tells this being: ‘Ho! Beings! Anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi is easy to obtain; why do you take it to be hard? In the places to which beings cling, there is no definite, real dharma that can obstruct, nor any that is hard to undo. You should arouse the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; having yourselves been delivered, you should also deliver beings!’ Delivering beings means this: the bodhisattva himself rides the Great Vehicle and is delivered, and further with the three vehicles delivers beings according to what each should be delivered by; having himself obtained benefit, he also benefits others. Benefiting others means this: having himself become a Buddha, he delivers beings with the three vehicles. If a bodhisattva can thus practise prajñāpāramitā, then from the first arousing of the mind onward he never falls into the three evil destinies, and is constantly a wheel-turning sage king; being constantly a wheel-turning sage king means that the bodhisattva is mostly born in the desire realm. Why? Because in the formless realm there is no shape or form, they cannot be taught and transformed; within the form realm they mostly relish the pleasure of meditative concentration and have no mind of aversion, so they are hard to transform; nor is he born among the gods of the desire realm. For what reason? Because they cling too much to the subtle and wonderful five desires and are hard to teach and transform. Therefore he is born among humans, and because life after life he gathers in beings with the four things, he is a wheel-turning sage king.

Here the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: ‘According to what he plants, he obtains great retribution, and so forth.’ As the mark of giving is spoken of in the sūtra.

Treatise ① (continued): Morality Born from Giving—the Two Kinds of Breaking Morality

Again, there is the bodhisattva who, when practising dānapāramitā, sees beings breaking morality and speaks thus: ‘You break morality because your causes and conditions are not complete; I shall supply what you need, so that you lack nothing.’ People who break morality are of two kinds: the first is because the causes and conditions for keeping morality are not complete, as poor people, pressed by hunger and cold, become thieves; the second is that, though the causes and conditions for keeping morality are complete, because of a mind habituated to evil they like to do evil things. To one who is poor and breaks morality, the bodhisattva says: ‘Just keep morality, I shall supply what you need! Abiding in the keeping of morality, you will little by little be delivered by the three vehicles.’ This is named ‘morality born from giving’.

Treatise ① (continued): Calming Anger through Giving—the Wish-fulfilling Jewel and False and Deceptive Things

Beings become angry because of things not going as they wish: either they are angry because what they seek does not go as they wish, or they are angry because people do not suit their wishes. The bodhisattva, abiding in giving, supplies and satisfies them according to their wishes.

The treatise-author asks:

If someone is poor and in want, giving to him so that he is not angry is acceptable; but when people cannot suit his wishes and vex him so that he becomes angry, what then?

The treatise-author answers:

Giving him a wish-fulfilling jewel can make every person suit his wishes. Because of the majestic virtue of the precious jewel, people have no anger; as when a practitioner enters the samādhi of kindness, people too have no anger. Therefore it is said: ‘For lack of what causes and conditions are you angry? I shall make complete what you lack.’

Further, the nature of all dharmas is empty and without anything existent; the causes and conditions of your anger too are all false, deceptive, and indefinite; how can you, for the sake of false and deceptive things, angrily revile, harm, and even take people's lives? Because of committing such heavy deeds of sin, one falls into the three evil destinies and receives immeasurable suffering. Do not, for the sake of false, deceptive, and unreal things, receive great sin!

Treatise ① (continued): The Simile of the Haunted Room—Grasping at Marks in Vain Leads to Fighting and Strife

It is as in the mountains there was a Buddhist monastery, within which there was a separate room; because a ghost would come into the room to frighten and harass those cultivating the path, the men of the path all abandoned this room and left. A guest monk came, and the weina assigned him, telling him to stay in this empty room, and told him: ‘In this room there is a ghost-spirit that likes to harass people; if you can stay in it, then stay.’ The guest monk, relying on the power of his keeping of morality and the power of his much learning, said: ‘What can a little ghost do? I can subdue it!’ and at once went into the room and stayed. At dusk another monk came seeking a place to stay; the weina also had him stay in this room, and also told him: ‘There is a ghost that harasses people.’ That man too said: ‘What can a little ghost do? I shall subdue it!’ The one who had gone in first shut the door and sat upright and still, waiting for the ghost; the one who came later, because the night was dark, knocked at the door seeking to come in. The one who had gone in first took him for the ghost and did not open the door to him; the one who came later knocked at the door with all his strength. The man of the path inside held it back with force; the one outside won, pushed open the door, and came in; the one inside struck him, and the one outside also struck back fiercely with all his strength. When they saw each other the next morning, they were after all old friends and fellow-students, and each apologised to the other in shame. The people gathered round, laughing and finding it strange.

Beings are likewise: within the five aggregates there is no self and no person, yet they vainly grasp at marks for themselves and so come to fighting and strife; if the body is dismembered upon the ground, there are only bones and flesh, and there is no person and no self. Therefore the bodhisattva tells beings: ‘Do not, within what is empty at the root, fight and commit sin; because of fighting, even a human body is unfindable, how much less meeting a Buddha! You should know that a human body is hard to obtain, the age of a Buddha hard to meet, and a good time easily passes; once you fall into the difficulties, you can never be cured or saved!’ If one falls into the hells, burned, roasted, butchered, and cut, how can he be taught and transformed? If one falls among the animals, harming and killing one another, he also cannot be taught and transformed. If one falls among the hungry ghosts, hungry, thirsty, hot, and vexed, he also cannot be taught and transformed. If one is born in the heavens of long life, thousands of myriads of buddhas pass by, and because he clings to the flavour of meditative concentration, he is wholly unaware and does not know. As people born in the land of Anxi and the other border lands, though all have human bodies, are dull and cannot be taught and transformed. Though born in the Middle Country, some lack the six faculties, some have the four limbs incomplete, some are blind, deaf, mute, and dumb, some do not recognise meaning. Or sometimes, though the six faculties are complete and the faculties penetrating and keen, they cling deeply to wrong views and say there is no sin and no merit, and they too cannot be taught and transformed. Therefore he tells them: ‘A good time easily passes; falling into the difficulties, one cannot be delivered.’

Treatise ① (continued): Why the Six Perfections Are Spoken of Again—the Causes and Conditions of the Thirty-seven Limbs of the Path Can Be Given

The other perfections, because they are widely spoken of in the sūtra, are not explained again.

The treatise-author asks:

Abiding in dānapāramitā and practising the five perfections has already been spoken of in full; why speak again of the six perfections?

The treatise-author answers:

Above, within one perfection the other five perfections were made complete in sequence; now they are spoken of all together at one time.

Further, earlier only the six perfections were spoken of; now the thirty-seven limbs of the path and the fruits of the paths are spoken of throughout.

The treatise-author asks:

The thirty-seven limbs of the path come forth from the mind; how can it be said that their causes and conditions can be given?

The treatise-author answers:

The bodhisattva supplies those who sit in meditation with clothing, food and drink, medicine, a Dharma staff, a meditation ball, and a meditation prop, so that they can get a good teacher to instruct and look after them, and so that they can get good disciples to receive their transformation; he gives them a skeleton so that they may practise contemplation, gives them the meditation scriptures, and asks people to expound the dharma of meditation for them—such things as these are the causes and conditions of the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path.

Further, he asks people to expound the dharma of the Mahāyāna for them: ‘The clothing, food, and drink that you need, come and take as much as you like; these are your things, do not doubt or hesitate yourselves! Having obtained these things, practise the six perfections yourselves, and also teach and transform others, causing them to practise the six perfections. The nature of this giving is all empty; do not cling to this giving or to its retribution.’

Beings, understanding this emptiness of nature, little by little obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and enter nirvāṇa without remainder.

As, with giving as the head, the other five perfections are born, so it is with the other perfections.

This fascicle is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the eighty-second chapter, "Purifying the Buddha-land"; it is in the ninety-second fascicle.

Sūtra ①: What Is the Path of the Bodhisattva-Mahāsattva; Why, All Dharmas Being Empty, One Trains in All Dharmas; the Two Causes and Conditions for Practising the Bodhisattva Path without Abiding in the Fruits of the Paths; All Dharmas Are Non-arising, and yet the Path of Awakening Is Given Rise To; by None of the Three Alternatives—the Path of Arising, the Path of Non-arising, the Path of Neither Arising nor Non-arising—Is Awakening Obtained; Awakening Is Precisely the Path, the Path Is Precisely Awakening; the Buddha Is Precisely Awakening, Awakening Is Precisely the Buddha; How a Buddha-land Is Purified—Oneself Removing the Coarse Deeds of Body, Speech, and Mind, and Also Purifying the Coarse Deeds of Body, Speech, and Mind of Others; the Items of the Coarse Deeds of Body, Speech, and Mind

At that time Subhūti had this thought in his mind: ‘What is the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva? Abiding in this path, the bodhisattva can take on such a great adornment as this?’

The Buddha knew what Subhūti was thinking in his mind, and told Subhūti: ‘The six perfections are the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva; the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path are the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva; the eighteen emptinesses are the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva; the eight liberations and the nine successive absorptions are the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva; the Buddha's ten powers and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas are the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva; all dharmas too are the path of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva. Subhūti! What do you think? Is there any dharma that the bodhisattva does not train in and yet can obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi? Subhūti! There is no dharma that the bodhisattva should not train in. Why? If the bodhisattva does not train in all dharmas, he cannot obtain the omniscience of all kinds.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If all dharmas are empty, how is it said that the bodhisattva trains in all dharmas? Is it not that the World-Honored One makes idle discourse within the absence of idle discourse? Namely: it is this, it is that; it is a worldly dharma, it is a world-transcending dharma; it is a dharma with outflows, it is a dharma without outflows; it is a conditioned dharma, it is an unconditioned dharma; it is the dharma of ordinary people, it is the dharma of the arhat, it is the dharma of the pratyekabuddha, it is the dharma of the Buddha!’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! All dharmas are truly empty. Subhūti! If all dharmas were not empty, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva could not obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! Now it is because all dharmas are truly empty that the bodhisattva-mahāsattva can obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! As you have said: if all dharmas are empty, is it not that the Buddha makes idle discourse within the absence of idle discourse, discriminating this and that—it is a worldly dharma, it is a world-transcending dharma, and so on up to it is the dharma of the Buddha? Subhūti! If the beings of the world knew that all dharmas are empty, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva would not need to train in all dharmas and obtain the omniscience of all kinds. Subhūti! Now beings in reality do not know that all dharmas are empty; for this reason the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, after he has obtained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, distinguishes dharmas and proclaims them for beings.

‘Subhūti! On this bodhisattva path, from the very beginning, he should reflect thus: ‘Within all dharmas a fixed nature is unfindable; it is only from causes and conditions coming together that dharmas arise, and so there are dharmas that are names. I shall reflect on the real nature of dharmas without clinging to anything—whether the nature of the six perfections, or the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, or the fruit of the srota-āpanna and so on up to the fruit of the arhat, or the pratyekabuddha path, or anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Why? All dharmas, and the nature of all dharmas, are empty; emptiness does not cling to emptiness, and emptiness too is unfindable—how much less is there anything to cling to within emptiness!’ Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, reflecting thus, does not cling to all dharmas and yet trains in all dharmas. Abiding in such training, he observes where the minds of beings go—where do the minds of these beings go? He knows that beings go within what is false and unreal. At this time the bodhisattva has this thought: ‘What these beings cling to are unreal, false dharmas; they are easily delivered, that is all!’ At this time the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, while abiding in prajñāpāramitā, by the power of skilful means teaches and transforms them thus: ‘All you beings! You should practise giving, and you can obtain abundant wealth; yet do not rely on the retribution of giving and exalt yourselves. Why? Within this there is no solid dharma. Morality, meditative concentration, and wisdom are likewise. Beings! Practising these dharmas, you can obtain the fruit of the srota-āpanna and so on up to the fruit of the arhat, the pratyekabuddha path, and the Buddha path—do not keep in mind that these dharmas exist!’ Teaching and transforming in this way, he practises the bodhisattva path without clinging to anything, because within this there is nothing solid. If he can teach and transform in this way, this is named practising the bodhisattva path, because he clings to nothing among dharmas. Why? All dharmas have the mark of being without anything clung to, because they are without nature, because they are empty of nature.

‘Subhūti! When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises the bodhisattva path in this way, he has nowhere to abide. Because this bodhisattva uses the dharma of non-abiding, practising dānapāramitā he does not abide in it either, practising śīlapāramitā he does not abide in it either, practising kṣāntipāramitā he does not abide in it either, practising vīryapāramitā he does not abide in it either, practising dhyānapāramitā he does not abide in it either, practising prajñāpāramitā he does not abide in it either. Practising the first dhyāna, he does not abide in it either. Why? Because the mark of the first dhyāna of this first dhyāna is empty, the one who practises dhyāna is empty too, and the dharma used is empty too; the second dhyāna, the third dhyāna, and the fourth dhyāna are likewise. Kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity, the four formless absorptions, the eight liberations, and the nine successive absorptions are likewise. Obtaining the fruit of the srota-āpanna, he does not abide in it either; obtaining the fruit of the sakṛdāgāmin, the fruit of the anāgāmin, and the fruit of the arhat, he does not abide in them either; obtaining the pratyekabuddha path, he does not abide in it either.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! By reason of what causes and conditions does he not abide in it?’

The Buddha said: ‘Because of two causes and conditions he does not abide in it. What are the two? First, the nature of the fruits of the paths is empty; there is no place to abide, nor any dharma made use of, nor anyone who abides. Second, he is not content with a small matter, and has this thought: ‘I should not fail to obtain the fruit of the srota-āpanna; I surely should obtain the fruit of the srota-āpanna; only I should not abide in it. And so on up to the pratyekabuddha path: I should not fail to obtain it, I surely should obtain it, only I should not abide in it. And so on up to obtaining anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi: I should not abide in that either. Why? From my first arousing of intent until now I have had no other mind; with one mind I face anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’ Subhūti! The bodhisattva, in facing anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi with one mind, is far from all other minds; the bodily deeds, verbal deeds, and mental deeds he makes all accord with anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! This bodhisattva-mahāsattva, abiding in this one mind, can give rise to the path of awakening.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If all dharmas do not arise, how can the bodhisattva-mahāsattva give rise to the path of awakening?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! All dharmas are non-arising. What is non-arising? It is without anything made and without anything raised up, because all dharmas do not arise.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Whether there is a Buddha or there is no Buddha, do not the marks of dharmas of all dharmas abide constantly?’

The Buddha said: ‘Just so! Just so! Whether there is a Buddha or there is no Buddha, these marks of dharmas of all dharmas abide constantly. Because beings do not know these marks of dharmas, the abiding of dharmas, for this reason the bodhisattva-mahāsattva gives rise to the path of awakening for the sake of beings, and with this path pulls beings out of birth and death.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Is awakening obtained by the path of arising?’

The Buddha said: ‘No!’

‘World-Honored One! Is awakening obtained by the path of non-arising?’

The Buddha said: ‘No!’

‘World-Honored One! Is awakening obtained by the path of neither arising nor non-arising?’

The Buddha said: ‘No!’

Subhūti said: ‘World-Honored One! Then how can awakening be obtained?’

The Buddha said: ‘Awakening is not obtained by means of the path, nor is awakening obtained by means of what is not the path. Subhūti! Awakening is precisely the path, the path is precisely awakening.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If awakening is precisely the path and the path is precisely awakening, then the bodhisattva now, not yet having become a Buddha, should already have obtained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi! How is it further said that the Buddhas, the tathāgatas, arhats, samyaksaṃbuddhas, have the thirty-two marks, the eighty minor marks, the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, the eighteen unshared dharmas, and great kindness and great compassion?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘What do you think? Does the Buddha obtain awakening?’

‘No! World-Honored One! The Buddha does not obtain awakening. Why? The Buddha is precisely awakening, awakening is precisely the Buddha.’

‘As Subhūti asked: ‘At the time of being a bodhisattva he too should obtain awakening!’ Subhūti! This bodhisattva-mahāsattva is complete with the six perfections and the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, complete with the Buddha's ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, and the eighteen unshared dharmas; complete with them, he abides in the like-vajra samādhi, and by the wisdom associated with a single thought obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; at this time he is named Buddha, and within all dharmas obtains mastery.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva purify buddha-lands?’

The Buddha said: ‘There are bodhisattvas who, from their first arousing of intent until now, themselves remove the coarse deeds of body, remove the coarse deeds of speech, remove the coarse deeds of mind, and also purify and remove the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind of others.’

‘World-Honored One! What are the coarse deeds of body, the coarse deeds of speech, and the coarse deeds of mind of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Unwholesome deeds—such as killing living beings and so on up to wrong views—these are named the coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.

‘Further, Subhūti! The mind of stinginess, the mind of breaking morality, the mind of anger, the mind of slackness, the scattered mind, the deluded mind—these are named the coarse deeds of mind of the bodhisattva.

‘Further, morality that is not pure—this is named the coarse deeds of body and speech of the bodhisattva.

‘Further, Subhūti! If the bodhisattva is far from the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness, this is named a coarse deed of the bodhisattva; to be far from the four right efforts, the four bases of supernormal power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven limbs of awakening, the eightfold noble path, the emptiness samādhi, the signless samādhi, and the non-action samādhi is also named a coarse deed of the bodhisattva.

‘Further, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva craving the fruit of the srota-āpanna, and so on up to craving the realisation of the fruit of the arhat, and the pratyekabuddha path—this is named a coarse deed of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.’

Treatise ①: Explaining Why Subhūti Did Not Ask but Thought in His Mind, and Why the Buddha Answered with Words; Explaining That the Paths of the Three Classes, the Six Perfections and the Rest, and All Dharmas Are All the Bodhisattva Path; Explaining That All Dharmas Are Empty and yet Are Distinguished and Taught for Beings; Explaining the Simile of the Little Child Heaping Earth, and That Beings Are Easily Delivered; Explaining the Simile of the Hot Ball of Gold and the Two Causes and Conditions of Not Abiding; Explaining That All Dharmas Are Non-arising and yet the Path of Awakening Is Given Rise To, and That the Marks of Dharmas Abide Constantly and yet the Path of Awakening Is Raised Up; Explaining the Faults of the Four Alternatives of the Path of Arising, the Path of Non-arising, and the Path of Neither Arising nor Non-arising; Explaining That Awakening Is Precisely the Path and the Buddha Is Precisely Awakening; Explaining Why, between One and Different, One Is Mostly Used; Explaining What a Pure Buddha-land Is; Explaining Why the Three Kinds of Deeds Are Purified from the First Arousing of Intent; Explaining That the Inner Dharmas and the Outer Dharmas Make Causes and Conditions; Explaining Why Only the Purifying of the Three Kinds of Deeds Is Spoken Of; Explaining That Coarse and Subtle Are Not Fixed; Explaining Why the Six Dharmas Are Spoken of Separately from the Ten Unwholesome Paths; Explaining Impure Morality; Explaining Why Being Far from the Limbs of the Path Is Coarse; Explaining Why Craving the Realisation of the Fruit of the Srota-āpanna Is Coarse, and the Simile of Inviting Guests

Explanation:

Above, Subhūti had constantly asked about the dharma of emptiness in all kinds of ways; because the assembly at that time doubted why, having already realised the dharma of quiescent extinction without idle discourse, he still asked so much, he therefore did not ask aloud but had a thought in his mind.

Further, there were bodhisattvas and gods who had entered deeply into meditative concentration, who did not like words and yet wished to obtain the benefit of the Dharma; so Subhūti did not make a sound but had a thought in his mind.

The treatise-author asks:

Although Subhūti made no sound, the World-Honored One answered with words; why is this?

The treatise-author answers:

The Buddha's bodily form one looks at without ever being satisfied; just as his form does not make people weary, his voice is likewise: though he speaks, it does not hinder the subtle practice of meditative concentration; so the Buddha answered with words.

Further, the Buddha is established in the mark of quiescence and abides within anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and does not discriminate all dharmas as wholesome, as unwholesome, and so on; when beings have doubts and ask, the Buddha answers according to what is asked and what is thought; so he is not the same as Subhūti.

Subhūti, hearing the very deep meaning of these dharmas, the six perfections and the rest, could not reach their limit, and so asked: ‘What is the bodhisattva path? Practising this path, how can there be the adornment of wholesome dharmas, the six perfections and the rest, pure and without clinging?’

The Buddha knew his meaning; though what it added for Subhūti was little, for the sake of adding to the bodhisattvas he answered: ‘The six perfections and the rest are the bodhisattva path.’

The six perfections are the path of the bodhisattva at the first arousing of the mind; next, practising the four dhyānas, the eight liberations, the nine successive absorptions, and the thirty-seven limbs of the path, one seeks only nirvāṇa; the eighteen emptinesses, the Buddha's ten powers, and the rest are subtle, and are only for seeking the Buddha path.

The path of the six perfections is mostly for the sake of beings; the thirty-seven limbs of the path and the rest seek only nirvāṇa; the eighteen emptinesses and the rest are the path that, within nirvāṇa, goes out beyond the grounds of the śrāvaka and the pratyekabuddha and enters the bodhisattva's position. These three are all practised by the bodhisattva in a fleshly body. Why? Because he discriminates dharmas.

Now it is further said that all dharmas are the bodhisattva path; this is practised by the bodhisattva whose body is born of the Dharma-nature, who does not see dharmas as good or bad, because he is established in the mark of the equality of dharmas. Here the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: ‘The bodhisattva should train in all dharmas; if there is one dharma he does not train in, he cannot obtain the omniscience of all kinds.’ What is called training in all dharmas is, by gates of every kind, reflecting, reckoning, cultivating contemplation, and penetrating.

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘If all dharmas are of one mark, namely emptiness, how does the bodhisattva train in all dharmas? Is it not making idle discourse within dharmas whose mark is without idle discourse? Namely, the dharmas of this and that.’

To speak briefly of these marks of idle discourse: this is east, that is west; it is above, it is below; it is permanent, it is impermanent; it is real, it is false; it is worldly, it is world-transcending; and so on up to it is the dharma of the two vehicles, it is the dharma of the Buddha.

The Buddha assents and speaks fully: ‘All dharmas are of the mark of emptiness. If a dharma really and fixedly existed and were not empty, then it would be non-arising and non-ceasing; because it is non-arising and non-ceasing there would be no four truths; because there are no four truths there would be no Buddha Jewel, Dharma Jewel, or Saṅgha Jewel; in this way the Three Jewels and all dharmas would all be destroyed. Now dharmas are truly empty, and so on up to the mark of emptiness too is empty; beings cling because of delusion and inversion. Therefore he arouses a mind of compassion among beings, and because he wishes to pull them out, he seeks the power of a Buddha's body; he wishes to make beings believe and accept his words, give up inversion, and enter the real mark of dharmas. So although the bodhisattva knows that dharmas are empty, he distinguishes them and proclaims them for the benefit of beings; if beings knew of themselves that dharmas are empty, the bodhisattva would need only to abide himself within the mark of emptiness, and would not need to train in distinguishing all dharmas.’

When the bodhisattva practises the bodhisattva path, from the first arousing of intent he reflects thus: ‘All dharmas have no fixed real nature; they arise only from the coming together of causes and conditions; these many causes and conditions too each arise from coming together, and so on until ultimate emptiness is reached. Ultimate emptiness alone is one dharma that is real; the rest are all without self-nature, and so all are false and deceptive. From beginningless time I have clung to these false and deceptive dharmas, and within the six destinies I have undergone suffering and vexation to the point of weariness. Now I am a son of the buddhas of the three times and the ten directions; prajñā is my mother; now I should no longer follow after false and deceptive dharmas.’ So the bodhisattva does not cling even within ultimate emptiness, how much less to the other dharmas, namely dānapāramitā and the rest!

At that time the bodhisattva illuminates the bodhisattva path; his mind is at peace, and he thinks to himself: ‘I need only sever the clinging mind, and the path will arrive of itself.’

Having known this matter, he thinks of how beings cling deeply to the world, while ultimate emptiness too is empty, without nature, without a place to abide, and beings find it hard to believe and accept. In order to make beings believe and accept this Dharma, he trains in all dharmas, and cultivates and gives rise to the dharma of skilful means for delivering beings.

He observes where the mental activity of beings tends, and knows what dharmas they like, what matters they think of, and what aspirations they have. In observing, he knows completely that the places beings cling to are all false, deceptive, and inverted; that they cling because of recollection, imagining, and discrimination; and that there is no root real matter. At that time the bodhisattva is greatly glad, and has this thought: ‘Beings are easily delivered, that is all! Why? Because what beings cling to is all false and deceptive, without reality.’

It is as if a person had a son who liked to play in filth, heaping earth as grain and taking grass and trees as birds and beasts, and gave rise to love and attachment for them; when someone came to take them away, he would be angry and cry. His father knew that although this son now loves and is attached to them, this matter is easily left behind, that is all; when he grows up it will stop of itself. Why? Because these things are not real. The bodhisattva too is like this: he observes that the impure, foul-smelling body and the five desires, which beings love and are attached to, are impermanent and the cause of all kinds of suffering, and he knows that these beings, when the five wholesome roots, faith and the rest, are accomplished, will be able to relinquish them.

If what the little child clung to were really real things, then even when he reached a hundred years of age his clinging would grow deeper and heavier, and he could not give them up; if the things beings cling to existed fixedly and really, then even when they obtained the five faculties, faith and the rest, their clinging would grow deeper and heavier, and they too could not relinquish them. Because dharmas are all empty, false, deceptive, and unreal, when they obtain the pure eye of wisdom without outflows they can be far from what they clung to, and feel great shame; just as with madness, all that one does is out of keeping with what is proper, and when one comes to one's senses one is so ashamed that one has no face left.

The bodhisattva, having known that beings are easily delivered, abides in prajñā and with the power of skilful means teaches and transforms beings: ‘You should practise giving, and you can obtain abundant wealth; do not rely on the retribution of this giving and exalt yourselves in pride! Within this there is nothing solid; all of it will be broken and destroyed, and will be no different from the time before you gave.’ Morality and the rest, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, are likewise. Although these dharmas are pure and of great benefit, they are all conditioned dharmas, born from causes and conditions, without self-nature; if you cling to these dharmas, they can give rise to suffering and vexation. It is like a hot ball of gold: although it is a treasure, if you grasp it, it burns the hand.

In this way the bodhisattva teaches and transforms beings to practise the bodhisattva path; he himself clings to nothing, and also proclaims non-clinging for beings. Because he practises dānapāramitā with a mind without clinging, he does not abide in dāna. What is called not abiding is this: when giving he does not grasp at the three kinds of marks, nor does he cling to the retribution, exalt himself, and give rise to sinful deeds, and when the retribution of giving perishes he does not give rise to vexation. Śīlapāramitā and so on up to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi are likewise. Here the Buddha himself states that the causes and conditions of not abiding are of two kinds: first, the bodhisattva enters deeply into emptiness and does not see the nature of dharmas, and so does not abide; second, he is not content with a small matter, and so does not abide.

This bodhisattva has no other mind; only, wholly turned one way, he can give rise to the path of awakening.

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘If all dharmas are non-arising, how can the bodhisattva give rise to the path of awakening?’

The Buddha assents to Subhūti's meaning: ‘All dharmas are non-arising; I have indeed said in place after place that dharmas are non-arising; it was not said for ordinary people, but only for those who obtain the liberation of non-action and do not raise up the three kinds of deeds.’

Subhūti asked further: ‘World-Honored One! The Buddha himself has said: ‘Whether there is a Buddha or there is no Buddha, the marks of dharmas of all dharmas abide constantly.’ If the marks of dharmas of the sages are empty, those of ordinary people are likewise!’

The Buddha assents to what he said: the real mark of all dharmas abides constantly; because beings do not know and do not understand it, the path of awakening is therefore raised up. It is only in order to remove the inverted dharmas of ordinary people that it is named the path; if there were fixedly a path that could be clung to, that would again be inversion. The path and what is not the path are equal: this is precisely the path; so one should not object in this way!

Subhūti asked further: ‘How can awakening be obtained? Is it obtained by reason of the path of arising?’

The Buddha said: ‘No!’ Why? What is called the path of arising is the bodhisattva's contemplating the mark of arising and ceasing of these conditioned dharmas and taking it to be real; so it is said: no. It is like the simile of the hot ball of gold spoken of earlier. The dharma of non-arising is precisely the unconditioned; because it is a dharma without making, it too cannot be used to obtain awakening.

‘Arising’ and ‘non-arising’ both have faults.

‘Then is awakening obtained by neither arising nor non-arising?’

He answered: ‘No!’

The treatise-author asks:

If ‘arising’ and ‘non-arising’ both have faults, ‘neither arising nor non-arising’ should have no fault; why is it said that it is not obtained?

The treatise-author answers:

If one discriminates ‘neither arising nor non-arising’ as good or as ugly, then, because one grasps at marks and gives rise to clinging, it is said to have faults; if one is able not to cling, that is precisely the path of awakening.

Subhūti asked: ‘If it is not obtained by the four alternatives, how can the path be obtained?’

The Buddha answered: ‘Not by the path and not by what is not the path is awakening obtained.’ Why? ‘Awakening is precisely the path, the path is precisely awakening.’

Awakening is named the real mark of all dharmas; this is the ultimate real mark obtained by the buddhas, without change. All dharmas, entering into awakening, are all of the mark of quiescence; just as all waters entering the great ocean are alike of one taste. So the Buddha said: ‘The nature of awakening is precisely the nature of the path.’ If the nature of awakening and the nature of the path were different, awakening could not be named the mark of quiescence without idle discourse; so it is said: ‘Awakening is precisely the path, the path is precisely awakening.’

Further, if these two dharmas were different, practising the path should not reach awakening—because the cause and fruit of dharmas are neither one nor different.

Subhūti asked further: ‘If so, the bodhisattva practising the path should then be a Buddha!’ Why? Because the path is precisely awakening. And the Buddha should be a bodhisattva! Why? Because awakening is precisely the path. Now why is it said that there is a difference—that the Buddha has the ten powers and the rest, the thirty-two marks, and the eighty minor marks?

Subhūti, for the sake of bodhisattvas new to the training, made the distinction and objected to the Buddha: ‘The bodhisattva should be precisely the Buddha!’

The Buddha answered with a counter-question: ‘Does the Buddha obtain awakening?’

He answered: ‘No! Why? Awakening is not apart from the Buddha, the Buddha is not apart from awakening; it is because the two dharmas come together that there is the Buddha and there is awakening.’ So one should not object, saying ‘the bodhisattva is precisely the Buddha’. This is an answer by way of the general mark.

The treatise-author asks:

The Buddha is a being, awakening is a dharma; how is it said that ‘the Buddha is precisely awakening’?

The treatise-author answers:

First there are the thirty-two marks adorning his body, and the merits of the six perfections and the rest adorning his mind, and still he is not named Buddha; it is because he obtains awakening that he is named Buddha. So it is said: ‘The Buddha and awakening are not different.’ The subtle and pure five aggregates coming together are provisionally named Buddha; the dharma is precisely the five aggregates, the five aggregates are not apart from the provisional name, and awakening is precisely the real mark of the five aggregates, because all dharmas enter into awakening. So it is said that ‘the Buddha is precisely awakening, awakening is precisely the Buddha’; it is only that ordinary people discriminate in their minds and take them to be different.

The treatise-author asks:

Earlier, in your discussion, you said ‘awakening and the path are neither one nor different’; why does the sūtra say ‘the path is precisely awakening, awakening is precisely the path’, and ‘the Buddha is precisely awakening, awakening is precisely the Buddha’?

The treatise-author answers:

Although one and different are both not real, ‘one’ is mostly used; so here it is said ‘awakening is precisely the path, the path is precisely awakening’, and there is no fault! It is like permanence and impermanence, which are two extremes: permanence mostly gives rise to afflictions and so is not used; impermanence can break inversions and so is mostly used; once the matter has been accomplished, impermanence too is given up. Here it is likewise: if one contemplates all kinds of separate and different dharmas, a clinging mind arises in abundance; if one contemplates dharmas as of one mark—whether impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and so on—at that time afflictions do not arise; because the clinging mind is little, this ‘one’ is mostly used. Within the real meaning, ‘one’ too is not used; if one clings to ‘one’, that again is a fault.

Further, because separateness and difference do not exist, ‘one’ too is unfindable, because it is a dharma of standing over against each other; it is only with a mind that does not cling, not grasping at the one mark, that it is said there is no fault. Because ‘one’ is not real, the bodhisattva is not precisely the Buddha.

Further, now the Buddha answers Subhūti again, himself stating the causes and conditions: ‘Although awakening is of the mark of quiescence, the bodhisattva can make complete all the merits of the six perfections and the rest, abide in the vajra samādhi, and by the wisdom associated with a single thought obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. At that time he has mastery within all dharmas and obtains the name of Buddha.’ Although the bodhisattva knows that the path and awakening are not different, because he has not yet made all the merits complete, he is not named Buddha. And the Buddha, all his affairs having already been brought to their end, because his vows and practices are fulfilled, is not named bodhisattva. The one who can obtain is the Buddha, the dharma obtained is awakening, the one who seeks awakening is the bodhisattva.

Subhūti has heard from the Buddha the mark of awakening and the mark of the path, and the matter of bringing beings to accomplishment is finished; now he asks about the matter of purifying buddha-lands. The arhats and pratyekabuddhas have no power to know the matter of purifying buddha-lands, so it is Subhūti who asks.

The treatise-author asks:

What is a pure Buddha-land?

The treatise-author answers:

What is called a Buddha-land is a hundred koṭi of suns and moons, a hundred koṭi of Mount Sumerus, a hundred koṭi of the Four Heavenly Kings and the other heavens; this is named the three-thousand great-thousand world. Such immeasurable and boundless three-thousand great-thousand worlds are named one Buddha-land.

The Buddha does the work of a Buddha within it; the Buddha constantly, in the three periods of the day and the three periods of the night, observes beings everywhere with the Buddha-eye: ‘Who can plant roots of goodness? Whose roots of goodness are accomplished and should increase? Who, with roots of goodness accomplished, should be delivered?’ Having seen these, he teaches and transforms them by the power of the supernormal powers according to what he sees. The minds of beings follow after outer conditions: when they obtain things as they wish, they do not give rise to anger and vexation; when they obtain the causes and conditions of the impure, the impermanent, and the like, they do not give rise to craving and the other afflictions; if they obtain the causes and conditions of being without anything existent and of emptiness, they do not give rise to delusion and the other afflictions. So the bodhisattvas adorn the Buddha-land in order to make beings easily delivered. Within the land nothing is lacking or short; because there is no mind of self, stinginess, anger, and the other afflictions do not arise.

In some Buddha-lands all the trees constantly put forth the sound of the real mark of all dharmas, namely non-arising and non-ceasing, non-rising and without making, and so on; beings hear only this wondrous sound and hear no other sound, and because beings have keen faculties, they then obtain the real mark of all dharmas. Such adornments of a Buddha-land are named a pure Buddha-land. As is said in the Amitābha and other sūtras.

The Buddha answered: ‘The bodhisattva, from his first arousing of intent until now, himself purifies and removes coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind, and also teaches others to purify and remove coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind.’

The treatise-author asks:

If the bodhisattva wishes to purify buddha-lands, this bodhisattva must obtain the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas and abide in the perfection of the supernormal powers, and only then can he purify buddha-lands; now why is it said ‘from his first arousing of intent until now he purifies and removes coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind’?

The treatise-author answers:

The purity of the three kinds of deeds is not only for the sake of purifying buddha-lands; the whole bodhisattva path must be pure. These three kinds of deeds are at first a purifying of the deeds of body, speech, and mind, and only later are for the sake of purifying buddha-lands. When one's own body is pure, one purifies others too. Why? Because it is not one person alone; those born in this land all together make the causes and conditions. The inner dharmas and the outer dharmas make causes and conditions for each other, whether wholesome or unwholesome: because of many evil verbal deeds, the ground grows thorns; because of flattering, deceitful, crooked minds, the ground is high and low and uneven; because of much stinginess, water and drought are out of season and the ground grows sand and gravel. Because the evils above are not done, the ground is level and yields many precious things; as when Maitreya Buddha appears in the world, because everyone practises the ten wholesome paths, there are many precious things on the ground.

The treatise-author asks:

If giving and the other wholesome dharmas can obtain the retribution of a pure Buddha-land, why is only the purifying of the three kinds of deeds spoken of?

The treatise-author answers:

Although it is known that wholesome and evil dharmas are the causes and conditions of suffering and happiness, yet just as, among all mind and mental-factor dharmas, at the time of obtaining the path wisdom is greatest, in gathering the mind concentration is greatest, and at the time of making deeds construction is greatest; having obtained this deed of construction, one then raises bodily deeds, verbal deeds, and mental deeds. Giving, meditative concentration, and the rest all have construction at their head; as in sewing a garment the needle leads the way. At the time of receiving retribution in later lives, the power of deeds is greatest. So to speak of the three kinds of deeds is to gather in all wholesome dharmas: within mental deeds all mind and mental-factor dharmas are entirely gathered, and bodily deeds and verbal deeds gather in all dharmas of form.

When a person's body practises these three, merit is complete, and the land is pure. Because the inner dharmas are pure, the outer dharmas too are pure; just as, because the face is pure, the image in the mirror too is pure. As is said in the Vimalakīrti Sūtra. Because of not killing living beings, everyone is long-lived, and so on.

The treatise-author asks:

The coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind are a matter easily known; why does Subhūti still ask?

The treatise-author answers:

Because coarse and subtle are not fixed. For instance, among people who seek the path, giving counts as a coarse wholesome act, while for the white-robed it counts as subtle. As in the Small Vehicle unwholesome deeds are taken as coarse and wholesome deeds as subtle; in the Mahāyāna, grasping at the mark of a wholesome dharma, and so on up to nirvāṇa, is all named coarse. It is because coarse and subtle are not fixed that he asks.

The Buddha, in sequence, tells him the marks of coarse deeds, namely taking life and so on up to wrong views. These are the three kinds of bodily deeds, the four kinds of verbal deeds, and the three kinds of mental deeds, all named coarse.

Further, what breaks the dharmas of the bodhisattva's six perfections—stinginess and the rest—are all named coarse.

The treatise-author asks:

Earlier the ten unwholesome paths were spoken of, which already include stinginess and the rest; why are they spoken of separately again?

The treatise-author answers:

These six dharmas do not enter the ten unwholesome paths; the ten unwholesome paths are all dharmas that vex and harm beings, while these six dharmas are not only for vexing and harming beings. For instance, the stingy mind only begrudges one's own wealth and does not vex or harm beings. The mind of craving is of two kinds: first, only craving the wealth of others, not yet vexing or harming beings; second, the mind of craving growing more intense, seeking and not obtaining, then wishing to destroy and harm—only this is named a path of deeds, because it can raise deeds. The mind of anger is likewise: the small kind is not named a path of deeds; it is because it can tend toward evil places that it is named a path. So to speak separately of these six dharmas is no fault.

The treatise-author asks:

Morality has already been spoken of within the six perfections; now why is impure morality spoken of again?

The treatise-author answers:

The dharma of breaking morality is a coarse sin such as killing living beings and the like. Impure morality is a subtle sin, which does not vex or harm beings; such as drinking wine and the like, which do not enter the ten unwholesome paths.

Further, breaking the precepts of the five classes is named breaking morality. Not breaking the precepts one has received, yet constantly having one's mind covered by the three poisons, not keeping the precepts in mind, dedicating them to the merit and retribution of the heavens, keeping the precepts with wrong views—such things are named impure morality.

Further, if the bodhisattva's mind is far from the thirty-seven limbs of the path, the four foundations of mindfulness and the rest, and from the three gates of liberation, this is named a coarse deed. Why? Because within these the mind is always contemplating real dharmas, in accord with nirvāṇa and not in accord with the world; if it goes out from the four foundations of mindfulness and the other dharmas, the mind becomes scattered. It is like a snake moving: by its nature it likes to bend; if it enters a bamboo tube it becomes straight, and when it comes out of the bamboo tube it bends again.

Further, if the bodhisattva craves the realisation of the fruit of the srota-āpanna, this is coarse. As when a person hears the Buddha say ‘the fruit of the srota-āpanna does not fall into the three evil destinies; the suffering exhausted is immeasurable, like the water of a pond fifty yojana across; what remains is like one drop or two drops’, and gives rise to a mind of craving. Because his mind is not firm—originally he sought to become a Buddha for the sake of beings, and now for his own sake he wishes to take realisation—this is to deceive the Buddha and also to betray beings, so it is named coarse. It is like a person who invites guests and means to set out food and drink, yet in the end does not give it; this is false speech and a betrayal of the guests. The bodhisattva too is like this: at the first arousing of the mind he made the vow ‘I shall become a Buddha and deliver all beings’, and yet craves the srota-āpanna; this is to betray all beings. As with craving the fruit of the srota-āpanna, so too with craving and so on up to the pratyekabuddha path.

Fascicle ninety-two of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa ends here.

This fascicle is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the remainder of the eighty-second chapter, "Purifying the Buddha-land"—continuing from the previous fascicle—composed by the noble Nāgārjuna and translated by the Tripiṭaka master Kumārajīva of the land of Kucha under the Later Qin.

Sūtra ②: Grasping at Marks Is Also a Coarse Deed—Keeping Far from the Marks of Coarse Deeds, Practising the Six Perfections and Dedicating Them to Purifying buddha-lands

Further, Subhūti! The bodhisattva grasps at the mark of form, grasps at the marks of feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness, grasps at the mark of the eye, grasps at the marks of the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind, grasps at the marks of forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles, and dharmas, grasps at the male mark and the female mark, grasps at the mark of the desire realm, the mark of the form realm, and the mark of the formless realm, grasps at the mark of wholesome dharmas and the mark of unwholesome dharmas, grasps at the mark of conditioned dharmas and the mark of unconditioned dharmas—this is called the coarse deed of the bodhisattva. The bodhisattva-mahāsattva keeps far from all such marks of coarse deeds. He himself practises giving, and also teaches others to practise giving; to one who needs food and drink he gives food and drink, to one who needs clothing he gives clothing, and so on up to all kinds of things needed to sustain life, he gives them all, and also teaches others to make all kinds of giving. He shares such merit with all beings, for the sake of dedicating it to purifying buddha-lands. Keeping morality, patience, vigour, meditative concentration, and wisdom are likewise.

Sūtra ② (continued): Six Offerings, Six Vows—the Seven Jewels, Heavenly Music, Heavenly Fragrance, the Hundred Flavours, Fine Smoothness, the Five Desires at Will

This bodhisattva-mahāsattva perhaps gives precious things filling the three-thousand great-thousand lands to the Three Honoured Ones, the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha, and makes this vow: ‘Because of the causes and conditions of my roots of goodness, may my land be made wholly of the seven jewels.’ Further, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva entertains the Buddha and the Buddha's stūpas with heavenly music and dance, and makes this vow: ‘By these causes and conditions of roots of goodness, may heavenly music always be heard within my land.’ Further, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva makes offerings to the buddhas and the Buddha's stūpas with heavenly fragrance filling the three-thousand great-thousand lands, and makes this vow: ‘By these causes and conditions of roots of goodness, may there always be heavenly fragrance within my land.’ Further, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva gives food and drink of the hundred flavours to the Buddha and the Saṅgha, and makes this vow: ‘Because of these causes and conditions of roots of goodness, may the beings within my land all obtain food and drink of the hundred flavours!’ Further, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva gives heavenly fragrance and fine smoothness to the Buddha and the Saṅgha, and makes this vow: ‘Because of these causes and conditions of roots of goodness, may all beings within my land receive heavenly fragrance and fine smoothness!’ Further, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva gives the five desires at will to the Buddha, the Saṅgha, and all beings, and makes this vow: ‘Because of these causes and conditions of roots of goodness, may the disciples and all beings within my land all obtain the five desires at will!’ This bodhisattva, together with all beings, dedicates the five desires at will to purifying buddha-lands, and makes this vow: ‘When I obtain buddhahood, within this land the five desires, like those of the heavens, will arrive as the mind wishes!’

Sūtra ② (continued): The Vow of the Four Dhyānas, the Four Immeasurables, and the Thirty-seven Limbs—Thus Should the Bodhisattva Purify buddha-lands

Further, Subhūti! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he makes this vow: ‘I shall myself enter the first dhyāna, and also teach all beings to enter the first dhyāna; the second dhyāna, the third dhyāna, the fourth dhyāna, the minds of kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity, and so on up to the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, are likewise; when I obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, I shall cause all beings not to be far from the four dhyānas, and so on up to not to be far from the thirty-seven limbs of the path, the dharmas that aid the path.’ Thus, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva is able to purify buddha-lands. This bodhisattva, through so long a time, practises the bodhisattva path and fulfils these vows; this bodhisattva himself accomplishes all wholesome dharmas, and also accomplishes the wholesome dharmas of all beings; the body this bodhisattva receives is upright and handsome, and the beings he teaches and transforms also obtain upright handsomeness. Why? Because the causes and conditions of merit are deep and thick. Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva should purify buddha-lands in this way.

Sūtra ② (continued): In the Land There Is Not Even the Name of the Three Evil Destinies—Trees of the Seven Jewels Bring Out the Sound of the Dharma; Hearing the Buddha's Name One Will Surely Reach Awakening; Those Who Break the Dharma Fall into the Evil Destinies

Within this land there is not even the name of the three evil destinies, nor are there the names of wrong views, the three poisons, or the two vehicles—the śrāvaka and the pratyekabuddha; the ear does not hear the sound of impermanence, suffering, or emptiness, nor is there the name of what is mine, and so on up to the names of the various fetters and afflictions, nor is there the name that distinguishes the several fruits. The wind blows on the trees of the seven jewels and, according to those who are to be delivered, brings out sound—namely emptiness, the signless, non-action, like the sound of the real mark of all dharmas: ‘Whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas are empty; in emptiness there is no mark; in the signless there is then no making’—bringing out such a sound of the Dharma, whether by day or by night, whether sitting, lying down, standing, or walking, they constantly hear this Dharma. When this bodhisattva obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, the buddhas in the lands of the ten directions all praise him; beings who hear this Buddha's name will surely reach anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. When this bodhisattva obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and teaches the Dharma, among the beings who hear it there is none who fails to believe and so gives rise to doubt, saying: ‘Is this the Dharma? Or is it not the Dharma?’ Why? Because within the real mark of all dharmas, all is Dharma; there is nothing that is not the Dharma. As for those people of meagre merit, who do not plant roots of goodness with the buddhas and their disciples, do not follow the good friend, are sunk in the view of self, and so on up to sunk in all the various views, and fall into extreme views—whether the view of annihilation or the view of permanence: such people, because of wrong views, call what is not the Buddha's word the Buddha's word, and the Buddha's word not the Buddha's word, call what is not the Dharma the Dharma, and the Dharma not the Dharma; such people, because of breaking the Dharma, at the breaking up of the body and the end of life, fall into the evil destiny of hell. When the buddhas obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, seeing these beings going and coming in the five destinies, they make them leave the wrongly assured assembly and establish them in the rightly assured assembly, so that they no longer fall into the evil destinies.

Sūtra ② (continued): Summing Up—the Beings of the Land Have No Mixed and Defiled Mind, and Ultimately Reach Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi

Thus, Subhūti! The beings within the Buddha-land purified by the bodhisattva-mahāsattva have no mixed and defiled mind: whether worldly dharmas or world-transcending dharmas, whether with outflows or without outflows, whether conditioned or unconditioned; and so on up to: the beings within this land ultimately reach anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! This is the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's purifying of buddha-lands.

Treatise ②: Beginning the Explanation—There Is Another Kind of Coarse Deed: Grasping at Marks within Ultimate Emptiness and Giving Rise to Clinging

The treatise-author explains:

There is another kind of coarse deed, which is to grasp at marks within the ultimate emptiness of all dharmas and give rise to a clinging mind, namely grasping at the mark of form, grasping at the marks of feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness, grasping at the mark of the eye and so on up to the mark of the mind, grasping at the mark of forms and so on up to the mark of dharmas, grasping at the male mark and the female mark, grasping at the marks of the three realms, grasping at the marks of the wholesome and the unwholesome, grasping at the marks of the conditioned and the unconditioned, and so forth.

Treatise ② (continued): The Marks of Male and Female Are Indeed False; If One Does Not Grasp at the Marks of Other Dharmas, How Can One Weary of Form and Accomplish the Wholesome?

The treatise-author asks:

The male mark and the female mark are indeed false and unreal; but as for the other dharmas, form and so on, and wholesome dharmas and unwholesome dharmas, if one does not grasp at their marks, then how can one weary of form and the rest and accomplish wholesome dharmas?

The treatise-author answers:

Within the Buddha's Dharma there are two kinds of emptiness: first, the emptiness of beings; second, the emptiness of dharmas. By the emptiness of beings one breaks the marks of beings, namely the male mark, the female mark, and the like; by the emptiness of dharmas one breaks the false marks within dharmas such as form, as is said in the place ‘breaking all dharmas as empty’. To be able to contemplate form and other dharmas, and wholesome dharmas, as like an illusion, like a conjuration, not grasping at them as a definitely real mark, and thereby to obtain the mind of weariness, and so to relinquish such idle discourse as permanent and impermanent—this is not called grasping at marks. Further, because form and other dharmas, as well as wholesome dharmas, are all the coming together of many conditions and are practised with their nature empty, one does not give rise to the various afflictions.

Treatise ② (continued): Since Unconditioned Dharmas Are Real, Why Are They Too Not Grasped?

The treatise-author asks:

All conditioned dharmas, because they are the coming together of provisional names, should not be grasped; unconditioned dharmas are real dharmas, namely suchness, the nature of dharmas, and the limit of reality—why are they too not grasped?

The treatise-author answers:

Because only not grasping at marks is the unconditioned dharma, and only the signless is called the gate of the unconditioned dharma; if one grasps at marks, it becomes the conditioned. In all such ways as these, all grasping at marks is false, deceptive, and unreal.

Treatise ② (continued): Keeping Far from Coarse Deeds of Body, Speech, and Mind—Because of Shared Causes and Conditions of Purity the Buddha-land Is Pure

Keeping far from coarse deeds of body, deeds of speech, and deeds of mind.

The bodhisattva, wishing to carry out the work of purifying buddha-lands, keeps far from all such coarse deeds of body, speech, and mind, himself practises the six perfections, and also teaches others and makes them practise; because of shared causes and conditions of purity, the Buddha-land becomes pure.

Treatise ② (continued): The Above Is Said by Way of the General Mark, the Below by Way of the Specific Marks

What is above is said by way of the general mark; what is below is said by way of the specific marks.

Treatise ② (continued): The Vow of Giving the Seven Jewels to the Buddha and the Saṅgha

This bodhisattva gives the seven jewels filling the three-thousand great-thousand world to the Buddha and the Saṅgha, and makes this vow: ‘By the causes and conditions of this giving, may my land be wholly adorned with the seven jewels.’

Treatise ② (continued): Where Are the Treasures of the Three-thousand World Obtained, and Who Can Receive Them?

The treatise-author asks:

If it is precious things filling the three-thousand great-thousand world, where are they to be obtained? Moreover, the buddhas and the worthy and the sages have few desires and know contentment; who would accept these? If one says that ordinary people have a mind that is never satisfied, how then could they bear the things of the three-thousand great-thousand world?

The treatise-author answers:

This bodhisattva is a body born of the Dharma-nature, abiding complete in the perfection of the supernormal powers; for the sake of making offerings to the buddhas of the ten directions, he makes offerings with precious things as many as the three-thousand great-thousand world. Further, these treasures are made by the power of the supernormal powers, light and subtle, not obstructing one another. Just as in the Heaven of Universal Purity of the third dhyāna sixty people sit on the point of one needle to hear the Dharma without obstructing one another; how much more the treasures made by a great bodhisattva who has entered deeply into the supernormal powers!

Treatise ② (continued): The Vow of Transforming the Body to the Size of Mount Sumeru as a Lamp-wick—May the Land Always Have Light

Again, there are bodhisattvas who transform their own bodies to be as large as Mount Sumeru, present everywhere before the buddhas of the ten directions, and, making the body a lamp-wick, make offerings to the Buddha or to the Buddha's stūpa-shrines, and vow, saying: ‘May my land always have light, not needing sun, moon, lamps, or candles.’

Treatise ② (continued): The Vow of Raining Flowers, Incense, Banners, Canopies, and Necklaces—May Beings Be Upright and Handsome like Flowers

Again, there are bodhisattvas who rain down all kinds of flowers and incense, banners and canopies, and necklaces as offerings, and further make this vow: ‘May the beings within my land be upright and handsome like flowers, their bodies adorned and pure, without ugliness.’

All such as these are causes and conditions of beautiful form.

Treatise ② (continued): The Vow of Offering Heavenly Music and Dance—May Fine Sounds Always Be Heard in My Land

Again, there are bodhisattvas who entertain the Buddha, or the Buddha's stūpa-shrines, with heavenly music and dance. This bodhisattva sometimes, by the power of his supernormal powers, makes heavenly music and dance, sometimes makes the music and dance of heavenly kings and wheel-turning sage kings, sometimes makes heavenly music and dance such as that of the asura spirits and the nāga kings, as offerings—vowing that within my land fine sounds may always be heard.

Treatise ② (continued): The Buddhas Are Free from Desire—Why Need Offerings of Music and Dance?

The treatise-author asks:

The buddhas and the worthy and the sages are people already free from desire, and have no need of music, song, and dance; why then make offerings with music and dance?

The treatise-author answers:

Although the buddhas have a mind without clinging within all dharmas and seek nothing at all from worldly dharmas, yet the buddhas appear in the world because of compassion for beings; they should accord with those who make offerings, and accept them for the sake of letting them obtain merit according to their wishes. Just as offering flowers and incense is also not something the Buddha needs—the Buddha's body always has a wondrous fragrance that the gods cannot equal—he accepts it for the sake of benefiting beings. This bodhisattva seeks fine sounds because he wishes to purify buddha-lands: he wishes to make the beings within the land hear fine sounds, and then the mind becomes soft; because the mind becomes soft, they easily receive teaching and transformation. Therefore he makes offerings to the Buddha by way of the causes and conditions of sound.

Treatise ② (continued): The Vow of Offering Fragrance That Fills the World—May the Land Always Have Fine Fragrance without Anyone Who Makes It

Again, there are bodhisattvas who make offerings to the buddhas, or to stūpas, with fragrance filling the three-thousand great-thousand world—root fragrance, stem fragrance, leaf fragrance, powdered fragrance, or heavenly fragrance, or fragrance made by transformation, or fragrance born of the retribution of the bodhisattva's merit—and make this vow: ‘May there always be fine fragrance within my land, and yet no one who makes it.’

Treatise ② (continued): Offering the Hundred Flavours—the Differing Explanations of the Hundred Flavours, and the Four Kinds of Food

Again, there are bodhisattvas who make offerings of the hundred flavours to the buddhas and the Saṅgha. Someone says: being able to make offerings with a hundred kinds of things—this is called the hundred flavours. Someone says: the kinds of cakes number five hundred, and their flavours number a hundred—this is called the hundred flavours. Someone says: making joy-pills out of a hundred kinds of medicinal herbs and medicinal fruits—this is called the hundred flavours. Someone says: food and drink, broths and cakes, have a hundred flavours in all. Someone says: because food and drink of all kinds are fully provided, it is called the hundred flavours. Human food and drink is therefore of a hundred flavours; the food and drink of the gods has hundreds of thousands of flavours; the food that is the retribution born of the bodhisattva's merit, and the food transformed by the power of the supernormal powers, have immeasurable flavours, and can transform a person's mind, making him free from desire and pure. These four kinds of food the bodhisattva offers to the Buddha and the Saṅgha according to causes and conditions; therefore within the land there is of itself food and drink of the hundred flavours.

Treatise ② (continued): The Vow of Offering Heavenly Unguents—May the Beings of the Land Receive Heavenly Fine Smoothness

Again, there are bodhisattvas who make offerings with heavenly unguents. The land of India is hot, and moreover because the body has a bad smell, people smear the body with fragrance, and with this he makes offerings to the buddhas and the Saṅgha. Because of these causes and conditions, he vows that the beings within my land may receive heavenly fine smoothness.

Treatise ② (continued): A Śrāmaṇera Does Not Even Smear His Body with Fragrance—How Can One Make Offerings with Fragrance?

The treatise-author asks:

One who receives the śrāmaṇera precepts, and so on up to one who receives only the one-day precepts, does not even smear the body with fragrance; how can one make offerings to the Buddha and the Saṅgha with fragrance?

The treatise-author answers:

This bodhisattva takes what he himself prizes and, at the time it is needed, uses it as an offering, or uses it to smear the ground, to smear walls, and the places of walking meditation, sitting, and lying down.

Treatise ② (continued): The Vow of Giving the Five Desires at Will to the Buddha, the Saṅgha, and Beings

Again, with the five desires at will he makes offerings to the buddhas, the Saṅgha, and the other beings. This bodhisattva takes fine carriages, horses, wives and concubines, hired performers, banners and canopies, gold and silver, clothing, and precious things—whatever those gone forth do not accept—and gives them to beings, vowing, saying: ‘May the beings within my land always obtain the five desires at will.’

Treatise ② (continued): The Five Desires Are like Fire, like a Pit—Why Does the Bodhisattva Vow That Beings Obtain Them?

The treatise-author asks:

These five desires the Buddha said are like fire, like a pit, like a sore, like a prison, like an enemy, like a thief, able to rob people of their roots of goodness; why does the bodhisattva vow to make beings obtain the five desires? Further, the Buddha said that disciples should wear robes of cast-off rags, practise begging for food, and sit beneath the trees of the forest; why does the bodhisattva seek the five desires for beings?

The treatise-author answers:

The five desires of the heavens and of the human world are the retribution of merit. Whether in this world or in later worlds, poor people of meagre merit cannot support themselves and so commit robbery; either they are killed by the owner of the goods, or for the sake of goods they kill others; or when questioned by others they lie, saying they did not do it. In this way, in sequence they commit ten kinds of unwholesome deeds, all done because of poverty. If a person is complete in the five desires, then whatever he desires is at his will, and he will not practise the ten unwholesome deeds.

Treatise ② (continued): When the Land Is Rich and Happy There Are No Evils—the Simile of a Garment Soiled with Grease Soaked in Ash and Mud

The beings within the bodhisattva's land are rich and happy, free at their will, lacking nothing, and so they have none of the various evils, only soft fetters such as love and pride. If they hear what the Buddha teaches, or hear what the disciples teach, because their minds are soft, hearing the Dharma they easily obtain the path; although the clinging mind is much, yet because their faculties are keen, hearing impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and so on, they at once obtain the path. It is like a garment soiled with grease: one soaks it in ash and mud, and after a night washes it with water, and at one time it is all removed. The bodhisattva does not give the five desires wishing to make beings cling; he gives them only wishing to make them relinquish at one time.

Treatise ② (continued): Answering the Objection about Robes of Cast-off Rags and Begging for Food—Because the Five Desires Are All Equal in the Pure Land, Beings No Longer Prize Them and Cling

As for what you said before, ‘the Buddha taught the disciples to wear robes of cast-off rags and practise begging for food’—that is because, through the causes and conditions of sinful deeds of former lives, they were born in an evil age and the defiled mind is much; if they obtained fine clothing and fine food, the clinging mind would become deep; and moreover, because of seeking fine clothing and food, the practice of the path would be hindered and neglected. The beings within the Buddha-land purified by this bodhisattva have already accomplished immeasurable merit; because the five desires are all equal, they no longer prize them and crave them, nor do they seek further, and so there is no hindrance.

Treatise ② (continued): Leaving the Five Desires to Practise Austerities Increases Anger—Relinquish Suffering and Pleasure, Use Wisdom, Abide in the Middle Way

Further, if a practitioner leaves the five desires and practises austerities, he increases anger; further, if he recollects the five desires, afflictions arise, and then he has nowhere to tend toward. Therefore the Buddha said: ‘Relinquish suffering and pleasure, use wisdom, abide in the middle way.’ Therefore within the pure Buddha-land, giving with the five desires is no hindrance.

Treatise ② (continued): In the Vinaya a Bhikṣu Who Said That Receiving the Five Desires Does Not Hinder the Path Was Expelled—How Is This to Be Reconciled?

The treatise-author asks:

If so, why is it that in the Vinaya there is a bhikṣu who said: ‘I understand the meaning of the Buddha's Dharma; receiving the five desires does not hinder the path!’ and this bhikṣu was to be rebuked, and when he did not stop even at the third rebuke, he was expelled?

The treatise-author answers:

The Buddha's Dharma is of two kinds: the Small Vehicle and the Great Vehicle. Within the Small Vehicle, people of meagre merit have the three poisons in excess.

Treatise ② (continued): The White-robed Disciples of the Pocha Sūtra, and the Two Sins of the Bhikṣu Alizha

As in the Pocha Sūtra, the Buddha said: ‘My white-robed disciples, not one, not two, and so on up to more than five hundred people, smear their bodies with red sandalwood and receive fine fragrant flowers, lie with their wives, employ servants and maids, and yet are able to sever the three fetters and obtain srota-āpanna; with the three fetters severed and the three poisons thinned, they obtain sakṛdāgāmin.’ The bhikṣu Alizha, hearing this, said: ‘Though one receives the five desires, it does not hinder the path!’ He did not know for whom the Buddha said this. The Buddha said it for the sake of the white-robed, people at home, but this bhikṣu took it into the dharma of those gone forth and said it there. These srota-āpanna, sakṛdāgāmin, and other people had never said: ‘For the rest of this life I will not commit desire!’ Because the three poisons still remain, at times they forget the path and give rise to lustful thoughts. One gone forth, in the midst of the Saṅgha, with his own mouth takes the oath himself, saying: ‘For the rest of my life I will not commit sexual desire!’ The Buddha said: ‘If one gone forth commits desire, he is to be expelled.’ This bhikṣu himself took the oath and then broke it: this is the first grave sin; knowing clearly the precept the Buddha established and deliberately breaking it: this is the second grave sin. This bhikṣu, because he saw the white-robed obtain the path, made himself equal to them, and therefore fell into sin.

Treatise ② (continued): The Two Kinds of Beings in the Pure Buddha-land—Neither Those at Home nor Those Gone Forth Are at Fault

Within the pure Buddha-land there are two kinds of beings: first, those gone forth; second, those at home. Those at home, though they receive the five desires, have no sin, nor any hindrance; just as the gods of the Tuṣita heaven and the people of Uttarakuru, though they receive the five desires, do not give rise to grave sins. The beings who have gone forth, using the five desires that the Buddha permits to those gone forth, also have no fault.

Treatise ② (continued): The Small Vehicle Spoke for Alizha's Sake; Those Who Purify buddha-lands Train in and Practise the Six Perfections and the Three Gates of Liberation Life after Life

What was said before was within the dharma of the Small Vehicle, said for the sake of the bhikṣu Alizha; that is because people of meagre merit and heavy sin have much remorse in their minds. As for those who practise purifying buddha-lands, life after life they cultivate and train in the six perfections and the three gates of liberation; although they obtain the five desires, they are not defiled by them.

Treatise ② (continued): As the Sūtra Says—He Himself Enters the First Dhyāna and Also Teaches Beings to Enter It; When He Becomes a Buddha All Practise the Four Dhyānas and So On up to the Thirty-seven Limbs

As the sūtra says, namely, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he has this thought: ‘I shall myself enter the first dhyāna, and shall also teach and transform beings to enter the first dhyāna; the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, and so on up to the thirty-seven limbs of the path, are likewise.’ This bodhisattva makes this vow: ‘When I become a Buddha, all will practise the four dhyānas and so on up to the thirty-seven limbs of the path.’ Because there is such merit, although beings receive the five desires, these cannot constitute a hindrance.

Treatise ② (continued): Immeasurable Asaṃkhyeya Vows All Made Complete—the Body Upright and Handsome, Those Who See It Never Satisfied

This bodhisattva makes immeasurable asaṃkhyeya vows, practises the path through so long a time, and makes all these vows complete; this bodhisattva accomplishes all wholesome dharmas, and so too the beings he accomplishes. Because all wholesome dharmas are accomplished, he obtains a body upright and handsome, of which those who see it are never satisfied; he also accomplishes beings, making them obtain upright handsomeness.

Subhūti! The bodhisattva should purify buddha-lands in this way.

Treatise ② (continued): Not Even the Name of the Three Evils, How Much Less the Three Evil Destinies

Further, what is called purifying buddha-lands is to have not even the name of the three evils, how much less the three evil destinies themselves!

Treatise ② (continued): If There Are No Three Evil Destinies, on Whom Do the Buddhas Have Compassion?

The treatise-author asks:

The buddhas, with the mind of great kindness and compassion, appear in the world for the sake of suffering and vexed beings; if there are no three evil destinies, what then is there to have compassion for?

The treatise-author answers:

The Buddha appears in the world for the sake of delivering beings; yet the beings of the three evil destinies cannot be delivered, one can only make them plant roots of goodness; therefore the Buddha is named ‘Teacher of Gods and Humans’. If there were no gods and humans, only the three evil destinies, then there should be such an objection, then one should ask such a question.

Treatise ② (continued): The Buddha Has Compassion for Beings—Why Are There No Beings of the Three Evil Destinies in the Pure Land?

The treatise-author asks:

The Buddha has compassion for beings; why are there no beings of the three evil destinies within the pure Buddha-land?

The treatise-author answers:

Compassion for all beings is equal and without distinction; what is spoken of here is the causes and conditions of pure deeds, and therefore within this land there are no three evil destinies. Further, the Buddha has not just one land; he has lands as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions. The Buddha has pure lands and also mixed and defiled lands. Within the mixed and defiled lands the five destinies are present; within the pure Buddha-lands, either there is a distinction of humans and gods, or there is no distinction of humans and gods. Just as within the land of the past Buddha Heavenly King, only the Buddha, the World-Honored One, was the king of the Dharma; therefore he was named the Buddha Heavenly King.

Treatise ② (continued): There Are Also Lands without the Three Poisons and Wrong Views

Again, there are lands without the three poisons and wrong views.

Treatise ② (continued): If There Are No Afflictions, Why Does the Buddha Appear in the World—Two Explanations

The treatise-author asks:

The buddhas appear in the world only for the sake of removing the afflictions of beings; wrong views and the three poisons are afflictions; if there are no afflictions, what then do they appear in the world for?

The treatise-author answers:

Someone says: within this land, because of the causes and conditions of great merit, wrong views and the three poisons do not break out, and therefore it is said there are none.

Further, someone says: within this land the bodhisattvas all obtain the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas, constantly cultivate all kinds of merit such as the six perfections, constantly roam the ten directions delivering beings, and in the presence of the buddhas train in the samādhis of the buddhas; this surpasses teaching and transforming countless śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, and also surpasses teaching and transforming avaivartika bodhisattvas. The bodhisattva who accomplishes beings, the bodhisattva who purifies buddha-lands, because he is near the Buddha path, has a benefit that therefore becomes vast.

Treatise ② (continued): In the Land There Is No Name of the Two Vehicles—Are the Other Buddhas, Who Teach by the Three Vehicles, Then Alone Inferior?

As for the phrase ‘this land has no name of the two vehicles’.

The treatise-author asks:

The other buddhas teach and transform by the three vehicles; are they then alone inferior?

The treatise-author answers:

The buddhas appear in the evil age of the five turbidities, and within the one path divide it into three vehicles.

Treatise ② (continued): Amitābha and Akṣobhya Are Not Born in the Five Turbidities—Why Do They Too Have the Three Vehicles?

The treatise-author asks:

If so, Amitābha Buddha, Akṣobhya Buddha, and others are not born in an age of the five turbidities; why do they also have the three vehicles?

The treatise-author answers:

The buddhas, at the time of their first arousing of the mind, saw the buddhas delivering beings by the three vehicles, and themselves made the vow, saying: ‘I too shall deliver beings by the three vehicles.’

Treatise ② (continued): No Name of Impermanence, Suffering, Emptiness, or Non-self—Without Disease There Is No Need of Medicine

As for the phrase ‘nor is there the name of impermanence, suffering, emptiness, or non-self’: it is because beings cling deeply to the inversions of permanence, pleasure, and so on that impermanence and the other dharmas of suffering are taught to them. But within this land, because there are no inversions of permanence, pleasure, and so on, there is no need of impermanence and suffering; just as, if there is no disease, there is no need of medicine. ‘Nor is there what is mine’ and so on up to ‘there are not the various afflictions and fetters’ are likewise.

Treatise ② (continued): Because There Are No Two Vehicles There Are No Fruits—Trees of the Seven Jewels Bring Out the Sound of the Dharma according to Those to Be Delivered

Because there are no two vehicles, there are also none of the various fruits such as srota-āpanna; they only tend wholly toward the real mark of all dharmas. Those who have already obtained the acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas obtain all kinds of samādhis and dhāraṇī gates, and further increase the merits of the grounds and so on. As for the phrase ‘the wind blows on the trees of the seven jewels and, according to those to be delivered, brings out sound’: this bodhisattva wishes to make it easy for beings to hear the Dharma, and therefore the trees of the seven jewels bring out the sound of the Dharma. Because the jewelled trees fill the land everywhere, as soon as beings are born there they hear the Dharma; other minds do not arise, only the mind of the Dharma arises.

Treatise ② (continued): The Buddhas Have Supernormal Powers—Why Not Manifest Immeasurable Bodies Instead of Needing the Sound of Trees?

The treatise-author asks:

The buddhas have the immeasurable, inconceivable power of the supernormal powers; why do they not transform themselves into immeasurable bodies to teach the Dharma and deliver beings? Why must they use the sound of trees?

The treatise-author answers:

Beings are very many; if the Buddha manifested his body everywhere, beings would on the contrary not believe, taking it for conjuration and transformation, and their minds would not give rise to reverence. Some beings, hearing the Dharma from a person, cannot be awakened in mind; if they hear the Dharma from an animal, then they can believe and accept it. As the Jātaka Sūtra says: the bodhisattva received the body of an animal and taught the Dharma for people; people, because it was rare, all without exception believed and accepted it. And again, because they held that an animal's mind is straight and does not deceive.

Some people hold that animals are sentient things and can all deceive; but trees have no mind and yet can bring out sound, and so all can believe and accept it. Namely, emptiness, the signless, non-action—whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, all dharmas are always empty; because empty, therefore signless; because signless, therefore without making and non-rising. All such dharmas as these are constantly brought out day and night.

Treatise ② (continued): Other Lands Transform by Supernormal Power and the Power of the Mouth; Here There Is Always Sound That Comes of Itself

Other lands make all kinds of transformations by the power of the supernormal powers and the power of mouth and tongue; within this land, however, there is always sound that comes of itself.

Treatise ② (continued): The Buddha Is Constantly Praised by the Buddhas—Hearing the Name of the Buddha of a Pure Land One Is Assured of Becoming a Buddha

Within the pure Buddha-land, the Buddha is constantly praised by the buddhas; because he has vastly made merit, he is able to obtain such a pure land; if one hears the name of the Buddha of a pure land, one will surely become a Buddha.

Treatise ② (continued): The Other Buddhas Teach the Dharma with Toil and Beings Still Do Not Obtain the Path—Why Is It Obtained by Merely Hearing a Name?

The treatise-author asks:

The other buddhas teach the Dharma in all kinds of ways with toil and bitter effort, and beings still do not obtain the path; why is it that merely hearing the Buddha's name one can obtain the path?

The treatise-author answers:

When the buddhas of other places teach the Dharma in all kinds of ways, beings either obtain the path or obtain roots of goodness; in the end it is not empty speech. As for hearing this Buddha's name, it is that one will surely reach avaivartika; it is not saying that one obtains the path right away.

Treatise ② (continued): For All Buddhas, Hearing the Name One Will Become a Buddha—Why Speak Only of the Buddha of a Pure Land?

The treatise-author asks:

For all buddhas, if someone hears their name with a good mind, he will reach the Buddha ground, as is said in the Lotus Sūtra: whether merit be great or small, all will become buddhas. Why speak only of the Buddha of a pure land?

The treatise-author answers:

When people hear the names of the other buddhas, they think: ‘Their taking birth is no different from ordinary people; only in having omniscience and obtaining the path are they different.’ Because the mind does not give rise to reverence, although they plant roots of goodness, these cannot be deep.

Treatise ② (continued): The Buddha of a Pure Land Is the Dharma-nature Body—Buddhas Issue from His Pores; Because of Deep Faith and Reverence the Roots of Goodness Planted Are Assured of Becoming a Buddha

What is within this pure land is the Dharma-nature body: the Buddha's body is immeasurable and boundless, its light and the sound of its teaching of the Dharma fill the lands of the ten directions, the beings of the land are all people near the Buddha path, and he teaches the Dharma within a great assembly of immeasurable asaṃkhyeya of yojana; light surpassing that of immeasurable koṭi of asaṃkhyeya of suns and moons constantly issues from the Buddha's body; when the Buddha lets beings see it they can see it, and if he does not permit it they cannot see it. At the side of each single pore of this Buddha there constantly issue immeasurable, boundless asaṃkhyeya of buddhas, each of the buddhas equal and without difference, and again beside the conjured buddhas, in turn, further conjured buddhas issue. According to the beings to be delivered, the Buddha is seen as superior or inferior; the root true Buddha has no difference of great and small to be distinguished. In all such ways, whether seeing, or hearing the name, or hearing of such merits, because of deep faith and reverence, how could the roots of goodness planted not surely become a Buddha?

Treatise ② (continued): When This Buddha Teaches the Dharma There Is No One Who Doubts

Further, when this Buddha teaches the Dharma, there is no one who gives rise to doubt, and so on up to there being not a single person who says: ‘This Dharma is not spoken by the Buddha's mouth!’ All is Dharma.

Treatise ② (continued): Many People Hear the Dharma from Śākyamuni Buddha and Give Rise to Doubt—How Is This to Be Reconciled?

The treatise-author asks:

Are there not many people who hear the Dharma from Śākyamuni Buddha and give rise to doubt?

The treatise-author answers:

The Buddha here himself speaks the causes and conditions: ‘Some people, because of meagre merit, not planting roots of goodness and not obtaining the good friend, therefore give rise to doubt.’

Treatise ② (continued): Covered by the View of Self, Extreme Views, and Wrong Views—Calling What Is Not the Buddha's Word the Buddha's Word, and the Dharma Not the Dharma; In the Pure Land There Are No Such Sinners

Because they are covered by the various afflictions of clinging to the view of self, extreme views, wrong views, and so on, they call what is not the Buddha's word the Buddha's word, and the Buddha's word not the Buddha's word. Not planting roots of goodness deeply, not following a good teacher, the three poisons and wrong views break out at one time; having nothing to rely on and follow, they give free rein to their own minds—if they see a wrong view, because it accords with their minds, they say this is the view of omniscience; when the buddhas teach ultimate emptiness, it does not accord with their minds, and they say this is not the Buddha's word; they call what is not the Dharma the Dharma, and the Dharma not the Dharma. Such people give rise to much doubt in the presence of the buddhas; because they give rise to much doubt, their minds then feel remorse. Within this pure Buddha-land there are no such sinners, and therefore no doubt arises.

Treatise ② (continued): The Buddha Says Those Who Break the Dharma Fall into the Evil Destinies—the Bodhisattvas by Supernormal Power Pull Them Out and Make Them Abide in the Rightly Assured Assembly

The Buddha said: ‘Such sinners, because they break the real mark of all dharmas, after death fall into the evil destiny of hell! When the bodhisattvas obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, seeing these sinners going and coming in birth and death, by the Buddha's supernormal power they pull beings out and make them abide in the rightly assured assembly, not falling into the three evil courses—this is called purifying buddha-lands.’

Treatise ② (continued): In This Buddha-land There Are None of These Faults—Nothing Incomplete; Beings All Ultimately Reach Awakening

Within this Buddha-land there are none of these various faults. There is nothing incomplete; within the worldly and the world-transcending, with outflows and without outflows, the conditioned and the unconditioned, and so forth, there is no obstruction at all—namely, the land is made of the seven jewels, the bodies of beings are upright and handsome, adorned with the marks and minor signs, with immeasurable light; they constantly hear the sound of the Dharma, and are constantly not far from the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas. The beings within this land all ultimately reach anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.

Treatise ② (continued): Hearing the Buddha's Name One Is Assured of Reaching Buddhahood; Being Unobstructed in All Dharmas One Will Surely Become a Buddha—What Is the Difference?

The treatise-author asks:

What is said above, ‘hearing the Buddha's name, one will surely reach the Buddha ground’, and what is said here, ‘being unobstructed in all dharmas, one will surely be able to become a Buddha’—what difference is there?

The treatise-author answers:

The beings here constantly see the Buddha, constantly hear the Dharma, deeply plant roots of goodness, and gather many of the dharmas of the Buddha; therefore they quickly become buddhas; as for those who only hear the name, although they too are ultimately assured, they are slightly inferior.

Treatise ② (continued): Summing Up—Such as These Are Called the Marks of a Pure Land

All such as these are called the marks of a pure land, as is said in the place ‘adorning the bodhi tree within the ten grounds’.

This fascicle is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the eighty-third chapter, "Certainty", in fascicle ninety-three.

Sūtra ①: Is the Bodhisattva Assured or Unassured; in Which Path He Is Assured; the Three Kinds of Bodhisattva—the One Who Has First Aroused Intent, the Avaivartika, and the One in His Last Body—Are All Assured; the Assured Bodhisattva Does Not Fall into the Evil Destinies and Is Not Born in the Eight Places of Difficulty; Where Are His Roots of Goodness When in the Jātakas He Takes an Animal's Body; for the Sake of Benefiting Beings He Takes a Body Accordingly, and with Unsurpassed Patience and Kindness and Compassion Gives Up His Body; Accomplished in the White and Pure Dharmas without Outflows, He Takes an Animal's Body; the Question of the Buddha Himself Conjuring an Animal's Body, the Question of the Arhat's Transformation Body, the Question of the Conjurer Conjuring Elephants, Horses, Men, and Women; by the Power of Great Skilful Means He Manifests All Kinds of Forms According to Those Who Are to Be Delivered

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Is this bodhisattva-mahāsattva assured? Or is he unassured?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘The bodhisattva-mahāsattva is assured; he is not unassured.’

‘World-Honored One! Where is he assured? Is it in the path of the śrāvaka? Is it in the path of the pratyekabuddha? Or is it in the path of the Buddha?’

The Buddha said: ‘The bodhisattva-mahāsattva is not assured in the path of the śrāvaka or the pratyekabuddha; he is assured in the path of the Buddha.’

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Is it the bodhisattva who has first aroused intent who is assured? Or is it the bodhisattva in his last body who is assured?’

The Buddha said: ‘The bodhisattva who has first aroused intent is also assured, the avaivartika bodhisattva is also assured, the bodhisattva in his last body is also assured.’

‘World-Honored One! Will the assured bodhisattva fall into the evil destinies and receive birth there?’

‘He will not! Subhūti! What do you think? Whether the person of the eight, or the srota-āpanna, the sakṛdāgāmin, the anāgāmin, the arhat, or the pratyekabuddha—will they be born in the evil destinies?’

‘They will not! World-Honored One!’

‘Just so, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, from the first arousing of intent onward, gives, keeps the precepts, is patient, is vigorous, practises meditative concentration, and cultivates wisdom, and cuts off all unwholesome deeds. To say that he falls into the evil destinies, or is born in the heavens of long life, or is born in a place where he cannot cultivate wholesome dharmas, or is born in a border land, or is born in a family of evil wrong views or a family of the view that nothing is to be done—places in which there is no name of the Buddha, no name of the Dharma, no name of the Saṅgha—there is no such thing! Subhūti! That a bodhisattva who has first aroused intent should, with regard to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, practise the ten unwholesome paths with a deep mind—there is no such thing!’

‘World-Honored One! If the bodhisattva-mahāsattva has such roots of goodness and merit accomplished, then, as the Buddha himself has said, in the jātakas (birth-stories) he received unwholesome retribution—at that time, where were his roots of goodness?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, for the sake of benefiting beings, takes a body according to what is fitting, and with this body benefits beings. Subhūti! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is an animal, he has such a power of skilful means: if enemies and thieves come to kill him, with unsurpassed patience and an unsurpassed mind of kindness and compassion he gives up his body and does not vex the enemies and thieves; you śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas do not have such a power. For this reason, Subhūti! you should know that it is because the bodhisattva-mahāsattva wishes to make complete the mind of great kindness and compassion, and for the sake of pitying and benefiting beings, that he takes the body of an animal.’

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Abiding in what kind of roots of goodness does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva take such bodies?’ The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘From the first arousing of intent all the way to the seat of awakening, in between there is not a single root of goodness that the bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not make complete; having made them complete, he will obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. For this reason, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, from the first arousing of intent, should train in making complete all roots of goodness; having trained in the roots of goodness, he will obtain the omniscience of all kinds, and will cut off all the afflictions and their habitual residues.’

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Why is it that the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, having accomplished such white and pure dharmas without outflows, is yet born among animals in the evil destinies?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘What do you think? Has the Buddha accomplished the white and pure dharmas without outflows?’

Subhūti said: ‘The Buddha has accomplished all the white and pure dharmas without outflows.’

‘Subhūti! If the Buddha himself, by transformation, makes the body of an animal, does the Buddha's work, and delivers beings, is he really an animal?’

Subhūti said: ‘He is not!’

The Buddha said: ‘The bodhisattva-mahāsattva is also like this: having accomplished the white and pure dharmas without outflows, for the sake of delivering beings he takes the body of an animal, and with this body teaches and transforms beings.’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘When an arhat makes a transformation body, can he make beings rejoice?’

Subhūti said: ‘He can!’

The Buddha said: ‘Just so! Just so! Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with these white and pure dharmas without outflows, takes a body according to the beings to be delivered, and with this body benefits beings, and he himself does not undergo suffering. Subhūti! What do you think? A conjurer conjures up all kinds of forms, such as elephants, horses, oxen, sheep, men, women, and so on, to show to the crowd. Subhūti! Are these elephants, horses, oxen, sheep, men, women, and so on real?’

Subhūti said: ‘They are not real! World-Honored One!’

The Buddha said: ‘Just so, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, the white and pure dharmas without outflows being accomplished, for the sake of manifesting all kinds of bodies for beings to see, with this body enriches all, and he himself does not undergo the many sufferings.’

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva has the power of great skilful means; having obtained the noble wisdom without outflows, he yet, according to the bodies of the beings he should deliver, makes all kinds of forms to deliver beings!’

What follows is the treatise's commentary.

Treatise ①: The "Avaivartika" Chapter Has Already Spoken of the Marks of the Avaivartika, So Why Ask Again Now—the Answer of a Different Gate of Approach, the Answer That in the Buddha's Mind All Dharmas Are Assured, the Answer of Doubt Arising from Hearing the Lotus Sūtra; the Explanation, Taking Up the Sūtra, of the Threefold Question and Answer; How the Preceding Chapter's 「若一、若二」 tr. "one or two" and This 「三種菩薩盡皆畢定」 tr. "all three kinds of bodhisattva are without exception assured" Stand Together; Both Meanings Are Real, and Existence and Non-existence Are Spoken According to the Occasion; for Those Thin in Great Compassion It Is Said That All Are Assured; Why the Two Vehicles Are Rebuked and the Realisation Not Permitted; Where the Arhat Abides to Make Complete the Buddha Path, and Why It Is Still Called a Roundabout Way and Lingering; among the Five Inconceivables the Buddha-dharma Is Foremost, and That They Become Buddhas Again Only a Buddha Can Know; the Person of the Eight and the Other Sages Have No Causes and Conditions for Falling into the Evil Destinies; Why He Is Not Born in the Heavens of Long Life, Not Born in a Border Land, Not Born in a Family of Wrong Views; among the Sixty-two Wrong Views the View of No-doing Is the Heaviest; the Kindness of the Six-tusked White Elephant, Which the Two Vehicles Do Not Have; Why He Does Not Make a Human Body but Makes the Body of a Beast to Teach the Dharma

The treatise-author asks:

Above, in the "Avaivartika" chapter, it was said: 「如是相是阿鞞跋致，如是相非阿鞞跋致。」 tr. "Such marks are avaivartika; such marks are not avaivartika." Avaivartika is precisely assured; why does Subhūti now ask again?

The treatise-author answers:

This prajñāpāramitā has all kinds of gates and all kinds of paths. Avaivartika was spoken of within one gate; now, in asking about assurance, he is asking again through a different gate of approach.

Further, in the Buddha's mind all beings and all dharmas are assured; because people's wisdom does not reach so far, they are named unassured. The Buddha knows that although there are people who accumulate great merit through immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas, they must yet retreat into the Small Vehicle; he also knows that a tiny worm, though it has as yet no wholesome mind, after passing through so many kalpas will arouse the mind and will later become a Buddha. The Buddha knows decisively that all dharmas are like this—from this cause one obtains this fruit—and for this reason he is named the Buddha; he is unobstructed within all dharmas, because he knows them as assured.

Further, Subhūti heard it said in the Lotus Sūtra: 「於佛所作少功德，乃至戲笑一稱南無佛，漸漸必當作佛。」 tr. "One who has done a little merit toward the Buddha, even to the point of once saying in jest ‘Namo Buddha’, will little by little surely become a Buddha." He also heard that in the "Avaivartika" chapter there is retreat and there is non-retreat, and he also heard that the śrāvakas will all become buddhas—if that is so, then there should be no retreat. Since the Lotus Sūtra speaks of assurance, while the other sūtras say there is retreat and there is non-retreat, for this reason he now asks whether one is assured or unassured.

For all such kinds of causes and conditions as these, he asks about assured and unassured.

The Buddha answers: 「菩薩是畢定。」 tr. "The bodhisattva is assured."

In Subhūti's mind, entering nirvāṇa was being assured; for this reason he asks: 「為何道中畢定？」 tr. "In which path is he assured?"

The Buddha answers: 「非畢定二乘，但於大乘中畢定。」 tr. "He is not assured in the two vehicles; he is assured only in the Great Vehicle."

Among those who seek the Buddha path there are the upper, the middle, and the lower; for this reason he asks: 「為初發意？為阿鞞跋致？為最後身畢定？」 tr. "Is it the one who has first aroused intent? Is it the avaivartika? Is it the one in his last body who is assured?" This is because Subhūti's meaning was ‘only those from the avaivartika upward abide assured in the Buddha path’.

The Buddha answers: 「三種菩薩皆畢定。」 tr. "All three kinds of bodhisattva are assured." What is called assured is precisely: he will surely become a Buddha.

The treatise-author asks:

As was said in the preceding chapter, 「佛以佛眼見十方菩薩，求佛如恒河沙，得阿鞞跋致者若一、若二」 tr. "the Buddha, with the Buddha-eye, sees the bodhisattvas of the ten directions seeking Buddhahood like the sands of the Ganges, yet of those who obtain avaivartika there are one or two"; why is it now said 「三種菩薩盡皆畢定」 tr. "all three kinds of bodhisattva are without exception assured"?

The treatise-author answers:

I have already said before: prajñā is very deep and has immeasurable gates; in some places it is said 「諸菩薩退而不畢定」 tr. "the bodhisattvas retreat and are unassured", and in some places it is said 「菩薩畢定不退」 tr. "the bodhisattva is assured and does not retreat". As in the "Avaivartika" chapter, Subhūti asked the Buddha: 「菩薩退者，於何處退？為從色，為從受、想、行、識，乃至十八不共法？畢竟空故，諸法皆不退。」 tr. "As for the bodhisattva who retreats, from where does he retreat? Is it from form, is it from feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas? Because of ultimate emptiness, no dharma retreats." Why then does the Buddha here speak again of non-retreat?

The treatise-author asks:

Of these two meanings, which one is real?

The treatise-author answers:

Both matters are real. What the Buddha's mouth speaks is never unreal. Just as the Buddha sometimes says 「諸法空無所有」 tr. "dharmas are empty and without anything existent", and sometimes says 「布施、持戒等是有」 tr. "giving, keeping the precepts, and the rest exist". For people who have first aroused the mind he says 「諸法有」 tr. "dharmas exist"; for people long in training who cling to wholesome dharmas he says 「諸法空無所有」 tr. "dharmas are empty and without anything existent".

People who are slack and not firm with regard to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi—such people ought to be delivered through the śrāvaka path, yet they do not seek the śrāvaka path, and for a long time undergo suffering within birth and death; for this reason it is said 「發心如恒河沙，得阿鞞跋致者若一、若二」 tr. "those who arouse the mind are like the sands of the Ganges; of those who obtain avaivartika there are one or two". When beings have heard this, those who can bear the many sufferings are then assured of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; those who cannot then take up the path of the śrāvaka or the pratyekabuddha.

There are people who are fit to obtain Buddhahood, yet whose mind of great compassion is thin and whose love of their own body is deep and heavy; when such a person hears that Buddhahood is hard to obtain and that many retreat, he has this thought: 「我或不能得佛，不如早取涅槃，何用世世受勤苦為！」 tr. "Perhaps I cannot obtain Buddhahood; better to take nirvāṇa early—what use is it to undergo toil and suffering life after life!" For the sake of this kind of person, it is said that all bodhisattvas, even those who have first aroused the mind, are assured, as is said in the Lotus Sūtra.

The treatise-author asks:

If bodhisattvas are all assured, why does the Buddha rebuke the two vehicles in all kinds of ways, and not permit bodhisattvas to take the realisation of the two vehicles?

The treatise-author answers:

Those who seek the Buddha path ought to know the nature of dharmas pervasively; because this person fears old age, sickness, and death, he takes a realisation of a small portion of the nature of dharmas and then stops of himself, relinquishes the Buddha path and does not deliver beings, and is rebuked by the buddhas and bodhisattvas: 「汝欲捨去，會不得離，得阿羅漢證時，不求諸菩薩深三昧，又不廣化眾生，是則迂迴，於佛道稽留。」 tr. "You wish to leave and go, yet in the end you will not be able to part from it; when you obtain the realisation of the arhat, you do not seek the deep samādhis of the bodhisattvas, nor do you widely transform beings—this is a roundabout way, a lingering on the Buddha path."

The treatise-author asks:

The body that the arhat received through the causes and conditions of his former lives must surely be extinguished; where then does he abide to make complete the Buddha path?

The treatise-author answers:

When one obtains arhatship, the causes and conditions of the outflows of the three realms are already exhausted, and one is no longer born in the three realms. There are pure Buddha-lands, beyond the three realms, where even the name of the afflictions does not exist; in the presence of the Buddha of such a land he hears the Lotus Sūtra and makes complete the Buddha path. As is said in the Lotus Sūtra: 「有羅漢，若不聞《法華經》，自謂得滅度；我於餘國為說是事，汝皆當作佛。」 tr. "There are arhats who, if they do not hear the Lotus Sūtra, think of themselves that they have obtained passing into extinction; in another land I will speak this matter for them: you shall all become buddhas."

The treatise-author asks:

If the arhat goes to be born in a pure Buddha-land and receives the Dharma-nature body, then he ought to become a Buddha quickly; why is it said to be a roundabout way and a lingering?

The treatise-author answers:

This person clung to the causes and conditions of the Small Vehicle, relinquished beings and relinquished the Buddha path, and moreover falsely said of himself that he had obtained the path; because of these causes and conditions, although he does not undergo the suffering and vexation of birth and death, yet in the bodhisattva's share his faculties are dull, and he cannot quickly accomplish the Buddha path; he is not equal to the bodhisattva who goes straight ahead.

Further, among the five kinds of inconceivables the Buddha-dharma is the foremost; now it is said that 「漏盡阿羅漢還作佛」 tr. "arhats whose outflows are exhausted become buddhas again", and only a Buddha can know this. Those who discuss can only discuss; that matter cannot be fathomed, and for this reason one should not make idle discourse. When one seeks and obtains Buddhahood, only then can one fully know it; other people can believe and accept it, but cannot know it thoroughly.

As for the matter of whether the assured bodhisattva falls into the three evil destinies or not—Subhūti heard the Buddha tell of immeasurable causes and conditions of the jātakas, in which he was an elephant, a deer, a tortoise, a dove, a peacock, a parrot, and so on, and underwent all kinds of suffering; for this reason he asked the Buddha: 「世尊！若菩薩受如是等畜生身，云何言一切菩薩畢定？」 tr. "World-Honored One! If the bodhisattva takes the bodies of such animals as these, how can it be said that all bodhisattvas are assured?" What is called assured is precisely avaivartika; what is called avaivartika is one who does not fall into the three evil courses.

The Buddha answered with a counter-question: 「於汝意云何？八人等聖人為墮三惡道不？」 tr. "What do you think? Do the person of the eight and the other sages fall into the three evil destinies or not?"

Subhūti reflected: 「是諸聖人入聖道故，無墮三惡道因緣。」 tr. "Because these sages have entered the noble path, they have no causes and conditions for falling into the three evil destinies." Having reflected, he answered: 「不也！」 tr. "They do not!"

The Buddha said: 「菩薩亦如是，墮三惡道因緣盡故，云何墮三惡道？」 tr. "The bodhisattva is also like this: because the causes and conditions for falling into the three evil destinies are exhausted, how could he fall into the three evil destinies?"

What are called the causes and conditions for falling into the three evil destinies are precisely the unwholesome dharmas. This bodhisattva, from the first arousing of the mind onward, has cultivated and practised giving, keeping the precepts, and the other wholesome dharmas, and has cut off killing and the rest of the ten unwholesome paths; to say that this person falls into the three evil destinies—there is no such thing! Why? Because he has extinguished the evil dharmas and increased the wholesome dharmas. The unwholesome paths are of the upper, the middle, and the lower: the upper fall into the hells, the middle fall among animals, the lower fall among the hungry ghosts. This bodhisattva has exhausted all three kinds, and moreover with a deep mind thinks with compassion of beings; for this reason he does not fall.

The treatise-author asks:

If that is so, he may not receive birth within the three evil destinies; this bodhisattva has much merit—why is he not born in the heavens of long life?

The treatise-author answers:

This bodhisattva pities beings and practises the six perfections; although he can enter the perfection of dhyāna, he practises it in accord with kindness and compassion and does not cling to the flavour of dhyāna, and when his life is about to end, because he thinks of the dharmas of the realm of desire, he retreats from the path of dhyāna. Because there is no suffering or vexation there, and moreover they cling deeply to the flavour of dhyāna and are hard to deliver, he is not born in the heavens of long life.

Because a border land has obstructions and one cannot cultivate wholesome dharmas there, he is not born there. Why? Because this bodhisattva has pulled out the root of stinginess with the Dharma; it is through the causes and conditions of stinginess with the Dharma that one is born in a border land, a place where the Dharma is not known. Further, because this bodhisattva always loves the middle way and relinquishes the two extremes, he is not born in a border land. What is called a border land is a place where there is no name of the Three Jewels, where the seven assemblies are not known, where only the present matters of this life are valued and merit and the dharma of the path are not valued; therefore it is named a border land—it is not only being born outside Jambudvīpa that is named a border land. If one knows the Three Jewels, knows the causes and conditions by which sin and merit continue, and understands the real mark of all dharmas, then although this person is born outside Jambudvīpa, it is still not named a border, how much less if he is born within Jambudvīpa!

Because this bodhisattva always delights in teaching the Dharma for others, and moreover deeply loves wholesome dharmas, he is able, according to his wish, to receive birth together with good beings; this is what is called the Middle Country. A person in the Middle Country is not born in a family of wrong views. Why? Because this bodhisattva, life after life, always himself practises right view, also teaches others right view, praises the dharma of right view, and joyfully praises those who practise right view; for this reason he is not born in a family of evil wrong views.

The treatise-author asks:

This bodhisattva has the power of great merit and wisdom; he ought to be born in border lands and in families of wrong views and teach and transform them—why does he fear them and is not born there?

The treatise-author answers:

Bodhisattvas are of two kinds: the first is the bodhisattva who has accomplished great power; the second is the bodhisattva who, depending on causes and conditions, has newly aroused the mind. The great bodhisattva, for the sake of beings, takes a body according to those who are to be delivered, and does not avoid border lands or wrong views; if a bodhisattva who has newly aroused the mind is born in such places, he can neither deliver people nor keep himself from being ruined; for this reason he is not born there. It is like true gold in the mud, which in the end is not spoiled; copper and iron are spoiled.

What is called wrong view here is precisely the view of no-doing. Although all sixty-two kinds are wrong views, the view of no-doing is the heaviest. Why? The view of no-doing says that one should not make merit or seek nirvāṇa. To say that things are made by a god, or to say that the world has been like this from its very beginning—although these too are wrong views, they do not stop people from making merit. Because the view of no-doing is a great evil, he is not born there.

Also, that a bodhisattva who has first aroused the mind should practise the ten unwholesome paths with a deeply evil mind—there is no such thing! Why? Because this bodhisattva dedicates with one mind, values anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and does not prize worldly dharmas. Because this person has not yet parted from desire, although he gives rise to the afflictions, in the end he does not do evil with a deep mind; although he inflicts beatings with staves, in the end he does not take a person's life, and does not take another's wealth so as to cause him to lose his life. Because this bodhisattva cuts off all unwholesome dharmas and cultivates and gathers all wholesome dharmas, he is not born in the eight places of difficulty, and always obtains the eight kinds of good places.

Subhūti asked: 「若菩薩有如是善根成就，云何本生因緣作鹿、馬等？」 tr. "If the bodhisattva has such roots of goodness accomplished, how is it that in the causes and conditions of the jātakas he was a deer, a horse, and the like?"

The Buddha answered: 「菩薩實有福德善根成就，為利益眾生，故受畜生形，亦無畜生罪。」 tr. "The bodhisattva in truth has merit and roots of goodness accomplished; it is for the sake of benefiting beings that he takes the form of an animal, and he also has no sin of an animal."

Here the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions, namely: 「菩薩在畜生中慈愍怨賊，阿羅漢、辟支佛所無有。」 tr. "The bodhisattva, among animals, has kindness and pity toward enemies and thieves, which the arhat and the pratyekabuddha do not have."

When enemies and thieves come to do harm to the arhat or the pratyekabuddha, although they do not retaliate, they cannot love and cherish them, or make offerings to them and supply them.

As when the bodhisattva in a former life was the six-tusked white elephant, a hunter shot him in the chest with a poisoned arrow! At that time the bodhisattva-elephant embraced the hunter with his trunk and did not let the other elephants harm him, and said to the female elephant: 「汝為菩薩婦，何緣生惡心？獵師是煩惱罪，非人過也！我得阿耨多羅三藐三菩提，當滅除其煩惱罪；譬如鬼著人，呪師來但治鬼而不瞋人。是故莫求其罪！」 tr. "You are the wife of a bodhisattva; for what reason do you give rise to an evil mind? The hunter is the sin of the afflictions, not the fault of the person! When I obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, I shall extinguish the sin of his afflictions; just as when a ghost possesses a person and the master of spells comes, he only treats the ghost and is not angry at the person. Therefore do not seek to punish his sin!" And he slowly asked the hunter: 「汝何以射我？」 tr. "Why did you shoot me?" The hunter answered: 「我須汝牙。」 tr. "I need your tusks." The elephant at once went to a cleft in the rock, pulled out his tusks and gave them to him, blood and flesh both coming out, and did not take it as pain; he also supplied him with provisions and showed and told him the way. Kindness and compassion such as this are what the arhat and the pratyekabuddha do not have. With a good mind such as this, how could it be the taking of the body of an animal? You should know that this was transformation, for the sake of delivering beings.

The treatise-author asks:

Why does he not make a human body and teach the Dharma for beings, but makes the body of a beast like this?

The treatise-author answers:

There are times when beings see a human body and do not believe or accept, but seeing the body of an animal teaching the Dharma, on the contrary give rise to faith and delight, and accept his teaching and transformation.

Also, the bodhisattva wishes to make complete the mind of great kindness and compassion, and wishes to carry out the real matter that he has aroused; beings, seeing it, are startled and delighted, and all are able to enter the path.

Fascicle ninety-three of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa.

This fascicle is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the remainder of the eighty-third chapter, "Certainty"—continuing from the previous fascicle—composed by the noble Nāgārjuna and translated by the Tripiṭaka master Kumārajīva of the land of Kucha under the Later Qin.

Sūtra ②: Abiding in What White and Pure Dharma Is He Not Stained—the One Who Clings, the Dharma Clung To, and the Place of Clinging: These Three Dharmas Are Unfindable

‘World-Honored One! Abiding in what kind of white and pure dharma is the bodhisattva-mahāsattva able to bring about such a power of skilful means, and yet not be stained?’

The Buddha said: ‘The bodhisattva brings about such a power of skilful means by means of prajñāpāramitā, and in lands as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions he enriches beings, and yet he does not crave this body. Why? The one who clings, the dharma clung to, and the place of clinging—these three dharmas are all unfindable, because they are empty of self-nature. Emptiness does not cling to emptiness; in emptiness there is no one who clings, nor any place of clinging. Why? Because the mark of emptiness within emptiness is unfindable. Subhūti! This is called the emptiness of the unfindable. The bodhisattva abiding in this emptiness is able to obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

Sūtra ② (continued): Do All Dharmas Enter Prajñā—Within Emptiness There Is No Dharma That Can Be Said to Enter or Said Not to Enter

‘World-Honored One! Does the bodhisattva obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi only by abiding in prajñāpāramitā, and not by abiding in the other dharmas?’

The Buddha said: ‘Subhūti! Is there any dharma at all that does not enter prajñāpāramitā?’

Subhūti said: ‘World-Honored One! If prajñāpāramitā is empty of self-nature, how then is it said that all dharmas enter into prajñāpāramitā? World-Honored One! Within emptiness there is no dharma that can be said to enter or said not to enter.’

The Buddha said: ‘Subhūti! Are all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas empty?’

Subhūti said: ‘World-Honored One! They are empty.’

The Buddha said: ‘Subhūti! If all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas are empty, how can you still say that all dharmas do not enter into emptiness?’

Sūtra ② (continued): Abiding in the Emptiness of All Dharmas, How Can He Give Rise to the Perfection of the Supernormal Powers—Lands and Buddhas Are All Empty of Nature

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, abiding in the emptiness of all dharmas, how can he give rise to the perfection of the supernormal powers; and, abiding in this perfection of the supernormal powers, go to lands as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions, make offerings to the buddhas of the present, hear the buddhas teach the Dharma, and plant roots of goodness in the presence of the buddhas?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he contemplates these lands as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions as all empty, and the buddhas within these lands as also empty of nature; only because of provisional names, this provisional name of the bodies the buddhas manifest is also empty. If the nature of the lands of the ten directions and of the buddhas were not empty, then emptiness would be partial; because emptiness is not partial, all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas are empty. For this reason, all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas are empty. Therefore the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, practising prajñāpāramitā, by the power of skilful means gives rise to the perfection of the supernormal powers; abiding in this perfection of the supernormal powers, he gives rise to the divine eye, the divine ear, the power of going at will, the knowledge of others' minds, and the knowledge of former lives, and knows the births and deaths of beings. If the bodhisattva is far from the perfection of the supernormal powers, he can neither enrich beings nor obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. This bodhisattva-mahāsattva's perfection of the supernormal powers is precisely the path of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Why? With this divine eye he himself sees the wholesome dharmas, and also teaches others and causes them to obtain the wholesome dharmas, and he does not cling to the wholesome dharmas either, because the wholesome dharmas are empty of self-nature. Emptiness clings to nothing; if one clings, one takes its taste, but within this emptiness there is no taste. When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he is able to give rise to such a divine eye, and with this eye he contemplates all dharmas as empty; seeing this dharma as empty, he does not grasp at marks and does not make deeds; he also proclaims this dharma for others, and he does not find the mark of beings and does not find the name of beings. In this way the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, by means of the dharma of nothing to be attained, gives rise to the perfection of the supernormal powers, and with this perfection of the supernormal powers he is able to do whatever the supernormal powers ought to do.’

‘This bodhisattva, with the supernormal power of the divine eye surpassing the fleshly eye of humans, sees the lands of the ten directions; having seen them, he flies to the ten directions and enriches beings—whether by giving, or by morality, or by patience, or by vigour, or by meditative concentration, or by wisdom, he enriches beings; or by the thirty-seven dharmas that aid the path, or by the dhyānas, the liberations, and the samādhis, or by the dharmas of the śrāvaka, or by the dharmas of the pratyekabuddha, or by the dharmas of the bodhisattva, or by the dharmas of the Buddha, he enriches beings.’

The Buddha goes on to speak of the marks of setting up the teaching according to the occasion. For the stingy he teaches the Dharma thus—‘Beings! You should practise giving. Poverty is a dharma of suffering and vexation; the poor cannot even benefit themselves, so how could they benefit others? For this reason you should be diligent in giving; you yourselves obtain peace and happiness, and can also cause others to obtain peace and happiness; do not devour one another because of poverty, for then you will not get free of the three evil destinies.’ For those who break morality he teaches the Dharma—‘Beings! The dharma of breaking morality is great suffering and vexation! Those who break morality cannot even benefit themselves, so how could they benefit others? What the dharma of breaking morality undergoes is the retribution of suffering: either in the hells, or among the hungry ghosts, or among the animals. When you fall into the three evil destinies, you cannot even save yourselves, so how could you save others? For this reason you should not follow the mind of breaking morality, only to have regret at the time of death.’ If there are those who hate and quarrel with one another, he then teaches the Dharma thus—‘Beings! Do not hate one another! One whose mind is disturbed by hatred does not accord with wholesome dharmas. You who now hate one another and have disturbed your minds will either fall into the hells, or fall among the hungry ghosts and the animals. For this reason you should not give rise to a single thought of anger, how much less to many thoughts!’ Teaching the Dharma for lazy beings so that they obtain vigour, teaching the Dharma for distracted beings so that they obtain meditative concentration, teaching the Dharma for deluded beings so that they obtain wisdom, is also like this.

Those who practise lust he teaches to contemplate impurity; those who give rise to anger he teaches to contemplate with the mind of kindness; deluded beings he teaches to contemplate the twelve links of causes and conditions. Beings who walk what is not the path he causes to enter the right path, namely the path of the śrāvaka, the path of the pratyekabuddha, and the path of the Buddha. For these beings he teaches the Dharma thus—‘These dharmas that you cling to are all empty of nature; within dharmas empty of nature they are unfindable, and so cannot be clung to; not clinging to marks is precisely the mark of emptiness.’ The Buddha then gathers up this passage as a whole and says: ‘In this way, Subhūti, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, abiding in the perfection of the supernormal powers, he works benefit for beings. Subhūti! If the bodhisattva is far from the supernormal powers, he cannot teach the Dharma well in accord with the minds of beings. For this reason, Subhūti, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he should give rise to the supernormal powers. Subhūti! It is like a bird without wings, which cannot fly high; a bodhisattva without the supernormal powers cannot teach and transform beings at will. For this reason, Subhūti, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practising prajñāpāramitā should give rise to the supernormal powers; having given rise to the supernormal powers, if he wishes to enrich beings, he can benefit them at will.’

Sūtra ② (continued): The Marks of Benefiting Beings by the Six Supernormal Powers—Seeing, Hearing, Knowing Minds, Recollecting Former Lives, Going and Coming to Make Offerings to the Buddhas, and Teaching the Dharma by the Exhaustion of Outflows

‘This bodhisattva with the divine eye sees lands as many as the sands of the Ganges, and sees the beings within these lands; having seen them, by the power of the supernormal powers he goes to where they are, knows the minds of beings, and teaches the Dharma for them according to what suits them, whether speaking of giving, or speaking of morality, or speaking of meditative concentration, and so on up to speaking of the dharma of nirvāṇa. This bodhisattva with the divine ear hears two kinds of sound: either human, or non-human. With the divine ear he hears the Dharma taught by the buddhas of the ten directions, and is able to receive and uphold all of it; according to the Dharma he has heard he proclaims it for beings, whether speaking of giving, and so on up to speaking of nirvāṇa. This bodhisattva purifies the knowledge of others' minds, and with the knowledge of others' minds knows the minds of beings, and teaches the Dharma for them according to what suits them, whether speaking of giving, and so on up to speaking of nirvāṇa. This bodhisattva with the knowledge of former lives recollects all kinds of places of his former births, recollecting both his own and those of others; with this knowledge of former lives he recollects the names of the buddhas of the past in place after place, together with their assemblies of disciples; if there are beings who believe in and delight in the matters of former lives, he manifests the matters of former lives for them and teaches them the Dharma, whether speaking of giving, and so on up to speaking of nirvāṇa. By the power of the supernormal power of going at will he goes to all kinds of immeasurable Buddha-lands, makes offerings to the buddhas, plants roots of goodness in the presence of the buddhas, and returns again to his own land. This bodhisattva has the supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows, realised by knowledge; because of this supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows, realised by knowledge, he teaches the Dharma for beings according to what suits them, whether speaking of giving, and so on up to speaking of nirvāṇa. In this way, Subhūti, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he should give rise to the supernormal powers thus. Because the bodhisattva cultivates these supernormal powers, he takes a body at will, and is stained by neither suffering nor pleasure; just as a person conjured by the Buddha does all things and is stained by neither suffering nor pleasure.’

‘When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he should sport in the supernormal powers thus, and be able to purify buddha-lands and bring beings to accomplishment. Further, Subhūti, if the bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not purify buddha-lands and does not bring beings to accomplishment, he cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Why? Because the causes and conditions are not complete, he cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

Sūtra ② (continued): What Is It for the Causes and Conditions to Be Complete—All Wholesome Dharmas Are the Causes and Conditions of Awakening

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What is it that, once the causes and conditions of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva are complete, he then obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘All wholesome dharmas are the causes and conditions of the bodhisattva's anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’

Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What are wholesome dharmas, because of which wholesome dharmas he then obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘From the bodhisattva's very first arousing of intent onward, dānapāramitā is a cause and condition of wholesome dharmas; within it there is no discriminating who is the giver and who is the receiver, because they are empty of nature. With this dānapāramitā he can himself obtain benefit and can also benefit beings, pulling them out of birth and death and causing them to obtain nirvāṇa. These wholesome dharmas are all causes and conditions of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Practising this path, the bodhisattva-mahāsattvas of the past, the future, and the present cross over birth and death—those who have already crossed, those who are now crossing, and those who will cross. Śīlapāramitā, kṣāntipāramitā, vīryapāramitā, dhyānapāramitā, prajñāpāramitā; the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, the four formless absorptions; the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eightfold noble path; the eighteen emptinesses; the eight liberations, the nine successive absorptions; the dhāraṇī gate; the ten powers of the Buddha, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, the eighteen unshared dharmas—all kinds of merit such as these are all the path of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! This is called wholesome dharmas. Having made these wholesome dharmas complete, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva will obtain the omniscience of all kinds; having obtained the omniscience of all kinds, he will turn the wheel of the Dharma; having turned the wheel of the Dharma, he will deliver beings.’

Treatise ②: The Treatise-Author Takes Up the Sūtra under "Explanation"—the Three Dharmas Are Unfindable; Abiding in the Emptiness of Nothing to Be Attained He Obtains Awakening

The explanation:

At that time Subhūti asked: ‘Abiding in what kind of roots of goodness is he able to take on such a body?’

The Buddha answered: ‘The bodhisattva-mahāsattva is complete in all wholesome dharmas.’

And so on up to Subhūti, greatly delighted, addressing the Buddha: ‘By the power of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's accomplishment in the great skilful means, abiding in what kind of noble dharma without outflows is he able to take on such a body and not be stained by the body of an animal? It is like what a conjurer conjures, or like what is made by transformation. Abiding in what kind of white and pure dharma is he able to bring about such skilful means?’

The Buddha answered: ‘Because of the power of prajñāpāramitā, the bodhisattva is able to accomplish such skilful means, bring forth all kinds of bodies, and benefit the beings in the lands of the ten directions, and yet he does not crave this body.’

Here the Buddha states the causes and conditions: ‘For this bodhisattva three dharmas are unfindable: first, this bodhisattva's body; second, the deer and horse he makes himself into; third, the dharma he uses.’ Why? Because these dharmas are all empty of nature. Emptiness too does not cling to emptiness, and within emptiness there is no craving either. Because there is no dharma there are no beings; because there are no beings there is no dharma either.

Here the Buddha states the causes and conditions: ‘The emptiness within emptiness is unfindable.’ Because it is unfindable, how could the bodhisattva crave this wisdom? This is called the prajñāpāramitā of the emptiness of nothing to be attained; the bodhisattva abiding in it is able to obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Because there is no obstruction, it is therefore easy to obtain.

Treatise ② (continued): All Dharmas Enter Prajñā—Within the Emptiness of Nature There Is No Going Out and No Entering

Subhūti asked: ‘The bodhisattva abides in the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas; why is it now said only that he obtains it by abiding in the prajñāpāramitā of nothing to be attained?’

The Buddha answered: ‘Subhūti! Which dharma does not enter prajñā?’ All dharmas enter into prajñāpāramitā; if he abides in prajñāpāramitā, he is abiding in all dharmas.

Subhūti asked again: ‘If prajñāpāramitā is empty of nature, how is it said that all dharmas enter into it?’

Here Subhūti himself states the causes and conditions: ‘Within the emptiness of the nature of all dharmas, there is no dharma going out and no dharma entering.’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Are all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas empty?’

Subhūti said: ‘World-Honored One! They are empty.’

The Buddha said: ‘Subhūti! If all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas are empty, all dharmas should then enter into emptiness; how can you say that within emptiness there is no dharma going out or entering?’

Treatise ② (continued): Subhūti's Mind Is Subdued and He Receives Understanding, and Turns to Ask about the Supernormal Powers—Because of Emptiness One Can Practise

At that time Subhūti was subdued in his mind and received understanding; having heard that this bodhisattva delivers beings by transformation bodies, he now asks: ‘World-Honored One! How can the bodhisattva, abiding in the emptiness of all dharmas, give rise to the perfection of the supernormal powers, go to lands as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions, make offerings to the buddhas, hear the Dharma, and plant very deep roots of goodness?’ The roots of goodness spoken of are the root of the dhāraṇīs, of the gates of samādhi, and of unobstructed liberation.

Subhūti's meaning is: prajñāpāramitā is empty of nature; how can the bodhisattva, abiding in a perfection that is empty of nature, practise an existent dharma such as these supernormal powers?

The Buddha said: ‘It is because of emptiness that he can practise. Why is that? Subhūti! When the bodhisattva practises prajñā, he contemplates the lands as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions as all empty, and the buddhas within these lands as also empty.’

The treatise-author asks:

If the lands are empty, the Buddha too should be empty; why speak of them separately?

The treatise-author answers:

The Buddha obtained this body by immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of real merit, and with a single toe can shake lands as many as the sands of the Ganges in the ten directions; moreover, bodhisattvas, life after life, have deeply loved and revered the Buddha, and cannot quickly contemplate him so as to make him empty. For this reason he is not spoken of together with the lands.

Here the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: ‘If the lands of the ten directions and the buddhas were not empty, then emptiness would be partial. To be partial is called having places that are empty and places that are not empty. Now it is really not partial, and so all dharmas and the marks of all dharmas are empty.’

Treatise ② (continued): Because the Fleshly Eye's Power Is Small, He Seeks the Divine Eye—the Supernormal Powers Are the Path the Bodhisattva Walks

The bodhisattva practising prajñāpāramitā is without obstruction toward all dharmas; yet contemplating form with the fleshly eye he does not penetrate it: seeing above, he does not see below; seeing in front, he does not see behind; where it is open he can see, where there is a barrier he does not see; by day he can see, at night he does not see. Knowing that the power of the fleshly eye is slight, he uses skilful means to seek the divine eye besides. The power of skilful means spoken of is to cause the four elements of another realm to come into his body.

The meaning of using the divine eye is as was said before. He gives rise to the divine ear, the power of going at will, the knowledge of others' minds, and the knowledge of former lives, and knows the places toward which beings tend in birth and death, and so forth.

If the bodhisattva has no supernormal powers, he cannot enrich beings. Why? If he has no supernormal powers, how can he cause many beings to arouse the mind? Even a bodhisattva who has the supernormal powers cannot cause all beings to arouse the mind; how much less one who has no supernormal powers! For this reason the perfection of the supernormal powers is the path the bodhisattva walks.

The bodhisattva himself sees wholesome dharmas, and also causes others to see wholesome dharmas, and yet does not cling to these wholesome dharmas. Why? Because the nature of these dharmas is entirely empty.

The treatise-author asks:

The divine eye can see form; how can it see wholesome dharmas? And it is further said that it can see all dharmas as empty of nature?

The treatise-author answers:

This is speaking of the result in the cause. Seeing with the divine eye, he sees his own body and sees the beings of the ten directions, and then with the knowledge of others' minds and the knowledge of former lives he infers their roots of goodness of this life and later lives; these roots of goodness, together with their retribution, will in time all be worn away, and because they are worn away he sees them as empty.

These roots of goodness are all conditioned dharmas, without self-nature; because they are without self-nature they are empty; because they are empty they cannot be clung to, nor can their taste be taken; because their taste cannot be taken, he does not cling. It is like a fly, which settles everywhere, only it does not settle on a flame. The craving and clinging of beings is also like this: they cling within both wholesome and unwholesome dharmas, and so on even up to the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, where because of clinging they cannot enter nirvāṇa; the only thing they cannot cling to is the fire of prajñāpāramitā's emptiness of nature. Why is that? Because prajñāpāramitā and the mark of prajñāpāramitā are both empty; if prajñāpāramitā were not empty, it would be a taste, and would be a place that could be clung to.

The bodhisattva abiding in this wisdom does not raise deeds with outflows, teaches the Dharma for beings, and also knows that beings are only a provisional name and are unfindable. Abiding in this prajñāpāramitā of nothing to be attained, he is able to make complete the matters of the supernormal powers; if the bodhisattva does not obtain this unobstructed prajñā, he cannot obtain the unobstructed supernormal powers.

Treatise ② (continued): Having Obtained the Unobstructed Supernormal Powers of Emptiness, He Benefits Beings—like a Bird That Has Wings

Having obtained these unobstructed supernormal powers of emptiness, the bodhisattva flies to the lands of the ten directions and benefits beings, as is spoken of at length in the sūtra, whether by giving, or by morality, and so forth. For the stingy he proclaims the meaning of the six perfections, giving and the rest, as the Buddha himself here speaks of at length.

As the simile spoken of here has it: just as a bird without wings cannot fly; so it is with the bodhisattva too: without the perfection of the supernormal powers he cannot teach and transform beings.

The bodhisattva with the divine eye sees the lands of the ten directions, the buddhas, and all beings. By the power of the divine ear he hears the Buddha-dharma from the buddhas. By the power of the supernormal power of going at will he emits a great light, or manifests water and fire and works all kinds of transformations, manifesting wondrous matters, causing beings to give rise to a mind of wonder and reverence. Because of the power of the knowledge of others' minds, he knows the minds of others and what their mental-factor dharmas cling to and what they are weary of; who can be delivered and who cannot be delivered; who is of keen faculties and who is of dull faculties; whose roots of goodness are accomplished and whose are not yet accomplished—knowing in such ways the minds of other beings, he gathers in those among them whose roots of goodness are accomplished. If there is someone who can be delivered, he contemplates his roots and branches with the knowledge of former lives and the knowledge of birth and death: ‘Where has he come from? What roots of goodness has he planted? What kind of practice does he delight in? When his life ends here, where will he be born? When will he obtain liberation?’ Measuring and reflecting in this way, he knows the past causes and conditions of deeds and the future retribution of the person who can be delivered. Further, by the power of the supernormal powers, if this person ought to be delivered by terror, he manifests the hells to him: ‘You will be born here.’ If he ought to be delivered by delight, he manifests the heavenly halls to him; seeing these matters with his own eyes, his mind holds alarm and delight, and he grows weary of and averse to the world. At that time he then, by the supernormal power of the exhaustion of outflows, proclaims the dharma of the exhaustion of outflows; beings hear this Dharma, their clinging minds are broken, and by the three vehicles they obtain nirvāṇa.

It is like a white egret about to take a fish: it measures its advance and halt, does not miss the moment, and knowing the fish can be had, takes it at once, and in the end does not come away empty. The bodhisattva is also like this: because of the power of the supernormal powers, he contemplates the roots and branches of beings, contemplates the causes and conditions, the land, and the season for their deliverance, and knows that his faculties of faith and the rest have grown keen and that the causes and conditions are complete; only then does he teach him the Dharma, and so it does not come to nothing. Therefore it is said: ‘The bodhisattva apart from the supernormal powers cannot enrich beings; he is like a bird without wings.’

The rest of the supernormal powers are as the Buddha himself said: ‘With the divine eye he sees the births and deaths of the beings of the ten directions, and also knows the minds of beings, and teaches the Dharma according to their minds. And so on up to: well cultivating the power of the supernormal powers, he takes a body for the sake of beings, and is not stained by suffering or pleasure.’ This bodhisattva among beings is sometimes a father and sometimes a son; sometimes a teacher and sometimes a disciple; sometimes a master and sometimes a slave; sometimes an elephant or horse and sometimes one who rides an elephant or horse; at times rich, noble, and powerful, and at times poor and lowly—and within these matters he is not stained either; just as a person conjured by the Buddha does all things and is not stained by suffering or pleasure. What is called all things is as was said before: bringing forth all kinds of asaṃkhyeyas of bodies to deliver beings. What is called not stained by suffering or pleasure means that within pleasure he does not give rise to craving and love, and within suffering he does not give rise to anger; he is not like the beings within birth and death, who give rise to afflictions wherever they are. The bodhisattva should sport in the supernormal powers thus, bringing beings to accomplishment and purifying buddha-lands.

Treatise ② (continued): Why It Is Named Sport—Emptiness Is Named the Upper Practice; in Purifying the Land and Bringing Beings to Accomplishment the Supernormal Powers Are of the Most Essential Use

The treatise-author asks:

The bodhisattva's power of the supernormal powers has something it does; why is it called sport?

The treatise-author answers:

What is called sport is like a conjurer's manifesting all kinds of transformations; the bodhisattva's supernormal powers manifest all kinds of transformations, and so they are called sport.

Further, among the three samādhi within the Buddha-dharma, emptiness is named the upper practice. Why? Because, like nirvāṇa, it clings to nothing and has nothing to be attained. The other practices are all named the lowest of the low, like a little child. For this reason it is said that the power of the supernormal powers is called sport, and in bringing beings to accomplishment and purifying buddha-lands it is the place of most essential use. Bringing beings to accomplishment is as is said here: ‘Purifying the Buddha-land, they cultivate roots of goodness together.’

Treatise ② (continued): Why Must One Use Bringing Beings to Accomplishment and Purifying buddha-lands—the Causes and Conditions Are All Wholesome Dharmas

The treatise-author asks:

Why must one necessarily use bringing beings to accomplishment and purifying buddha-lands?

The treatise-author answers:

The Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: ‘If one does not bring beings to accomplishment and does not purify buddha-lands, one cannot obtain the unsurpassed path. Why? Because the causes and conditions are not complete, one cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.’ The causes and conditions spoken of are precisely all the wholesome dharmas that were spoken of.

From the very first arousing of intent, practising dānapāramitā, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, within these practices there is no recollection, imagining, and discrimination: this is the giver, this is the wealth, this is the receiver; and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, it is also like this. If the bodhisattva practises the six perfections and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas without a clinging mind and without discriminating anything, this is the cause and condition of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Obtaining anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi by this path, he can both deliver himself and deliver beings.

Treatise ② (continued): What Faults Has Giving with a Clinging Mind—a Threefold Fault and the Loss of Two Kinds of Dharma

The treatise-author asks:

If the bodhisattva gives with a clinging mind, what faults are there such that it is not called complete? When one gives with a clinging mind, the kindness the receiver owes is even heavier.

The treatise-author answers:

Though it has a small benefit, it has a great fault; it is like fine food mixed with poison: though there is the benefit of fine flavour, one loses one's own life.

The treatise-author asks:

What are the faults?

The treatise-author answers:

If one gives with a clinging mind, on meeting with something that does not accord with one's wishes, one gives rise to anger; if the receiver does not feel grateful for the kindness, it becomes resentment. If one makes offerings to good people with a clinging mind, on meeting with some slight misfortune, one resents that the giving had no corresponding reward, and regrets and grudges what was given; if one gives and regrets it in one's mind, then the retribution received is not pure.

Further, one who gives with a clinging mind deeply craves and clings to wealth; if someone seizes it, he does him harm, thinking to himself: ‘I gathered this wealth for the good matter of merit; why do you seize it?’ Formerly he craved and clung to wealth, and gave for the sake of the matters of this life; for the sake of the matters of later lives, his grudging becomes in turn still deeper; because of being stained and clinging, if someone seizes it, he can commit a heavy sin; because of the causes and conditions of the heavy sin, he undergoes the suffering of the three evil destinies.

Further, because of the causes and conditions of craving and clinging, anger arises; because of the causes and conditions of anger, one takes up knives and staves; with knives and staves one kills and harms, and undergoes all kinds of suffering and vexation.

Further, a person who raises deeds of delusion is greatly without peace and security; because he practises these false, deceptive, and unreal matters, afterwards he will surely bring on great calamity. The buddhas of the ten directions all speak of the signless gate of liberation; only the mark of the signless of all dharmas is real. If a person grasps at the false, deceptive, and unreal mark of this wealth, the mind then gives rise to clinging; because the mind gives rise to clinging, he expects a great retribution and so is able to give. It is like a person who, wishing to reap a large harvest, uses a great deal of seed. Giving with a clinging mind in this way, the retribution is both small and impure, and in the end comes to exhaustion, and one undergoes all kinds of sorrow and vexation beyond telling—all because of grasping at marks there are such faults. If one practises giving with the mark as it truly is, there are none of these faults; within immeasurable asaṃkhyeyas of births and deaths one receives all kinds of merit and happiness that are not exhausted, and so on up to obtaining anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.

Further, if a person practises wholesome dharmas with a clinging mind, should this person hear that all dharmas are ultimately empty, he at once abandons the dharma he was practising and clings to this dharma of emptiness, grasps at the mark of emptiness, takes this as real, and takes what he formerly practised as false and deceptive; this person then loses two kinds of dharma: he loses his former wholesome dharmas, and moreover falls into wrong view. A person of clinging mind has such faults; it is like a person gravely ill: though there are all kinds of medicines, treating him does no good, and the medicine in turn becomes the disease.

Practising the various merits with a clinging mind has all these kinds of faults and offences.

Treatise ② (continued): Relinquishing the Clinging Mind and Not Grasping at the Mark of Emptiness—Dedicating All the Way to the Buddha Path

The bodhisattva relinquishes the clinging mind and also does not grasp at the mark of emptiness; as toward suchness, the nature of dharmas, and the limit of reality, so too he sees giving and the other dharmas. For the sake of all beings he dedicates it to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.

Further, when the bodhisattva gives, he recollects thus: ‘Just as the ultimately pure wisdom of the buddhas of the ten directions and the three times knows the real mark of all dharmas and also knows this mark of giving; I too dedicate it with such a nature of dharmas.’

Further, this bodhisattva does not use and does not practise within all the five sense-faculties and mind and mental-factor dharmas, because they cannot know the marks of dharmas. These dharmas all arise from the side of causes and conditions; they are false and deceptive, because they are without self-nature. I now wish to know the real mark of all dharmas and dedicate; these false and deceptive things, entering into the real mark, are all without difference. Because I am not yet able to obtain the real wisdom of the purity of dharmas, I therefore discriminate this as false and this as real. If one knows it with pure wisdom, then one makes it all the truth of the highest meaning; entering into the truth of the highest meaning, all becomes pure, without discrimination or difference.

Giving and the rest in this way, he dedicates, all the way to the Buddha path. Therefore it is said: ‘With a mind that discriminates nothing he can practise giving and the rest: this is named the true bodhisattva path.’

This chapter is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the eighty-fourth chapter, "The Four Truths", composed by the noble Nāgārjuna and translated by the Tripiṭaka master Kumārajīva of the land of Kucha under the Later Qin; it is in the ninety-fourth fascicle.

Sūtra ①: Subhūti Asks What the Dharmas of the Buddha Are, and the Buddha Answers with the Wisdom Associated with a Single Thought and the Simile of Heading toward the Path and Obtaining the Fruit, with Practising within the Path without Obstruction and Being without Obscuration within the Path of Liberation; How within the Emptiness of Specific Marks There Can Be the Distinctions from the Six Destinies up to the Buddhas, and the Buddha Answers That Because Beings Do Not Know the Emptiness of Specific Marks They Make Wholesome, Evil, and Unmoving Deeds and Receive the Retribution of the Three Realms; That the Buddha, Having Obtained Awakening, Does Not Obtain the Five Destinies and Does Not Obtain Black or White Deeds, and yet Still Speaks of the Hells up to the Buddhas, Is Because Beings Truly Do Not Know the Emptiness of Self-Nature; Having Obtained Awakening He Teaches the Four Noble Truths for Beings, All the Wholesome Dharmas That Aid the Path Enter the Four Truths, and So the Three Jewels Are Distinguished; It Is Neither by the Four Truths nor by the Four Knowledges That One Is Delivered, and the Equality of the Four Truths Is Precisely Nirvāṇa; What the Equality of the Four Truths Is: the Four Truths Are Suchness, Not-Different, the Mark of Dharmas, the Nature of Dharmas, the Abiding of Dharmas, the Position of Dharmas, and the Limit of Reality, and Whether There Is a Buddha or No Buddha the Marks of Dharmas Abide Constantly; Penetrating the Real Truth, He Does Not Fall into the Two Vehicles but Enters Directly into the Bodhisattva's Position, Abides in the Ground of the Stage of Nature and Does Not Fall from the Summit, and on the First Ground of Concentration Penetrates the Four Truths without Giving Rise to a Mind That Takes Them as Object and Clings; How One Contemplates the Mark of Dharmas as It Truly Is, and the Buddha Answers: Contemplate Emptiness, and Answers: the Emptiness of Self-Nature

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If these dharmas are all the bodhisattva's dharmas, then what are the dharmas of the Buddha?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘As for what you asked, 「是諸法是菩薩法，何等是佛法」 tr. "these dharmas are the bodhisattva's dharmas; what are the dharmas of the Buddha", Subhūti! The bodhisattva's dharmas are also the dharmas of the Buddha. If one can universally know all kinds, this is obtaining the omniscience of all kinds and severing all the afflictions and their habitual residues; the bodhisattva should obtain this dharma. The Buddha, having universally known all dharmas by the wisdom associated with a single thought, obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! This is the difference between the bodhisattva and the Buddha. It is just as heading toward the path and obtaining the fruit are not the same, yet these two kinds of people are alike both sages. Like this, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises within the path without obstruction; this is named a bodhisattva-mahāsattva. Within the path of liberation there is no obscuration of any kind; this is the Buddha.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If all dharmas are empty of specific marks, how, within dharmas empty of specific marks, can there be the difference of distinctions—this is the hells, this is the hungry ghosts, this is the animals, this is the gods, this is humans, this is the person at the stage of nature, this is the person of the eighth ground, this is the srota-āpanna person, this is the sakṛdāgāmin, the anāgāmin, the arhat person, this is the pratyekabuddha, this is the bodhisattva, this is the tathāgata, arhat, samyaksaṃbuddha? World-Honored One! Since these persons are all unfindable, the causes and conditions of deeds are likewise unfindable, and retribution is likewise unfindable!’

The Buddha said: ‘Just so! Just so! As you say, within dharmas empty of specific marks there are no beings, no causes and conditions of deeds, no retribution. Subhūti! Beings do not know that these dharmas are empty of specific marks; therefore these beings make the causes and conditions of deeds—whether wholesome, whether evil, whether unmoving: because of the causes and conditions of sinful deeds, they fall into the three evil destinies; because of the causes and conditions of meritorious deeds, they are born among humans and gods; because of the causes and conditions of unmoving deeds, they are born in the form realm and the formless realm. When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises dānapāramitā and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, he receives and practises all these dharmas that aid the path in full; by the like-vajra samādhi he obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; having obtained it, he enriches beings. Because this benefit is never lost, he does not fall into the birth and death of the five destinies.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! After the Buddha has obtained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, does he obtain the birth and death of the five destinies?’

The Buddha said: ‘He does not obtain them! Subhūti!’

‘World-Honored One! Does he obtain deeds, whether black, whether white, whether neither black nor white?’

The Buddha said: ‘He does not obtain them!’

‘World-Honored One! If he obtains none of them, why do you say this is the hells, the hungry ghosts, the animals, humans, gods, the srota-āpanna and so on up to the arhat, the pratyekabuddha, the bodhisattva, the buddhas?’

‘Subhūti! If beings knew that dharmas are empty of specific marks, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva would not seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, nor would he pull beings out from the three evil courses and so on up to the going and coming of birth and death in the five destinies. Subhūti! Because beings truly do not know that dharmas are empty of self-nature, they do not obtain liberation from the birth and death of the five destinies; this bodhisattva, having heard from the buddhas that dharmas are empty of self-nature, arouses the intent to seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! Dharmas are not as ordinary people cling to them; within dharmas without anything existent, these beings grasp the marks of dharmas by inverted false thinking and discrimination—where there are no beings they have the mark of beings, where there is no form they have the mark of form, where there are no feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness they have the marks of feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness; and so on up to all conditioned dharmas, which are originally without anything existent, yet with an inverted and falsely thinking mind they make the causes and conditions of bodily deeds, verbal deeds, and mental deeds, and go and come within the birth and death of the five destinies without obtaining liberation. When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he takes all wholesome dharmas into prajñāpāramitā, practises the bodhisattva path, and obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Having obtained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, he proclaims the four noble truths for beings—suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, the path to the cessation of suffering—opening them up, showing them, and distinguishing them. All the wholesome dharmas that aid the path enter into the four noble truths; because of these wholesome dharmas that aid the path, the Three Jewels are distinguished. What are the three? The Buddha Jewel, the Dharma Jewel, the Saṅgha Jewel. Because they do not believe in these Three Jewels and reject them, they do not obtain release from the birth and death of the five destinies.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Is it by the noble truth of suffering that one is delivered? Is it by the knowledge of suffering that one is delivered? Is it by the noble truth of origin that one is delivered? Is it by the knowledge of origin that one is delivered? Is it by the noble truth of cessation that one is delivered? Is it by the knowledge of cessation that one is delivered? Is it by the noble truth of the path that one is delivered? Is it by the knowledge of the path that one is delivered?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘It is not by the noble truth of suffering that one is delivered, nor is it by the knowledge of suffering that one is delivered; and so on up to: it is not by the noble truth of the path that one is delivered, nor is it by the knowledge of the path that one is delivered. Subhūti! Because these four noble truths are equal, I say that this is precisely nirvāṇa; it is not by the noble truth of suffering, not by the noble truths of origin, cessation, and the path, nor by the knowledge of suffering, not by the knowledges of origin, cessation, and the path, that nirvāṇa is obtained.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What is the equality of the four noble truths?’

‘Subhūti! If there is no suffering and no knowledge of suffering, no origin and no knowledge of origin, no cessation and no knowledge of cessation, no path and no knowledge of the path, this is named the equality of the four noble truths. Again, Subhūti! These four noble truths are suchness, are not-different, are the mark of dharmas, are the nature of dharmas, are the abiding of dharmas, are the position of dharmas, are the limit of reality; whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, the marks of dharmas abide constantly, because they do not deceive and are not lost. When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, it is for the sake of penetrating the real truth that he practises prajñāpāramitā.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practise prajñāpāramitā for the sake of penetrating the real truth, so that at the time of penetrating the real truth he does not fall into the ground of the śrāvaka or the ground of the pratyekabuddha, but enters directly into the bodhisattva's position?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘If the bodhisattva-mahāsattva sees dharmas as they truly are; having seen them, he obtains the dharma without anything existent; having obtained the dharma without anything existent, he sees that all dharmas are empty—the dharmas contained by the four noble truths and the dharmas not contained by the four noble truths are all empty. If he contemplates like this, at that time he enters into the bodhisattva's position; this is the bodhisattva abiding in the ground of the stage of nature, not falling from the summit. It is because of this summit-fall that one falls into the ground of the śrāvaka or the ground of the pratyekabuddha. This bodhisattva, abiding in the ground of the stage of nature, can give rise to the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, and the four formless absorptions. This bodhisattva, abiding in this first ground of concentration, discriminates all dharmas and penetrates the four noble truths: he knows suffering, yet does not give rise to a mind that takes suffering as its object and clings to it; and so on up to: he knows the path, yet does not give rise to a mind that takes the path as its object and clings to it. He only accords with the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and contemplates the mark of dharmas as it truly is.’

‘World-Honored One! How does one contemplate the mark of dharmas as it truly is?’

The Buddha said: ‘Contemplate that dharmas are empty.’

‘World-Honored One! What emptiness is it?’

The Buddha said: ‘It is the emptiness of self-nature. This bodhisattva, with such wisdom, contemplates all dharmas as empty; there is no nature of dharmas to be seen, and yet he abides within this nature and obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Why? The mark of being without nature is precisely anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; it is not made by the buddhas, not made by the pratyekabuddhas, nor made by the arhats, nor made by those heading toward the path, nor made by those who have obtained the fruit, nor made by the bodhisattvas. It is only because beings do not know and do not see the mark of dharmas as it truly is—because of this matter the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā and, because of the power of skilful means, teaches the Dharma for these beings.’

Treatise ①: Explaining Why Subhūti Asked about the Dharmas of the Buddha and the Dharmas of the Bodhisattva, and the Difference between Being All-Pervading or Not and between Sharp and Dull; the Simile of the Moon of the Fourteenth and the Fifteenth Day; the Simile of Heading toward the Path and Obtaining the Fruit; Explaining the Difficulty of Distinctions within the Emptiness of Specific Marks, the Three Kinds of Deeds with Their Two Kinds, and Unmoving Deeds; Explaining That Speaking of the Five Destinies While Not Obtaining Them Is like an Illusion, like a Dream; Explaining the Four Kinds of Deeds—Black, White, Black-and-White, and without Outflows—and the Two Answers on Why Deeds without Outflows Are Neither White nor Black; Explaining Why, though the Four Deeds Are Not Obtained, the Six Destinies Are Still Distinguished, the Lightness and Heaviness of the Fetters, and the Simile of Atoms Heaped Up into a Mountain; Explaining Why Only Suffering, Origin, Cessation, and Path Are Spoken Of, and the Simile of First Removing the Disease in Grave Illness; Explaining the Four Truths of Suffering, Origin, Cessation, and Path One by One, and Right View in the Eightfold Noble Path Being like Wine That Spreads a Medicine; Explaining the Question of ‘Someone Says’ and the Three Jewels Distinguished through the Wholesome Dharmas That Aid the Path; Explaining That the Coarse Question Is Not Coarse, and That Truth and Knowledge Arise Only by Coming Together; Explaining That the Four Dharmas, Being False because Born from Conditions, Cannot Be Said to Bring Cessation; Explaining That the Truth of the Path and the Truth of Cessation Too Are False and Deceptive, the Simile of the Raft, That apart from the Conditioned There Is No Unconditioned, and the Simile of the Going Out of a Lamp; Explaining That Where There Is None of the Eight Dharmas This Is Precisely Equality, and That the Marks of Dharmas Abide Constantly and Do Not Cease; Explaining That ‘Emptiness Too Is Empty’ Need Not Be Said Separately, That in the Ground of the Stage of Nature One Surely Hopes to Become a Buddha, and That on the Ground of Dhyāna One Penetrates the Four Truths without Clinging to the Four Truths; Explaining Why among the Eighteen Emptinesses Only the Emptiness of Specific Marks Is Spoken Of, and the Meaning of the Emptiness of the Middle Way; Explaining the Words on the Power of Skilful Means and on the Deep Thought of the Mind of Great Compassion

The treatise-author asks:

The dharmas of the Buddha and the dharmas of the bodhisattva differ greatly: the Buddha is omniscience, while the bodhisattva is not yet omniscience. Why did Subhūti give rise to doubt and ask the Buddha, ‘What are the dharmas of the bodhisattvas? What are the dharmas of the Buddha?’

The treatise-author answers:

Herein the Buddha teaches the bodhisattva to practise as the Buddha practises, that he should practise the six perfections and the rest in this way, and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds. Therefore Subhūti asks, ‘If he practises as the Buddha does, how does he differ from the Buddha?’

The Buddha assents to his intent, saying that he ought to ask in this way.

The places where form and the other dharmas are practised are the same; only the sharpness or dullness of wisdom differs. Herein the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: although the bodhisattva practises the six perfections as they truly are, he has not yet been able to be all-pervading, has not yet been able to enter every gate, and therefore he is not named Buddha; if the bodhisattva has entered the gate of the omniscience of all kinds, has entered into the real mark of all dharmas, has obtained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi by the wisdom associated with a single thought, has severed all the afflictions and their habitual residues, and has obtained the power of mastery within all dharmas, only then is he named Buddha.

It is like the moon of the fourteenth day and of the fifteenth day: though both are equally the moon, the moon of the fourteenth day cannot make the waters of the great ocean rise in tide. The bodhisattva too is like this: though he has true and pure wisdom, because he has not yet made complete the dharmas of the buddhas, he cannot shake all the beings of the ten directions. When the moon reaches the fifteenth day and its brightness is full, it can make the waters of the great ocean rise in tide; the bodhisattva who becomes a Buddha is also like this: he emits great light and can shake the beings of the lands of the ten directions.

Herein the Buddha himself states a simile: as heading toward the path and obtaining the fruit, though both are equally sages, still differ. The bodhisattva too is like this: the one who is in the midst of practising is named a bodhisattva, from the first arousing of the mind all the way up to the vajra samādhi; the Buddha has already obtained the fruit and has severed the doubts within all dharmas, there being nothing he has not thoroughly understood, and therefore he is named Buddha.

Subhūti asks again: ‘Within dharmas empty of specific marks, distinctions are unfindable—that is to say, this is the hells and so on up to the gods, this is the person of nature, the person of the eight, this is the srota-āpanna and so on up to the Buddha! World-Honored One! Since beings such as those of the hells are unfindable, the causes and conditions of deeds should also be unfindable. Why? The person who makes deeds is unfindable; because deeds are unfindable, retribution too is unfindable. Why does the Buddha say that there is a difference between the Buddha and the bodhisattva?’

The Buddha assents to Subhūti's intent and answers Subhūti with the very thing he asked: because beings do not know the dharma of the emptiness of self-nature, they can raise up wholesome and evil deeds. This is as spoken at length in the sūtra.

As for ‘beings’: they are ordinary people, those who have not yet entered the right position; in such people the mind of self is inverted, and because of the causes and conditions of the afflictions they raise up deeds. As for ‘deeds’: there are three kinds: bodily deeds, verbal deeds, mental deeds. These three kinds of deeds are again of two kinds: whether wholesome, whether evil; whether with outflows, whether without outflows. Because of evil deeds one falls into the three evil courses; because of wholesome deeds one is born among gods and humans. Wholesome deeds are again of two kinds: first, bound to the desire realm; second, bound to the form realm and the formless realm. The deeds of birth bound to the form realm and the formless realm are named unmoving; because of unmoving deeds one is born in the form realm and the formless realm.

If beings themselves knew that dharmas are empty of nature, then and there they would not give rise to a clinging mind; because the clinging mind does not arise, they would not raise up deeds, and so on up to: they would not be born in the form realm or the formless realm. It is because they truly do not know that they receive birth. Because of this matter, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva receives and practises in full giving and the other dharmas, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, with nothing omitted and nothing lacking; and so on up to: by the like-vajra samādhi he obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and greatly enriches beings. Because beings obtain this benefit, they no longer go and come within the birth and death of the five destinies.

Subhūti asks again: ‘When the Buddha obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, does he really obtain these five destinies?’

The Buddha said: ‘He does not obtain them!’

The treatise-author asks:

The Buddha said earlier that because of the great benefit he does not fall into the five destinies; why does he now say ‘does not obtain them’?

The treatise-author answers:

To grasp at marks as fixed is a wrong view, and then one falls into wrong views. The birth and death of the five destinies are originally unfindable; it is only that ordinary people raise up deeds through the causes and conditions of inversion, and by provisional names it is said that there are birth and death and the five destinies; in reality they are like an illusion, like a dream.

He asks again: ‘Does he obtain the four kinds of deeds, black deeds, white deeds, and the rest?’

The Buddha said: ‘He does not obtain them.’

As for ‘black deeds’: they are unwholesome deeds, and their retribution is the hells and the other places where suffering and vexation are undergone. The beings within them, because of great suffering and vexation, swoon away to the utmost; therefore it is named black.

The place where the retribution of wholesome deeds is received is the gods. Because they receive pleasure at will, being sovereign and clear, it is named white deeds. These deeds are the gods within the three realms.

The place where the retribution of both wholesome and unwholesome deeds is received is humans, asuras, and the rest of the eight classes. This place undergoes both pleasure and suffering; therefore it is named black-and-white deeds.

As for ‘deeds without outflows’: they can break unwholesome deeds with outflows and can pull beings out, so that they are free from the retribution of wholesome and evil.

The treatise-author asks:

Deeds without outflows ought to be white; why are they said to be neither white nor black?

The treatise-author answers:

Although dharmas without outflows are pure and without stain, because they are emptiness, the signless, and non-action, there is nothing in them that discriminates, and therefore one may not say that they are white. Black and white are dharmas that stand over against each other; because herein there is no standing over against each other, one may not say that they are white.

Again, deeds without outflows can extinguish everything; it is because there is discrimination within the contemplations that there is black and there is white; because herein there is no contemplation, there is no white.

Subhūti asks again: ‘If these four kinds of deeds are not obtained, how does one distinguish this is the hells and so on up to this is the arhat?’

If there are no black deeds, how does one say this is the hells, the animals, the hungry ghosts? If there are no white deeds, how does one say this is the gods, humans? If there are no black-and-white deeds, how does one say this is the destiny of the asuras? If there are no deeds neither white nor black, how does one say this is the srota-āpanna and so on up to the arhat?

The Buddha answers: if all beings themselves knew that dharmas are empty of self-nature, the bodhisattva would not arouse the intent of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, nor would he pull beings out from within the six destinies. Why? If beings themselves knew that dharmas are empty of nature, there would be no one to be delivered; just as without disease there is no need to use medicine, and without darkness there is no need to use the light of a lamp. Subhūti! Now, because beings truly do not know the dharma of the emptiness of specific marks, following the mind they grasp at marks and give rise to clinging; because of clinging they are tainted; because they are tainted they follow the five desires; because they follow the five desires they are covered by craving; through the causes and conditions of craving there are stinginess, falsehood, jealousy, anger, and quarrelling; because of anger they raise up all kinds of sinful deeds, with no awareness or knowledge whatever. Therefore, at the end of their lives, they are born elsewhere according to the causes and conditions of their deeds, go on making the deeds of birth and death, and constantly go and come within the six destinies, with no end ever again. Therefore the bodhisattva, hearing the emptiness of dharmas proclaimed in the presence of the buddhas and their disciples, kindly pities beings: beings, because of madness, folly, and inversion, give rise to clinging; I should become a Buddha, break the inversions of beings, and cause them to understand the mark of the emptiness of dharmas.

Why is it said like this? Dharmas are not as ordinary people cling to them. Beings and dharmas both have no fixed real substance; it is only that they themselves, within what is without anything existent, recollect, imagine, and discriminate, hoping for something to be attained; where there are no beings they raise up the notion of beings, where there is no form they raise up the notion of form, where there are no feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness they raise up the notion of consciousness. Because of madness, confusion, and inversion, such people can raise up bodily deeds, verbal deeds, and mental deeds, and cannot obtain release from within the birth and death of the six destinies.

If they give rise only to the notion of beings and dharmas, the fetters are still light, and they are easily delivered. If they give rise to craving and anger, and within these make all kinds of heavy deeds, this is heavy bondage; receiving the retribution of these deeds, they are hard to deliver; just as atoms heaped up make a mountain, hard to move. The bodhisattva, for the sake of these beings, because he wishes to break the causes, conditions, and retribution of their birth and death, gathers together all wholesome dharmas within prajñā, practises the bodhisattva path, and obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. He proclaims the four noble truths for beings, namely suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, the path that extinguishes suffering, opening them up, showing them, and expounding them through all kinds of causes and conditions.

The treatise-author asks:

The Buddha, from immeasurable asaṃkhyeya kalpas onward, has cultivated and trained in subtle and wonderful dharmas, namely the eighteen unshared dharmas and so on up to unobstructed liberation and all the other very deep deeds; why does he speak only of suffering, origin, cessation, and path?

The treatise-author answers:

What beings fear most urgently is nothing more than suffering; once suffering has been removed for them, only then are they shown the Buddha path. It is as when a person has a grave illness: removing the disease comes first as the urgent thing; only afterwards does one adorn his body with precious things and clothing.

As for ‘suffering’: receiving a body of the five aggregates of clinging is the root of all suffering, and its very nature is suffering; this suffering, briefly stated, is birth, old age, sickness, and the rest, as is said at length everywhere in the sūtras. As for ‘the origin of suffering’: it is craving and the other afflictions; craving is an old dharma within the mind, and for this reason the Buddha says that craving can give birth to the later body, and so is the cause of suffering; the cause of suffering is precisely origin. If a person wishes to relinquish suffering, he should first sever craving; when craving is severed, suffering ceases; severing craving is precisely the cessation of suffering.

The cessation of suffering is precisely the path: contemplating all kinds of causes and conditions of these five aggregates, contemplating the faults and wrongs of suffering and of the origin of suffering, namely impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self, like a disease, like a sore, like an enemy, like a thief, and so on; within the eightfold noble path, right view is at its head, and the other seven matters help to accomplish it and set it going, and it can sever the craving within all dharmas; as wine is used to spread the strength of a medicine. This person no longer craves anything at all in all the world and obtains release from the fire of suffering; only then is he shown the wonderful Dharma.

Again, herein the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions, namely that within the four noble truths all wholesome dharmas are gathered together.

Someone says: ‘Why does the Buddha speak only of the four dharmas, suffering and the rest?’ For this reason the Buddha says that all the wholesome dharmas that aid the path are gathered together within the four truths.

Through the causes and conditions of the wholesome dharmas that aid the path, the Three Jewels are distinguished. Because beings do not believe in the Three Jewels, they do not obtain release from the birth and death of the six destinies.

The treatise-author asks:

Why did Subhūti ask such a coarse question, saying, ‘Is it by suffering that cessation comes, or by the knowledge of suffering that cessation comes? By origin that cessation comes, or by the knowledge of origin that cessation comes?’

The treatise-author answers:

This is not a coarse question! What he is now asking is: is it by seeing the substance of the four truths, suffering and the rest, that cessation comes? Or is it by using knowledge that cessation comes?

Because craving and the other afflictions cease, it is named nirvāṇa with remainder. If one obtained the path by the truth of suffering, all beings, and so on up to oxen, sheep, and the rest, should also obtain the path! If one obtained the path by using the knowledge of suffering, then apart from suffering there would be no knowledge to speak of; and apart from the knowledge of suffering it is not named the truth of suffering either, but is named only suffering. It is only because the truth of suffering and the knowledge of suffering come together that it is born; one may not say that cessation comes only by suffering, or only by knowledge. And so on up to the truth of the path, it is likewise.

The Buddha answers: it is not by the truth of suffering that cessation comes, nor by the knowledge of suffering that cessation comes; and so on up to the truth of the path and the knowledge of the path, it is likewise. I say that the equality of these four truths is precisely cessation; cessation does not come by using the truth of suffering, nor by using, and so on up to, the truth of the path.

Why? These four dharmas, suffering and the rest, are all born from conditions and are false and unreal; because they are without self-nature they are not named real; since they are not real, how could they bring cessation?

The treatise-author asks:

The two truths are with outflows; because they are dharmas practised by ordinary people, they can be said to be false and deceptive and unreal; the truth of the path is a dharma without outflows and without clinging, and though it is born from the coming together of causes and conditions it is not false and deceptive; and again, the truth of cessation is an unconditioned dharma and does not exist from causes and conditions. How can it be said that the four dharmas are all false and deceptive?

The treatise-author answers:

At the time of first obtaining the path, one knows that the two truths are false and deceptive. At the time when one is about to enter nirvāṇa without remainder, one also knows that the truth of the path is false and deceptive, and by the emptiness-of-emptiness samādhi and the rest one relinquishes the truth of the path, as the simile of the raft says. The truth of cessation too has no fixed dharma. As is said in the sūtra: apart from the conditioned there is no unconditioned; it is because of the conditioned that the unconditioned is spoken of. The cessation of suffering is like the going out of a lamp; one should not seek its whereabouts in idle discourse.

Therefore the Buddha says: it is not by using suffering, and so on up to using the path, that cessation is obtained.

Subhūti asks the Buddha: ‘What is the equality of the four truths?’

The Buddha answers: if there is no place of the eight dharmas—namely the four truths and the knowledges of the four truths—this is equality.

Again, Subhūti! The four truths are as they truly are, not deceiving, not different; they are suchness, are the nature of dharmas, are the mark of dharmas, are the abiding of dharmas, are the limit of reality; whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, the marks of dharmas abide constantly; they do not use mind or mental-factor dharmas or the contemplations; it is only for the sake of not deceiving beings. Whatever abides upon all the other dharmas is inversion; because it is born from the retribution of false clinging and inversion, though it can give humans and gods joy and pleasure, in time it is all false and changes; only one dharma, namely the real mark of all dharmas, because it does not deceive, abides constantly and does not cease. In this way the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā and penetrates the real truth of dharmas.

Subhūti asks again: ‘How does the bodhisattva penetrate and obtain the real truth, pass beyond the ground of the śrāvaka and the ground of the pratyekabuddha, and enter the bodhisattva's position?’

The Buddha answers: if the bodhisattva reflects and measures in seeking dharmas, there is not a single dharma whose fixed mark can be found; he sees that all dharmas are empty—whether within the four truths or not within the four truths. As for what is not the four truths: it is space and the exhaustion not through the condition of reckoning; all the rest is within the four truths. If he contemplates the emptiness of dharmas like this, at that time he enters the bodhisattva's position.

The treatise-author asks:

Why is it not said, ‘contemplating that emptiness too is empty, one enters the bodhisattva's position’?

The treatise-author answers:

There is no need to say it this way. Why? If one says that dharmas are empty, this emptiness then and there is empty: emptiness too is empty; if this emptiness were not empty, it would not be named the emptiness of all. Therefore, practising this emptiness, one obtains entry into the bodhisattva's position. The bodhisattva, abiding in this ground of the stage of nature, does not fall from the summit. As for ‘the ground of the stage of nature’: it is the bodhisattva's Dharma-position. It is as in the śrāvaka's dharma, where the dharma of warmth, the dharma of the summit, the dharma of acceptance, and the highest worldly dharma are named the ground of the stage of nature. These dharmas accord with the path without outflows, and therefore they are named ‘nature’; abiding within them, one can surely hope to obtain the path; the bodhisattva too is like this: abiding in this ground of the stage of nature, he can surely hope to become a Buddha. He can give rise to the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, and the four formless absorptions. This bodhisattva, abiding in the ground of dhyāna, gathers the mind, discriminates, reflects on, and measures dharmas, and penetrates the four truths—that is, he knows and sees suffering, yet does not give rise to a mind that takes suffering as its object and clings to it. He knows that it is because ordinary people receive a body and cling to the causes and conditions of suffering that they undergo all kinds of sorrow and vexation; this person's body is entirely like a thief, like an enemy, is impermanent, is empty, and so on. Having obtained this knowledge, he relinquishes it then and there, does not grasp at the mark of suffering, and also does not take the truth of suffering as an object to cling to; this is because of the power of the bodhisattva's Dharma-position. And so on up to the truth of the path, it is likewise. He only dedicates it with one mind to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. He knows that these four truths stand as medicine over against disease, and he does not cling to these four truths either; he only contemplates the mark of dharmas as it truly is and does not make the contemplation of the four kinds of discrimination.

Subhūti asks: ‘How does one contemplate dharmas as they truly are?’

The Buddha said: ‘Contemplate emptiness. Subhūti! If the bodhisattva can contemplate all dharmas, whether great or small, as all empty, this is named contemplating as it truly is.’

He asks again: ‘By what emptiness?’

The Buddha answers: ‘By the emptiness of specific marks.’

The treatise-author asks:

Among the eighteen emptinesses, why does the Buddha speak only of the emptiness of specific marks?

The treatise-author answers:

This is the emptiness of the middle way. Inner emptiness, outer emptiness, and the rest are the small emptinesses; ultimate emptiness, the emptiness of nothing to be attained, and the rest are the very deep emptinesses; the emptiness of specific marks is the emptiness that stands in the middle. Because specific marks have a principle that can be refuted, the mind does not sink, and therefore it can enter into the very deep emptiness. This bodhisattva, having obtained such a dharma, contemplates all dharmas as all empty, and so on up to: he does not see that a single dharma has a nature in which to abide and so obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. He contemplates dharmas as like anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi too is empty of self-nature; it is not made by the Buddha, not made by the great bodhisattvas, not made by the arhats or the pratyekabuddhas; it is constantly the mark of quiescence, without idle discourse or words.

Beings cannot know and see the mark as it truly is; therefore the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā and, by the power of skilful means, teaches the Dharma for beings. As for ‘the power of skilful means’: the bodhisattva obtains the dharma of the acceptance of non-arising, enters the bodhisattva's position, and penetrates the bodhisattva's truth of the highest meaning. He contemplates this mark of the path as very deep, subtle, and wonderful, with nothing to be attained and nothing to be relinquished; even the wonderful wisdom he uses is unfindable, how much less can it be spoken by the mouth! With the mind of great compassion he deeply bears this in thought: beings, because of false matters without reality, fall into the three evil destinies and undergo great and intense suffering; if I were to proclaim this dharma directly, they would not believe it or accept it, and so would destroy the Dharma and fall into hell! I shall now accomplish all wholesome dharmas, adorn my body with the thirty-two marks, lead beings on, raise up the power of the supernormal powers of immeasurable and boundless buddhas, accomplish the Buddha path, become the lord among all the assemblies, and obtain sovereignty over all dharmas. If even when evil dharmas are praised beings will still accept them, how much more a real dharma! This bodhisattva reflects and practises according to the vow he has made, and proclaims it for beings, causing them all to obtain deliverance.

This chapter is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the eighty-fifth chapter, "The Seven Similes", composed by the Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna and translated by the Tripiṭaka master Kumārajīva of the land of Kucha under the Later Qin; it is in the ninety-fifth fascicle.

Sūtra ①: Subhūti Objects That, If the Nature of Dharmas Is without Anything Existent and Not Made by the Worthy and the Sages, How Are the Differences of the Six Destinies and the Holy Fruits Distinguished; the Buddha Answers That Dharmas without Nature Have No Deeds and No Retribution; That Ordinary People, Because of Inversion and Delusion, Raise Up Deeds and Receive Bodies According to Their Deeds; That the Path and the Omniscience of All Kinds Are Also without Nature; That a Dharma without Nature Cannot Obtain a Dharma without Nature; That the Bodhisattva, by the Power of Skilful Means, Pulls Beings Out from within What Has Nothing Existent; He Tells the Seven Similes of the Dream, the Image in a Mirror, the Echo, the Mirage, the City of the Gandharvas, the Illusion, and the Conjured Person, and for Each One Asks, Finding No Causes and Conditions of Deeds and No Cultivation of the Path, Stain, or Purity; and He Concludes That within the Mark of Emptiness There Is No One Who Is Stained and No One Who Obtains Purity, That Those Who Abide in I and Mine Have Stain and Purity, While One Who Sees as It Truly Is Is Neither Stained nor Pure

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If the nature of dharmas is without anything existent, not made by the Buddha, not made by the pratyekabuddhas, not made by the arhats, not made by the anāgāmin, the sakṛdāgāmin, or the srota-āpanna, not made by those heading toward the path, not made by those who have obtained the fruit, not made by the bodhisattvas, how then are differences among dharmas still distinguished—this is the hells, this is the animals, this is the hungry ghosts, this is humans, this is gods, and so on up to this is the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-perception? Because there are such causes and conditions of deeds, one knows that there are those born in the hells; because there are such causes and conditions of deeds, one knows that there are those born among the animals and the hungry ghosts; because there are such causes and conditions of deeds, one knows that there are those born among humans, born in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings and so on up to born in the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-perception; because there are such causes and conditions of deeds, one knows that there are those who obtain srota-āpanna, sakṛdāgāmin, anāgāmin, arhatship, and pratyekabuddhahood; because there are such causes and conditions of deeds, one knows that these are bodhisattva-mahāsattvas; because there are such causes and conditions of deeds, one knows that this is the tathāgata, the arhat, the samyaksaṃbuddha? World-Honored One! Within dharmas without nature there is no function of deeds. Because of making the causes and conditions of deeds, some fall into the hells, the hungry ghosts, and the animals, and some are born as humans or gods and so on up to being born in the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-perception; because there are such causes and conditions of deeds, one obtains srota-āpanna, sakṛdāgāmin, anāgāmin, arhatship, and pratyekabuddhahood; the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises the bodhisattva path and will obtain the omniscience of all kinds, and because he obtains the omniscience of all kinds, he can pull beings out from within birth and death?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! Dharmas without nature have no deeds and no retribution. Subhūti! Ordinary people do not enter the holy Dharma, do not know the mark of dharmas being without nature, and because of inversion and delusion raise up all kinds of causes and conditions of deeds. These beings obtain bodies according to their deeds: either the body of a hell-being, or the body of an animal, or the body of a hungry ghost, or a human body, or a heavenly body—either a body in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings, and so on up to a body in the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-perception. These dharmas without nature have no deeds and no retribution; what is without nature is always simply without nature. As Subhūti said: 「若一切法無性，云何是須陀洹乃至諸佛得一切種智？」 tr. "If all dharmas are without nature, how is there the srota-āpanna and so on up to the buddhas obtaining the omniscience of all kinds?" Subhūti! What do you think? Is the path without nature? Are the fruit of the srota-āpanna and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds of the buddhas without nature?’

Subhūti said: ‘World-Honored One! The path is without nature, the fruit of the srota-āpanna is also without nature, and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds of the buddhas is also without nature.’

‘Subhūti! Can a dharma without nature obtain a dharma without nature?’

‘No! World-Honored One!’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Can a dharma with nature obtain a dharma with nature?’

‘No! World-Honored One!’

‘Subhūti! Dharmas without nature and the path—all these dharmas are neither joined nor dispersed, without form, without shape, without resistance, of one mark, namely the signless. Subhūti! When this bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, by the power of skilful means he sees that beings, because of inversion, cling to the five aggregates: within the impermanent they make the mark of permanence, within suffering they make the mark of happiness, within the impure they make the mark of purity, within non-self they make the mark of self, clinging in the place where there is nothing existent. This bodhisattva, because of the power of skilful means, pulls beings out from within what has nothing existent.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! In what ordinary people cling to, is there anything real and unchanging? Is it that because of clinging they raise up deeds, and because of the causes and conditions of deeds they do not obtain liberation from within the birth and death of the five destinies?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘In the place where ordinary people cling and raise up deeds there is not so much as a hair's breadth of real matter; it is only by reason of inversion. Subhūti! Now I shall tell you a simile; the wise understand by means of a simile. Subhūti! What do you think? As with the people seen in a dream enjoying the pleasures of the five desires, is there a real place where they abide?’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! The dream itself is false and unfindable, how much less abiding within a dream and enjoying the pleasures of the five desires!’

‘What do you think? Of dharmas, whether with outflows or without outflows, whether conditioned or unconditioned, is there any that is not like a dream?’

‘World-Honored One! Of dharmas, whether with outflows or without outflows, whether conditioned or unconditioned, there is none that is not like a dream.’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘What do you think? Within a dream is there the going and coming of birth and death in the five destinies?’

‘World-Honored One! There is not!’

‘What do you think? Within a dream is there the cultivation of the path, so that by this cultivation of the path one is either stained or obtains purity?’

‘No! World-Honored One! Why? This dharma of the dream has no real matter; one cannot speak of stain or purity.’

‘What do you think? Does the image in a mirror have real matter that can raise up the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it falls into the hells, the hungry ghosts, the animals, or among humans, or among gods—the place of the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings and so on up to the place of the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-perception?’

Subhūti said: ‘No! World-Honored One! This image has no real matter; it only deceives little children. How could this thing have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it should fall into the hells and so on up to the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘What do you think? Does this image in a mirror have the cultivation of the path, so that by this cultivation of the path it is either stained or obtains purity?’

Subhūti said: ‘No! World-Honored One! Why? This image is empty and has no real matter; one cannot speak of stain or purity.’

‘What do you think? As in a deep ravine there is an echo, does this echo have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it either falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

Subhūti said: ‘No! World-Honored One! This thing is empty, a sound without reality; how could it have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘What do you think? Does this echo have the cultivation of the path, so that by this cultivation of the path it is either stained or obtains purity?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This thing has no reality; one cannot speak of its being stained or being pure.’

‘What do you think? As a mirage is not water and yet has the mark of water, is not a river and yet has the mark of a river, does this mirage have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘No! World-Honored One! The water in the mirage is ultimately unfindable; it only deceives the eyes of those without wisdom. How could it have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these deeds it falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘What do you think? Does this mirage have the cultivation of the path, so that by this cultivation of the path it is either stained or obtains purity?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This mirage has no real matter; one cannot speak of stain or purity.’

‘What do you think? The city of the gandharvas: as when, at the time of sunrise, one sees a city of the gandharvas, those without wisdom, where there is no city, give rise to the notion that there is a city; where there are no houses and towers, give rise to the notion that there are houses and towers; where there are no gardens, give rise to the notion that there are gardens. Does this city of the gandharvas have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This city of the gandharvas is ultimately unfindable; it only deceives the eyes of fools. How could it have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘What do you think? Does this city of the gandharvas have the cultivation of the path, so that by this cultivation of the path it is either stained or obtains purity?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This city of the gandharvas has no real matter; one cannot speak of stain or purity.’

‘Subhūti! What do you think? A conjurer conjures up all kinds of things—an elephant, or a horse, or an ox, or a sheep, or a man, or a woman. What do you think? Does this illusion have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This dharma of illusion is empty and has no real matter; how could it have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds it falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘What do you think? By means of this illusion is there the cultivation of the path, so that by this cultivation of the path it is either stained or obtains purity?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This dharma has no real matter; one cannot speak of stain or purity.’

‘Subhūti! What do you think? As with a person conjured by the Buddha, does this conjured person have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds he falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This conjured person has no real matter; how could he have the causes and conditions of deeds, so that by these causes and conditions of deeds he falls into the hells and so on up to is born in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception?’

‘What do you think? Does this conjured person have the cultivation of the path, so that by this cultivation of the path he is either stained or obtains purity?’

‘No! World-Honored One! This thing has no reality; one cannot speak of stain or purity.’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘What do you think? Within this mark of emptiness, is there one who is stained, is there one who obtains purity?’

‘No! World-Honored One! Herein there is nothing existent; there is no one who is stained and no one who obtains purity.’

‘Subhūti! Since there is no one who is stained and no one who obtains purity, by reason of these causes and conditions there is also no stain or purity. Why? Beings who abide within I and mine have stain and have purity; one who sees as it truly is is neither stained nor pure. Since one who sees as it truly is is neither stained nor pure, in this way there is also no stain or purity.’

Treatise ①: The Treatise-Author Explains Why Subhūti Asks Again; Where the Line Falls between the Buddha Assenting to His Statement and Not Assenting to His Difficulty; the Four Inversions and the Ignorance Bound to the Three Realms by Which Ordinary People Do Not Enter the Holy Dharma; the Worthy and the Sages Have Different Names Because the Inversions They Sever Differ, and the Fruit Is Precisely Severance; the Difficulty That the False and the Real Stand over against Each Other, and That the Highest Meaning Too Is Spoken of Because of Inversion; Both Are Unreal, and yet within the Unreal There Is Difference That Can Refute; the Elaboration of the Simile of the Dream, and That the Image in a Mirror, the Echo, the Mirage, and Being like a Conjuration Are of the Same Kind; the Difficulty That the Abhidharma and Other Scriptures Have Stain and Purity, and That If Beings Belong to Nothing There Is No Bondage and No Release; the View of Self Has No Fixed Object and Arises Only Because of Inversion; and the Fourfold Explanation That One Who Sees as It Truly Is Is without Stain and without Purity

The treatise-author asks:

The Buddha has already answered this matter in place after place; now why does Subhūti ask again?

The treatise-author answers:

Though the meaning is one, the matters that occasion it differ; namely, of all dharmas, whether there is a Buddha or there is no Buddha, the nature of dharmas abides constantly, empty and without anything existent, not made by the worthy and the sages. Prajñāpāramitā is very deep and subtle, hard to understand and hard to measure, and cannot be known by a mind that has measure; the buddhas and the worthy and the sages, out of pity for beings, teach it to them by all kinds of words and names, and similes. Those of keen faculties understand the sages' intent; those of dull faculties give rise to clinging everywhere, clinging to the words and names: if they hear 「空」 tr. "emptiness" taught, they cling to emptiness; hearing 「空亦空」 tr. "emptiness too is empty" taught, they still give rise to clinging; if they hear 「一切法寂滅相，語言道斷」 tr. "all dharmas have the mark of quiescence; the way of words is cut off", they still cling. Because their own minds are not pure, when they hear the Dharma of the sages they also take it to be impure; as a person with a film over his eyes looks at a pure jewel, sees the shadow in his own eye, and says the jewel is impure. The Buddha teaches by all kinds of causes and conditions. Seeing that there are faults, people give rise to doubt and speak thus: 「若一切法空，空亦空，云何分別有六道？」 tr. "If all dharmas are empty and emptiness too is empty, how are the six destinies distinguished?" Because such doubts and difficulties as these constantly arise, Subhūti, the sūtra being about to end, asks about this matter everywhere for the sake of beings; therefore he asks once more.

The Buddha assents to Subhūti's intent.

The treatise-author asks:

Subhūti, by means of 「有」 tr. "existence", raises a difficulty against 「空」 tr. "emptiness"; why does the Buddha assent to his intent?

The treatise-author answers:

The Buddha assents to what he says, 「諸法空常住，有佛、無佛不異」 tr. "dharmas are empty and abide constantly, no different whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha", and does not assent to his difficulty, 「云何分別有六道等」 tr. "how are the six destinies and the rest distinguished". Why? Because his difficulty wishes to refute emptiness.

Herein the Buddha explains the difficulty he raised: namely, it is because ordinary people do not enter the holy Dharma, have not obtained the holy path, do not know the nature of being without anything existent, and are not skilled in cultivating the emptiness samādhi. What is called inversion is the four kinds of inversion; what is called delusion is the ignorance bound to the three realms. Although the other afflictions are not mentioned, these two dharmas are false, deceptive, and unreal. Inversion is false speech, false and deceptive; as for the deeds born from inversion and their retribution, because the root is unreal, though beings cling deeply, these too have no fixed reality. For this reason the five destinies are all empty, having only provisional names.

Furthermore, you raise a difficulty about the worthy and the sages; these worthy ones and sages have different names because the inversions they sever differ, and because inversion is unreal, in reality nothing is severed. Again, because of ceasing and being lost, and of being without anything existent, it is called 「斷」 tr. "severance". If dharmas really existed, they could be severed; there is not even a dharma that can be severed, how much less inversion! Therefore the fruits of all the worthy and the sages are all without anything existent. Severing inversion is precisely the fruit of the sages; the fruit is precisely severance. The path cultivated for the sake of the fruit is likewise without anything existent; therefore, when cultivating the path, one must use emptiness, the signless, and non-action. Because there is a distinction between the path and the fruit, the worthy and the sages differ; but now in reality the dharma without anything existent cannot be obtained—how could what is without anything existent have differences? Therefore one should not raise this difficulty.

Subhūti's intent is this: if the world exists only because of inversion, then if there is inversion there should also be something real, because the false and the real stand over against each other. Therefore he asks: 「世尊！凡夫所著，頗有實生著起業；業因緣故，六道生死，不得解脫？」 tr. "World-Honored One! In what ordinary people cling to, is there anything real, from which clinging arises and deeds are raised up, so that because of the causes and conditions of deeds there is birth and death in the six destinies and liberation is not obtained?"

The Buddha answers: 「不！」 tr. "No!"

Why? Herein the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: 「但顛倒故生著，若無顛倒，云何有相待實法？乃至無毫釐許實事，畢竟無故。」 tr. "It is only by reason of inversion that clinging arises; if there were no inversion, how could there be a real dharma standing over against it? And so on up to: there is not a hair's breadth of real matter, because it is ultimately non-existent."

The treatise-author asks:

The real meaning that the buddhas practise, namely ultimate emptiness—is this not real?

The treatise-author answers:

This emptiness of the highest meaning too is spoken of on account of discriminating the inversions of ordinary people; if there were no inversion, there would be no highest meaning either. If the inversions of ordinary people had even a little reality, the highest meaning too should have reality.

The treatise-author asks:

If both are unreal, how can one obtain liberation? As when a person's hands are dirty and he still washes them with dirt, how can they become clean?

The treatise-author answers:

The real mark of all dharmas is ultimate emptiness, and the highest meaning is in reality pure. Because there are the impure dharmas of the inversions of ordinary people, there is this pure dharma—because it cannot be destroyed and does not change. Because people give rise to clinging toward the real mark of all dharmas and are about to give rise to afflictions, it is said: 「是法性空無所有，無所有故無實。」 tr. "This nature of dharmas is empty and without anything existent; because it is without anything existent, it is without reality."

Although both dharmas are unreal, within the unreal there is difference. As with the two things, the ten wholesome paths and the ten unwholesome paths: because both are conditioned dharmas, they are false, deceptive, and unreal; and yet wholesome and unwholesome differ—because of the dharma of killing, one falls into the evil destinies; because of not killing, one is born in the heavens. As with the two things, giving and stealing: although both grasp at marks with a clinging mind and are false, deceptive, and unreal, there is still a difference between them. As beings, and so on up to the knower and the seer, are without anything existent, and yet vexing and harming beings is a great sin, and kindly thought for beings is great merit. As kindness can refute anger and giving can refute stinginess: although both things are unreal, they can refute each other. Therefore the Buddha says: 「諸法無有根本定實如毫釐許所有。」 tr. "Dharmas have no root that is fixed and real, not so much as a hair's breadth of anything existent."

Because he wishes to prove this matter, he tells the simile of enjoying the five desires in a dream.

Subhūti's intent is this: if all dharmas are ultimately empty and without any existent nature, why now are there manifestly dharmas seen by the eye and heard by the ear? For this reason the Buddha tells the simile of the dream. As a person, by the power of the dream, though there is no real matter, has all kinds of hearing and seeing, has places of anger and places of joy, while a waking person beside him sees nothing; just so, ordinary people, by the power of ignorance and inversion, falsely see something; the sages are awake, and see nothing. All dharmas, whether with outflows or without outflows, whether conditioned or unconditioned, are all unreal; it is because of falseness that there is seeing and hearing.

Again, as in a dream one sees the going and coming of birth and death in the six destinies and sees the srota-āpanna and so on up to the arhat: within the dream these dharmas do not exist, and yet one sees them within the dream, and within the dream there is in reality no purity and no stain. The retribution of deeds and the six destinies are also like this: because of the causes and conditions of inversion one raises up deeds, and the retribution of deeds too should be empty. Removing inversion is therefore named the path; because inversion has no reality, the path too should not be real.

The image in a mirror, the echo, the mirage, and so on up to being like a conjuration are also like this.

The Buddha asks Subhūti in return: 「於是法中有垢者、有淨者不？」 tr. "Within this dharma, is there one who is stained, is there one who is pure?"

Subhūti's intent is this: within all dharmas there is no self; how should one say that there is one who is stained or one who is pure? Therefore he says there is not.

The Buddha says: 「若無受垢、受淨者，垢、淨亦無。」 tr. "If there is no one who undergoes stain or undergoes purity, then there is no stain or purity either."

The treatise-author asks:

If one distinguishes dharmas, in the Abhidharma and other scriptures there is stain and there is purity; it is only the one who undergoes stain and undergoes purity that does not exist. The three poisons and the other afflictions are stain; the three gates of liberation, the dharmas that aid the path, and the like are purity.

The treatise-author answers:

Although there is such a statement, the matter is not so! If the dharmas of beings belong to nothing, there is no maker either; if there is no maker, there is also no dharma that is made, and there is neither bondage nor release. As a person burnt by fire, in fear, relinquishes and leaves it—it is not the fire that leaves the fire; beings too are like this: because they dread the suffering of the five aggregates, they relinquish and leave it—it is not the suffering that leaves the suffering. If there were no one who undergoes stain and undergoes purity, there would be no liberation.

Furthermore, herein the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions, namely: 「我、我所法中住，眾生受垢、受淨。我畢竟無故，垢淨無住處；住處無故，無垢、無淨。」 tr. "Abiding within the dharmas of I and mine, beings undergo stain and undergo purity. Because the self is ultimately non-existent, stain and purity have no place of abiding; because there is no place of abiding, there is no stain and no purity."

The treatise-author asks:

Although the self does not exist, the view of self really exists, and ordinary people, abiding in it, give rise to the afflictions.

The treatise-author answers:

If there is no self, the view of self has no object; having no object, how could it arise?

The treatise-author asks:

Although there is no self, within the five aggregates people practise wrongly and say there is a self, and give rise to the view of self: the five aggregates are the self, are what belongs to the self.

The treatise-author answers:

If within the five aggregates there were fixed causes and conditions for giving rise to the view of self, why does it not arise within the five aggregates of other people? If it arose within the five aggregates of other people too, that would be great confusion! Therefore the view of self has no fixed object; it arises only because of inversion.

The treatise-author asks:

If it arises from inversion, why does the view arise only toward one's own body?

The treatise-author answers:

This inversion is madness and error; one should not seek its real matter. Moreover, from beginningless birth and death onward, one gives rise to clinging within one's own continuous five aggregates; therefore the Buddha says: 「住我心眾生受垢、受淨。」 tr. "Beings who abide in the thought of self undergo stain and undergo purity."

Again, one who sees as it truly is is without stain and without purity; if the self were fixed and existent, one who sees as it truly is ought to have stain and purity! Since one who sees as it truly is is neither stained nor pure, by reason of these causes and conditions there is therefore no stain and no purity. The one who is said to be without stain and without purity is precisely the one who sees the real mark of all dharmas. Further, toward the real mark of all dharmas he also does not cling, therefore he is without stain; the real mark of all dharmas has no mark that can be grasped, therefore he is without purity. Furthermore, not clinging within the eightfold noble path—this is called being without purity; removing all the afflictions and not clinging to inversion—this is called being without stain.

This chapter is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the eighty-sixth chapter, "Equality", composed by the noble Nāgārjuna and translated by the Tripiṭaka master Kumārajīva of the land of Kucha under the Later Qin; it is in the ninety-fifth fascicle.

Sūtra ①: Subhūti Asks Why Seeing the Real and Not Seeing the Real Are Both Neither Stained nor Pure, and the Buddha Answers That the Mark of the Equality of Dharmas Is Purity and Belongs to Worldly Truth; He Asks Again How, with Dharmas like a Dream and like a Conjuration, One Vows to Make the Perfections Complete, and the Buddha Answers That Unreal, False Dharmas Cannot Obtain Awakening, yet the Bodhisattva, Knowing Them to Be like a Dream, Still Brings Beings to Accomplishment and Purifies buddha-lands, Only for the Sake of Beings and Not for Himself; He Asks Again Whether the Buddha's Obtaining of Awakening Is Obtained in Worldly Truth or Obtained in the Highest Meaning, and the Buddha Answers That by Means of Two Dharmas There Is No Path and No Fruit, and That the Mark of Being without Idle Discourse Is the Equality of Dharmas; He Asks Again What Equality Is, and the Buddha Answers That Ordinary People and Sages, and So On up to the Buddhas, All Cannot Practise It and Cannot Reach It, That All Are One Equality without Duality, That the Three Jewels Are Not Different from the Equality of Dharmas, and That the Buddha Does Not Move within the Equality of Dharmas and yet Distinguishes Dharmas; He Then Raises the Objection That Dharmas Each Differ in Mark, and the Buddha Answers in Return That the Marks of Form and the Rest Are Empty, and That within Equality It Is Not Ordinary People and Not Apart from Ordinary People, and So On up to Not the Buddha and Not Apart from the Buddha; Finally He Asks Whether Equality Is Conditioned or Unconditioned, and the Buddha Answers That It Is Neither Conditioned nor Unconditioned, That the Two Dharmas Are Neither Joined nor Dispersed, of One Mark, the Signless, and That the Bodhisattva Does Not Move within the Highest Meaning and yet Enriches Beings

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! The one who sees the real is neither stained nor pure, and the one who does not see the real is also neither stained nor pure. Why? Because the nature of all dharmas is without anything existent. World-Honored One! Within what is without anything existent there is no stain and no purity, and within what is existent there is also no stain and no purity. World-Honored One! Within what is without anything existent and within what has something existent, there is likewise no stain and no purity. World-Honored One! Then why is it said that the one who speaks as it truly is is neither stained nor pure, and the one who does not speak truly is also neither stained nor pure?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘This mark of the equality of dharmas—I say this is purity. Subhūti! What is purity, and what is this equality of dharmas? It is namely suchness, not-different, not-deceiving, the mark of dharmas, the nature of dharmas, the abiding of dharmas, the position of dharmas, the limit of reality; whether a Buddha appears in the world or no Buddha appears in the world, the nature of dharmas abides constantly—this is named purity. This is said because of worldly truth; it is not the very highest meaning; the very highest meaning passes beyond all words, discussion, and sound.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If all dharmas are empty and unspeakable, like a dream, like an echo, like a mirage, like a shadow, like an illusion, like a conjuration, then how can the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, by means of these dharmas that are like a dream, like an echo, like a mirage, like a shadow, like an illusion, like a conjuration, having no root and nothing fixed and real, arouse the mind of anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and make such a vow—“I shall make complete dānapāramitā, and so on up to making complete prajñāpāramitā; I shall make complete the perfection of the supernormal powers, make complete the perfection of knowledge, make complete the four dhyānas, the four immeasurable minds, the four formless absorptions, the four foundations of mindfulness, and so on up to making complete the eightfold noble path; I shall make complete the three gates of liberation, the eight liberations, the nine successive absorptions; I shall make complete the ten powers of the Buddha, and so on up to making complete the eighteen unshared dharmas; I shall make complete the thirty-two marks and the eighty minor marks, make complete all the dhāraṇī gates and all the samādhi gates; I shall emit a great light shining everywhere throughout the ten directions, know the thoughts of the minds of all beings, and teach them the Dharma according to what suits them”—such a vow as this?’

The Buddha said to Subhūti: ‘What do you think? The dharmas you have spoken of as like a dream, like an echo, like a mirage, like a shadow, like an illusion, like a conjuration—are they so or not?’

Subhūti answered: ‘They are! World-Honored One! World-Honored One! If all dharmas are like a dream and so on up to like a conjuration, how does the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practise prajñāpāramitā? World-Honored One! This dream and so on up to like a conjuration is false and unreal. World-Honored One! One should not be able, by means of unreal, false dharmas, to make complete dānapāramitā and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas.’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! Unreal, false dharmas cannot make complete dānapāramitā and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas; practising these unreal, false dharmas, one cannot obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti! All these dharmas are dharmas made by recollection and reflection; by means of these dharmas made by reflection and recollection one cannot obtain the omniscience of all kinds.

Subhūti! All these dharmas can serve as dharmas that aid the path, yet they cannot add to its fruit; namely, these dharmas are non-arising, non-emerging, and signless. The wholesome deeds the bodhisattva has done since his first arousing of intent are precisely dānapāramitā and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds. Why? Because he knows that all dharmas are like a dream and so on up to like a conjuration. If such dharmas did not make complete dānapāramitā and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds, he could not bring beings to accomplishment, purify buddha-lands, or obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. The wholesome deeds this bodhisattva-mahāsattva does, dānapāramitā and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds, he knows all to be like a dream and so on up to like a conjuration; he also knows that all beings practise within a dream, and so on up to knowing that they practise within a conjuration. This bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not grasp prajñāpāramitā as an existent dharma; because of this not grasping he obtains the omniscience of all kinds, knowing that these dharmas are like a dream and there is nothing to grasp, and so on up to these dharmas being like a conjuration and there being nothing to grasp. Why? Prajñāpāramitā is of the mark of being ungraspable; dhyānapāramitā and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas are also of the mark of being ungraspable.

Subhūti! Only after this bodhisattva-mahāsattva knows that all dharmas are of the mark of being ungraspable does he arouse the mind and seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Why? All dharmas are of the mark of being ungraspable, having no root and nothing fixed and real, like a dream and so on up to like a conjuration; by means of dharmas of the mark of being ungraspable, one cannot obtain a dharma of the mark of being ungraspable. Only because beings do not know and do not see such marks of dharmas does this bodhisattva-mahāsattva seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi for the sake of these beings. All the giving this bodhisattva has done since his first arousing of intent is for the sake of all beings; and so on up to whatever wisdom he cultivates, that too is all for the sake of all beings, not for his own single self. The bodhisattva-mahāsattva does not seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi for any other matter, but only for the sake of all beings.

When this bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he sees beings and yet there are no beings, and only abides within the mark of beings; and so on up to: there is no knower and no seer, and yet he abides within the mark of knowing and seeing, and makes beings far from inversion; having made them far from inversion, he sets them within the nature of ambrosia; for one who abides within this there is no false mark—namely, the mark of beings and so on up to the mark of a knower and the mark of a seer. At this time the bodhisattva has relinquished the moving mind, the thinking mind, and the mind of idle discourse, and constantly practises the unmoving mind, the mind of not thinking, and the mind without idle discourse. Subhūti! Because of this power of skilful means, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he himself clings to nothing, and also teaches all beings so that they obtain non-clinging. This is said according to worldly truth; it is not the highest meaning.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! When the World-Honored One obtained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi and obtained the dharmas of the buddhas, was it obtained because of worldly truth? Or was it obtained within the highest meaning?’

The Buddha said: ‘It is because of worldly truth that the Buddha is said to obtain this dharma; within this dharma there is no dharma to be obtained, nor is there this person obtaining this dharma. Why? If it were said that this person obtains this dharma, this would be greatly with something to be attained; by means of two dharmas there is no path and no fruit.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If by practising two dharmas there is no path and no fruit, then by practising the dharma of non-duality is there a path and a fruit?’

The Buddha said: ‘By practising two dharmas there is no path and no fruit, and by practising the dharma of non-duality there is also no path and no fruit; if there are no two dharmas and also no dharma of non-duality, this is precisely the path, this is precisely the fruit. Why? To say that by means of such a dharma one obtains the path and obtains the fruit, and that by means of such a dharma one does not obtain the path and does not obtain the fruit—this is precisely idle discourse. Within all equal dharmas there is no idle discourse; the mark of being without idle discourse—this alone is the equality of dharmas.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! All dharmas are of a nature without anything existent; within this, what is equality?’

The Buddha said: ‘If there is no existent dharma and also no non-existent dharma, then one does not speak of the mark of the equality of dharmas either; apart from equality there is no other dharma that can be apart from the mark of the equality of all dharmas. As for equality, whether ordinary people or sages, none can practise it, none can reach it.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! And so on up to the Buddha—can he too not practise it and not reach it?’

The Buddha said: ‘This equality of dharmas, all sages cannot practise, cannot reach—namely all the srota-āpanna, sakṛdāgāmin, anāgāmin, arhats, pratyekabuddhas, all the bodhisattva-mahāsattvas, and the buddhas.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! The Buddha is sovereign in the power of practice among all dharmas; why is it said that the Buddha too cannot practise it and cannot reach it?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Only if the equality of dharmas were different from the Buddha should one ask thus. Subhūti! Now all ordinary people are equality; all the srota-āpanna, sakṛdāgāmin, anāgāmin, arhats, pratyekabuddhas, all the bodhisattva-mahāsattvas, the buddhas, and the holy Dharma are all equality; this is one equality and without duality—namely, “this is an ordinary person, this is a srota-āpanna, and so on up to this is a Buddha”: within this equality of all dharmas, all are unfindable.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If within the equality of dharmas all are unfindable—“this is an ordinary person, and so on up to this is a Buddha”. World-Honored One! Then are ordinary people, the srota-āpanna, and so on up to the Buddha without discrimination?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! Within the equality of dharmas there is no discrimination “this is an ordinary person, this is a srota-āpanna, and so on up to this is a Buddha”.’

‘World-Honored One! If one does not distinguish ordinary people, the srota-āpanna, and so on up to the Buddha, then why does one further distinguish and say that the Three Jewels appear in the world—the Buddha Jewel, the Dharma Jewel, the Saṅgha Jewel?’

The Buddha said: ‘What do you think? Are the Buddha Jewel, the Dharma Jewel, and the Saṅgha Jewel different from the equality of dharmas?’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘As I understand the meaning I have heard from the Buddha, the Buddha Jewel, the Dharma Jewel, and the Saṅgha Jewel are not different from the equality of dharmas. World-Honored One! This Buddha Jewel, Dharma Jewel, and Saṅgha Jewel are precisely equality; this dharma is neither joined nor dispersed, without form, without shape, without resistance, of one mark, namely the signless. The Buddha has this power, that within the signless dharmas he can distinguish places: this is an ordinary person, this is a srota-āpanna, this is a sakṛdāgāmin, this is an anāgāmin, this is an arhat, this is a pratyekabuddha, this is a bodhisattva-mahāsattva, these are the buddhas.’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! When the buddhas obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, if they did not distinguish dharmas, could they still know: this is the hells, this is the hungry ghosts, this is the animals, this is humans, this is gods—this is the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings and so on up to this is the heaven of the gods Sovereign over Others' Transformations, this is the Brahmā heaven and so on up to this is the Heaven of the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-perception; this is the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eightfold noble path; this is inner emptiness and so on up to this is the emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas; this is the ten powers of the Buddha and so on up to this is the eighteen unshared dharmas?’

Subhūti answered: ‘They could not know! World-Honored One!’

‘For this reason, Subhūti! You should know that the Buddha has the great power of kindness: within the equality of dharmas he does not move, and yet he can distinguish dharmas.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! Just as the Buddha does not move within the equality of dharmas, ordinary people too do not move within the equality of dharmas, and the srota-āpanna and so on up to the pratyekabuddhas too do not move within the equality of dharmas. World-Honored One! If the mark of the equality of dharmas is precisely the mark of ordinary people, precisely the mark of the srota-āpanna, and so on up to the buddhas being precisely the mark of equality; World-Honored One! now dharmas each have their own mark, namely: the mark of form differs from the marks of feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness; the mark of the eye differs from the marks of the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind; the mark of earth differs from the marks of water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness; the mark of desire differs from the marks of anger and delusion, and the mark of wrong views differs; the mark of dhyāna differs, the mark of the immeasurable minds differs, the mark of the formless absorptions differs; the mark of the four foundations of mindfulness differs, and so on up to the mark of the eightfold noble path differing; the mark of dānapāramitā differs, and so on up to the mark of prajñāpāramitā differing; the mark of the three gates of liberation differs; the mark of the eighteen emptinesses differs; the mark of the ten powers of the Buddha differs, the mark of the four fearlessnesses differs, the mark of the four unobstructed knowledges differs, the mark of the eighteen unshared dharmas differs; the nature of conditioned dharmas differs from the nature of unconditioned dharmas; the mark of this ordinary person differs, and so on up to the mark of the Buddha differing—since dharmas each differ in mark, when the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, how can he not make distinctions within the differing marks of dharmas? If he does not make distinctions, he cannot practise prajñāpāramitā; if he does not practise prajñāpāramitā, he cannot go from one ground to another ground; if he cannot go from one ground to another ground, he cannot enter the bodhisattva's position; because he cannot enter the bodhisattva's position, he cannot pass beyond the grounds of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas; because he cannot pass beyond the grounds of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, he cannot make complete the perfection of the supernormal powers; because he does not make complete the perfection of the supernormal powers, he cannot make complete dānapāramitā, and so on up to being unable to make complete prajñāpāramitā, being unable to go from one Buddha-land to another Buddha-land to make offerings to the buddhas, to plant roots of goodness in the places of the buddhas, and by means of these roots of goodness to bring beings to accomplishment and purify buddha-lands.’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘As you have asked: “These marks of dharmas are also ordinary people, and also the srota-āpanna and so on up to the Buddha; World-Honored One! these dharmas each have their mark, namely the mark of form differs, and so on up to the marks of conditioned and unconditioned dharmas differ; how can the bodhisattva-mahāsattva contemplate one mark and not make distinctions?” Subhūti! What do you think? Is this mark of form empty? And so on up to: is the mark of the buddhas empty?’

‘World-Honored One! It is truly empty.’

‘Subhūti! Within emptiness, are dharmas of separate marks findable? Namely, the mark of form and so on up to the mark of the buddhas.’

Subhūti answered: ‘They are unfindable!’

The Buddha said: ‘For this reason you should know that within the equality of dharmas it is not ordinary people and also not apart from ordinary people, and so on up to not the Buddha and also not apart from the Buddha.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! This equality—is it a conditioned dharma? Or is it an unconditioned dharma?’

The Buddha said: ‘It is not a conditioned dharma, nor is it an unconditioned dharma. Why? Apart from conditioned dharmas, unconditioned dharmas are unfindable; apart from unconditioned dharmas, conditioned dharmas are unfindable. Subhūti! These conditioned dharmas and unconditioned dharmas, these two dharmas, are neither joined nor dispersed, without form, without shape, without resistance, of one mark, namely the signless. The Buddha too speaks according to worldly truth, not according to the highest meaning. Why? Within the highest meaning there is no bodily action, no verbal action, no mental action, nor is it that apart from bodily, verbal, and mental action one can obtain the highest meaning. This mark of the equality of all conditioned dharmas and unconditioned dharmas is precisely the highest meaning. When the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he does not move within the highest meaning, and yet he practises the bodhisattva's business and enriches beings.’

Treatise ①: Explaining That Subhūti Reflects on Stain and Purity through the Two Views of Annihilation and Permanence and Then Asks; the Buddha Answers That It Is Named Purity Because of Equality, but That to Discriminate Stain and Purity Is Not So; As When a Person Points at the Moon with a Finger, One Looks at the Finger and Does Not Look at the Moon; the Simile of Trading Gold for Grass; the Meaning of Equality Is Unspeakable, yet within the Scattered Mind of Initial and Sustained Thought There Are Words; He Asks for the Sake of Bodhisattvas Who Have Newly Aroused the Mind, and the Buddha Answers Him by Asking in Return; Eight Rounds of Question and Answer Discerning What Use It Is to Practise Giving When One Knows the Real Mark, and the Superior Person Who Acts Only for Beings; the Difference between Two Dharmas and the Dharma of Non-duality, and Negating the Two Extremes to Speak the Middle Way; the Two Kinds, Substance and Practice, in Equality's Passing Beyond All Dharmas; Self-nature Cannot Practise and Reach within Self-nature, Not Because His Wisdom Is Small; the Three Jewels Are Precisely the Equal Dharma, Distinguished in Worldly Truth; the Simile of the Sun Rising and Illuminating Things, and the False Knowing of Ordinary People and the Buddha's Knowing as It Truly Is; within Quiescent Extinction without Idle Discourse One Can yet Distinguish Dharmas; the Simile That the Ox-dharma and Its Parts Are Neither One nor Different, and the Divergent Opinion of ‘Someone Says’; Not Moving within Equality and yet Distinguishing Dharmas, without Clinging to the Marks of One and Different; the Meaning of Standing over against Each Other in That to Break the Conditioned Is Precisely the Unconditioned, Concluding with Not Moving within the Highest Meaning and Benefiting Beings

The explanation:

Subhūti reflects thus: what the Buddha answered is that the one who sees truly and the one who sees falsely are not different, because there is neither a view of stain nor a view of purity. Having reflected thus, he then asks the Buddha: the one who sees the real is without stain and without purity, and the one who sees the unreal is also neither stained nor pure, because the nature of all dharmas is without anything existent; within what is without anything existent there is no stain and no purity, and within what is existent there is also no stain and no purity.

Because what is without anything existent is the view of annihilation, there should be no stain or purity! Because within what is existent there is the view of permanence, there should also be no stain or purity! If what is existent were definitely existent, it would not arise from causes and conditions; because it does not arise from causes and conditions it is permanent, and because it is permanent there is no stain and no purity.

Subhūti said to the Buddha: the one who sees truly, and the one who does not see truly—what is the meaning of this?

The Buddha answered: although stain and purity have no separate marks that can be spoken of, it is because all dharmas are equal that it is named purity. If one were to discriminate and speak of the marks of stain and purity, this matter would not be so! Because all dharmas are equal, I say it is named purity.

The Buddha told Subhūti: the real mark of all dharmas, namely suchness, the nature of dharmas, the abiding of dharmas, the position of dharmas, the limit of reality—this is equality; when the bodhisattva enters into this equality, there is no hatred and no love in his mind. This dharma, whether a Buddha appears in the world or no Buddha appears in the world, abides constantly.

All dharmas that are made are false and deceptive; therefore it is said: the dharma without making, whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, abides constantly.

The hearer's mind at once grasps at marks and clings to this equality of dharmas; as when a person points at the moon with a finger, one who does not understand looks only at his finger and does not look at the moon. Therefore the Buddha says: the mark of the equality of dharmas is also like this; it is all worldly truth; worldly truth is not real, and is spoken only for the sake of getting things done. It is as when someone trades gold for grass, and one who does not understand says: why trade the precious for the cheap? He answers: because I have a matter for which I need it.

This meaning of equality is unspeakable; all names, words, and sounds are cut off. Why? The equality of dharmas is the mark of quiescence without idle discourse; only because within the scattered mind of initial and sustained thought there are words, is there anything said.

Subhūti, having heard from the Buddha the mark of the equality of dharmas and understood its purport, asks for the sake of all the bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the mind: World-Honored One! If all dharmas are empty, unspeakable, like a dream and so on up to like a conjuration, then how can the bodhisattva, within rootless dharmas, give rise to the mind and make such a vow—“I shall make complete dānapāramitā, and so on up to teaching the Dharma to beings according to what suits them”?

The Buddha answers Subhūti by asking in return: giving and the rest, and so on up to the dhāraṇī gates, teaching the Dharma, and the rest—are these dharmas not like an illusion, like a dream, and so on?

Subhūti answered: it is truly so! Although these dharmas have benefit, they do not go beyond dharmas that are like a dream.

Subhūti asked again: World-Honored One! Dreams and such dharmas are all false and unreal; the bodhisattva, for the sake of seeking a real dharma, practises prajñāpāramitā and obtains the Buddha path—how can he practise unreal dharmas? Unreal dharmas cannot practise dānapāramitā and the rest!

The Buddha, assenting to Subhūti, says: Just so! Just so! Giving and such dharmas are all dharmas that arise from reflection, recollection, discrimination, and making; one cannot abide in such dharmas and accomplish the omniscience of all kinds.

At that time, among the great assembly, the minds of those hearing the Dharma gave rise to slackness; therefore the Buddha says: all these dharmas are causes and conditions that aid the path.

If within this dharma one practises wrongly and errs, this is named unreal; if one practises straight and does not err, it is a dharma that aids the path. This dharma is for the sake of aiding the path, not for the sake of the fruit. Giving and the rest are conditioned dharmas, and the path too is conditioned; because they are of one and the same mark they can benefit each other. The so-called fruit of the path is that all dharmas really have no coming forth into birth; it is of one mark, the signless, quiescent extinction, nirvāṇa; therefore nothing can be added to nirvāṇa. As a timely rain can benefit grass and trees, but cannot benefit space. Therefore the bodhisattva knows these dharmas that aid the path, and the fruit of the path; the wholesome dharmas, giving and the rest, that he has done since his first arousing of the mind, he knows all to be ultimately empty, like a dream and so on up to like a conjuration.

The treatise-author asks:

If the bodhisattva knows the real mark of all dharmas, what further use is there in practising giving and the rest?

The treatise-author answers:

Herein the Buddha says: if giving and the rest are not complete, one cannot bring beings to accomplishment.

The bodhisattva adorns his body and his voice and speech, obtains the Buddha's power of the supernormal powers, and by all kinds of power of skilful means can lead beings on. Therefore, for the sake of bringing beings to accomplishment, the bodhisattva practises dānapāramitā, and yet does not grasp the mark of dānapāramitā being existent or being non-existent, nor does he make idle discourse about dharmas like a dream and the rest; he only goes straight on, even until he obtains anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi. Why? Prajñāpāramitā is of the mark of being ungraspable, and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas, which are also of the mark of being ungraspable.

Only after knowing that all is of the mark of being ungraspable does he arouse the mind and seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; he has this thought: all dharmas have no root, are of the mark of being ungraspable, like a dream and so on up to like a conjuration; by means of ungraspable dharmas one cannot obtain a dharma of the mark of being ungraspable. Only because beings do not know this dharma do I seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi for the sake of these beings. All the giving this bodhisattva has done since his first arousing of the mind is for the sake of all beings; that is, giving and all the wholesome dharmas are all cultivated for the sake of all beings, not for himself.

Herein the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: he does not seek anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi for any other matter, but only for the sake of all beings. What is the reason for this? If this bodhisattva were far from the mind of pity for beings, and only practised prajñāpāramitā and sought the real mark of all dharmas, he might fall into wrong views. This person has not yet obtained omniscience; in the matter of the omniscience he seeks, his mind is not yet tamed and pliant, and so he falls into the extremes, because the real mark of all dharmas is hard to obtain. Therefore the Buddha says: from his first arousing of the mind the bodhisattva, because he pities beings, has a clinging mind that little by little grows thin, and he makes no idle discourse about ultimate emptiness—he does not fall into reckonings of the sort ‘if one says empty there is this fault, if one says not empty there is that fault’.

The treatise-author asks:

As elsewhere it is said that the bodhisattva benefits himself and also benefits beings, why herein is only benefiting beings spoken of and not benefiting oneself? What fault is there in benefiting oneself and benefiting others?

The treatise-author answers:

That the bodhisattva practises the wholesome path for the sake of all beings—this is the real meaning; elsewhere it is said that he benefits himself and also benefits beings, but that is said thus for ordinary people, so that afterwards they can practise the bodhisattva path. Those who enter the path are of three grades, lowest, middle, and highest: the lowest practise wholesome dharmas only for the sake of delivering themselves; the middle do so both for themselves and for others; the highest practise wholesome dharmas only for the sake of others.

The treatise-author asks:

This matter is not right! The lowest are only for themselves; the middle are only for beings; the highest benefit themselves and also benefit others. If one only benefits others and cannot benefit oneself, how can one be called the highest?

The treatise-author answers:

It is not so! Such is the way of the world: one who makes offerings to himself obtains no merit from it, and one who harms his own body incurs no sin. For this reason, one who practises the path for himself is named an inferior person. All the people of the world benefit only their own persons and cannot act for others. If one practises the path only for oneself, this is annihilation, because it is for the sake of one's own love and clinging. If one can relinquish one's own happiness and practise wholesome dharmas only for the sake of all beings, this is named a superior person, because he is not the same as all beings. If one practises wholesome dharmas only for the sake of beings, while beings are not yet brought to accomplishment, one's own benefit is already complete. If one both benefits oneself and acts for beings, this is mixed practice. Those who seek the Buddha path are of three kinds: first, those who only because they love and cherish the Buddha seek to become a Buddha for their own single selves; second, those who do so for themselves and also for beings; third, those who do so only for beings—this person practises the path purely, because he has broken the inversion of self.

When this bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, there are no beings and so on up to no knower and no seer; abiding within this, he pulls beings out and sets them within the nature of ambrosia. What is called the nature of ambrosia is all the dharmas that aid the path. Why? By practising these dharmas one can reach nirvāṇa, and nirvāṇa is named ambrosia. When one abides within this nature of ambrosia, the false thoughts of ‘I’ and the like no longer arise. This bodhisattva himself obtains non-clinging and also makes beings obtain non-clinging; this is named the foremost benefiting of beings.

The treatise-author asks:

Above it is said that one practises the path only for the sake of benefiting beings; now why is it further said that one oneself obtains non-clinging and makes beings obtain non-clinging?

The treatise-author answers:

It is because there is no other way! If one has no wisdom oneself, how can one benefit others? For this reason one first obtains non-clinging oneself, and only then can one teach others. If this merit could be given to others like wealth and goods, all the merit possessed by the buddhas and the great bodhisattvas ought to be given to others, even to Devadatta and to the enemy and thief, and then they would gather merit anew for themselves; but this matter is not so: it cannot be that I do it and another obtains it.

This too is a worldly saying, not the highest meaning. Why? Within the highest meaning there are no beings, no marks of one and different and the like that discriminate dharmas, and herein what is said likewise has nothing to cling to.

Again, as said before, the mark of the unspeakable is the highest meaning; since herein it can be spoken of, it is therefore the worldly.

At that time Subhūti asked: the dharma the Buddha obtained at the seat of awakening—was it obtained by means of worldly truth? Or was it obtained by means of the truth of the highest meaning?

Subhūti's meaning is: if it were obtained because of worldly truth, then it would be false and unreal; if it were obtained because of the highest meaning, within the highest meaning there is no obtaining and no one who obtains; it is unspeakable and cannot be received.

The Buddha answered: it is by reason of worldly words that the Buddha is said to obtain anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; herein there is no one who obtains and no dharma that is obtained. Why? If it were said that this person obtains this dharma, this would be two dharmas; within two dharmas there is no path and no fruit. The so-called two dharmas are: this is the bodhisattva, and this is the anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi that is obtained. Two dharmas such as these all exist according to worldly truth. If one falls into the two, how could the Buddha's Dharma not be false! If someone does not obtain the highest meaning and only discriminates dharmas by means of two dharmas, this is false; because the buddhas and the great bodhisattvas have obtained the highest meaning, in order to deliver beings and make them obtain the highest meaning, although they discriminate dharmas, it is not false.

Subhūti asked again: World-Honored One! If by means of two dharmas there is no path and no fruit, then now by means of the dharma of non-duality is there a path and a fruit?

The Buddha answered: by two dharmas there is no path and no fruit; by the dharma of non-duality too there is no path and no fruit.

The treatise-author asks:

Elsewhere it is said that two dharmas are the dharmas of ordinary people and the dharma of non-duality is the dharma of the worthy and the sages, as is said in the gate of the Dharma of entering non-duality in the Vimalakīrti Sūtra.

The treatise-author answers:

Entering non-duality is indeed the real holy Dharma. But it may be that there are bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the mind, who have not yet obtained the real mark of all dharmas, and who, hearing this dharma of non-duality, then grasp at marks and give rise to clinging. Therefore at times he praises the dharma of non-duality, and at times further disparages it.

Again, the Buddha negates the two extremes and speaks the middle way, namely not two and not non-dual. Two dharmas speaks of the separate marks of each; non-duality speaks of the mark of a single emptiness. By means of this mark of a single emptiness one breaks the marks of each being separate and different; once the breaking is done and the matter is finished, one still relinquishes the mark of non-duality—this alone is the path, this alone is the fruit. Why? Although the worthy and the sages praise the dharma without duality, it is so that people may not cling.

To say that by means of this dharma one obtains the path and obtains the fruit, and that by means of this dharma there is no path and no fruit—this is precisely idle discourse; being without idle discourse alone is the equal dharma.

Subhūti said to the Buddha: if all dharmas are of a nature without anything existent, what then is equality?

The Buddha answered: if one is apart from existent nature and non-existent nature, it is provisionally named equality. If the bodhisattva does not say that all dharmas are existent—does not speak of the nature of all dharmas, does not speak of the marks of all dharmas, and other such displays—nor says that they are a non-existent dharma—does not speak of the nature of non-existent dharmas, the marks of non-existent dharmas, and other such displays—nor says that apart from these two extremes there is a further mark of equality, and in every place does not grasp the mark of equality, nor says that there is no such equality, and yet this does not hinder him from cultivating all wholesome dharmas, this is named the equality of dharmas.

Again, what is called the equality of dharmas is precisely passing beyond all dharmas.

The treatise-author asks:

Before, in place after place, it was said that dharmas are precisely the mark of equality, and that equality is precisely the reality of dharmas—the names differ but the meaning is the same; the suchness of form is not form and not apart from form; now why is it said that equality passes beyond all dharmas?

The treatise-author answers:

All dharmas are of two kinds: first, the substance of form and the other dharmas; second, practice within form and the other dharmas—the wrong practice of ordinary people and the right practice of the worthy and the sages. The equality spoken of here passes beyond within the practice of ordinary people; it is not said to pass beyond within the substance of form and the other dharmas.

Again, equality is that which none can practise and none can reach. For this reason Subhūti asks in astonishment: can the Buddha too not practise it and not reach it?

Subhūti's meaning is: although this dharma is very deep and subtle and hard to practise, this matter the Buddha ought to be able to obtain!

The Buddha answered: from the srota-āpanna up to the Buddha, none can practise it and none can reach it.

The Buddha's meaning is: the buddhas of the three times and the ten directions all cannot practise it and cannot reach it, how much less a single Buddha! Because the nature of equality is originally so.

Subhūti asked again: the Buddha is sovereign in the power of practice among all dharmas; the Buddha has unobstructed wisdom, and there is no place he does not reach; why is it said that he cannot practise it and cannot reach it?

The Buddha answered: only if the Buddha were different from equality should there be such an objection—why can he not practise it and not reach it? Now the equality of ordinary people, the equality of the srota-āpanna, and the equality of the Buddha are all one equality, without duality and without discrimination. These ordinary people and so on up to the Buddha—self-nature cannot practise within self-nature, cannot reach within self-nature; self-nature should practise within other-nature. Therefore the Buddha says: if the Buddha were different from equality, the Buddha ought to practise and reach equality. But because the Buddha is precisely equality, he does not practise and does not reach—not because his wisdom is small.

Subhūti said to the Buddha: if within equality the difference of ordinary people and so on up to the Buddha is unfindable, then now ordinary people and sages ought not to have distinction!

The Buddha, assenting to Subhūti's question, says: within equality there is no distinction; it is because of worldly truth that there is distinction within the dharmas of ordinary people.

Subhūti asked again: if ordinary people and so on up to the Buddha are without discrimination, then why do the Three Jewels greatly appear in the world and greatly benefit beings?

The Buddha answered: equality is precisely the Dharma Jewel, and the Dharma Jewel is precisely the Buddha Jewel and the Saṅgha Jewel. Why? When he had not yet obtained this dharma, he was not named Buddha; only because he obtained the equal dharma is he named Buddha; because he obtained this equal dharma, he distinguishes that there are distinctions such as the srota-āpanna and the rest.

Subhūti, receiving the Buddha's teaching, says: this dharma is all without joining and without dispersing, without form, without shape, without resistance, of one mark, namely the signless. Only the Buddha has this power, that within emptiness and the signless he can distinguish: this is an ordinary person, this is a sage.

The Buddha told Subhūti: Just so! Just so! If the buddhas did not distinguish this dharma, how could they know that there are the hells and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas?

The treatise-author asks:

The buddhas are like the sun coming out: it cannot make the high low or the low high, but only illuminates the myriad things and lets those with eyes distinguish and recognise them; the buddhas too are like this: they too do not transform the marks of dharmas, but only illuminate them with omniscience and expound them for people to let them know. Why do you say: if the Buddha did not distinguish dharmas, how could he know that there are the hells and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas? Now things like animals, which the eye sees before it, everyone recognises and knows—what need is there for the Buddha to speak of them!

The treatise-author answers:

Although the Buddha does not make things fair or foul, he can expound them and show them to people. Knowing is of two kinds: first, the false knowing of ordinary people; second, knowing as it truly is. To know the marks of animals and the like is the false knowing of ordinary people; it is because the Buddha knows the real mark that it is said: if the Buddha did not distinguish dharmas, how could he know that there are the hells and the rest.

Again, the dharma of the buddhas is the mark of quiescence, without idle discourse; if herein one distinguished that there are the marks of the hells and the like, it would not be named the dharma of quiescent extinction, non-duality, and no idle discourse. Although the Buddha knows the mark of quiescent extinction and non-duality, he can yet distinguish dharmas within the mark of quiescence, and not fall into idle discourse.

One who is apart from the real mark of all dharmas, although his eyes see animals and the like, cannot know their marks as they truly are. It is as with an ox: the horns, feet, tail, and the other parts come together, and there further arises an ox-dharma, and this is one; the parts are many and the ox-dharma is one; the one cannot make the many, and the many cannot make the one.

Someone says: this is not right! Apart from these parts there should further be a function of the ox-dharma that can be seen.

The ox-dharma is born from the coming together of its parts, and yet the ox-dharma is not different from the parts. Why? Because seeing these parts come together is named seeing an ox, and no other thing is further seen to be the ox. Different refutes one, one refutes different, and neither-one-nor-different refutes one-and-different; if there is neither one nor different, where then is there neither-one-nor-different? If one enters into this equality of dharmas, at that time one first truly obtains the mark of the ox as it truly is.

Therefore it is said: if the Buddha did not distinguish the marks of dharmas and did not speak of the two truths, how could he speak well of animals and the like? This is what is called not moving within equality and yet distinguishing dharmas. What is called not moving is that when one distinguishes dharmas one does not cling to the marks of one and different.

Subhūti said to the Buddha: just as the Buddha does not move within the equality of dharmas, the pratyekabuddhas and so on up to ordinary people also do not move within the equality of dharmas. Why? The buddhas are of the mark of equality, and so on up to ordinary people are also of the mark of equality. World-Honored One! If it is so, how can the Buddha distinguish dharmas—saying that this mark of form differs, the nature of form differs, the nature of feeling differs, and so on up to the natures of the conditioned and the unconditioned differ? If one does not distinguish dharmas, when the bodhisattva practises prajñāpāramitā, he cannot go from one ground to another ground, and so on up to being unable to purify buddha-lands.

The Buddha answered: what do you think? Investigating and searching out the marks of form and the rest—are they empty?

World-Honored One! They are truly empty!

Within emptiness are there dharmas of differing marks?

He answered: there are not! Why? This is ultimate emptiness, which can be understood only with the wisdom of the signless; how could there be differing marks within it?

The Buddha said to Subhūti: if within emptiness there are no differing marks, emptiness would then be the real; then how is it that within emptiness you distinguish dharmas and raise such an objection?

Within ultimate emptiness, emptiness too is unfindable, and the separate marks too are unfindable; how can you use emptiness and the separate marks to raise an objection?

For this reason you should know that within the equality of dharmas, because there is no discrimination, there are no ordinary people; yet ordinary people are not the real mark, nor are they apart from the real mark; the real mark of ordinary people is precisely the mark of the sage. Therefore it is said: not ordinary people and also not apart from ordinary people, and so on up to the Buddha, it is likewise.

Because the mark of equality has great benefit, Subhūti wishes to know the fixed mark of equality, and so he asks: is this conditioned? Or is it unconditioned?

The Buddha answered: neither conditioned nor unconditioned. Why? If it were conditioned, all would be false and deceptive dharmas that are made; if it were unconditioned, an unconditioned dharma, because it has no arising, abiding, and ceasing, would become a non-existent dharma, and because it is a non-existent dharma, it could not be named unconditioned either. It is because there is the conditioned that there is the unconditioned, as is said in the sūtra: apart from the conditioned, the unconditioned is unfindable. As apart from long there is no short—this is the meaning of standing over against each other.

The treatise-author asks:

Conditioned dharmas are impermanent and unconditioned dharmas are permanent; why is it said that apart from the conditioned, the unconditioned is unfindable?

The treatise-author answers:

Unconditioned dharmas, because they are without discrimination, are signless; if one said that they have a mark of permanence, one could not say that they are signless. It is because conditioned dharmas are broken that it is named the unconditioned; there is no other dharma. It is as when a person shut in a prison bores through the wall and gets out: the place of the wall that was broken is space, and there is no other space, and this space too does not arise from causes and conditions. Unconditioned dharmas are also like this: within conditioned dharmas there is first the unconditioned nature, and to break the conditioned is precisely the unconditioned. Therefore it is said that apart from the conditioned, the unconditioned is unfindable. These natures of the conditioned and the unconditioned are both neither joined nor dispersed, of one mark, namely the signless.

The Buddha speaks this matter because of worldly truth; it is not the highest meaning. Why? The Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: within the highest meaning there is no bodily action, verbal action, or mental action; the equality of conditioned and unconditioned dharmas is precisely the highest meaning.

Contemplating the equality of these conditioned and unconditioned dharmas, one also does not cling to a single mark. The bodhisattva does not move within the highest meaning and yet benefits beings; because of the power of skilful means, by means of all kinds of causes and conditions he teaches the Dharma for beings.

This chapter is titled the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa's commentary on the eighty-seventh chapter, "Nirvāṇa Is Like a Conjuration", composed by the noble Nāgārjuna and translated by the Tripiṭaka master Kumārajīva of the land of Kucha under the Later Qin; it is in the ninety-sixth fascicle.

Sūtra ①: Subhūti Asks How, Since Dharmas Are Equal and Nothing Is Done, the Bodhisattva Does Not Move within Equality and yet Practises the Bodhisattva's Business; the Buddha, through the Simile of a Conjured Person Making a Conjuration, Teaches That All Dharmas Are Conjuration, Opens Out the Six Kinds of Transformation, and Answers That Only Nirvāṇa with the Mark of Non-deception Is a Dharma That Is Not Transformation; Subhūti Makes a Difficulty from the Emptiness of Nature Being Precisely Nirvāṇa; the Buddha Answers That It Is for the Sake of Bodhisattvas Who Have Newly Aroused the Mind That He Distinguishes What Arises and Ceases as like a Conjuration and What Does Not Arise or Cease as Not like a Conjuration; and Finally Subhūti Asks How a Bodhisattva Who Has Newly Aroused the Mind Is to Be Taught to Know This Emptiness of Nature

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If dharmas are equal and there is nothing to be done, how can the bodhisattva-mahāsattva practising prajñāpāramitā not move within equality and yet practise the bodhisattva's business, by giving, kind speech, beneficial action, and shared endeavour?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! As you say: 「是諸法平等、無所作。」 tr. "These dharmas are equal and there is nothing to be done." If these beings themselves knew that dharmas are equal, the Buddha would not use his supernormal power; not moving within the equality of dharmas, he pulls beings out of the notion of I and self, and by emptiness delivers them from the birth and death of the five destinies, and so on up to the marks of a knower and a seer; he delivers them from the mark of form and so on up to the mark of consciousness, from the mark of the eye and so on up to the mark of the mind, from the mark of the earth element and so on up to the mark of the consciousness element; he makes them far from the marks of the conditioned nature and makes them obtain the marks of the unconditioned nature—the marks of the unconditioned nature are precisely emptiness.’

Subhūti said: ‘World-Honored One! By what emptiness are all dharmas empty?’

The Buddha said: ‘The bodhisattva is far from the marks of all dharmas; by this emptiness all dharmas are empty. Subhūti! What do you think? If there were a conjured person who in turn conjured a conjured person, would this conjuration have any real matter that is not empty?’

Subhūti said: ‘No! World-Honored One! This conjured person has no real matter that is not empty.’

‘These two things, emptiness and the conjured person, are neither joined nor dispersed; because of the emptiness of emptiness they are empty, and one should not discriminate: this is emptiness, this is conjuration. Why? These two things are equal; within emptiness they are unfindable, namely this emptiness and this conjuration. For what reason? Subhūti! Form is precisely conjuration; feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are precisely conjuration; and so on up to the omniscience of all kinds, which is precisely conjuration.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! If worldly dharmas are conjuration, then world-transcending dharmas—namely the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of supernormal power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven limbs of awakening, the eightfold noble path; the three gates of liberation; the ten powers of the Buddha, the four fearlessnesses, the four unobstructed knowledges, the eighteen unshared dharmas; together with the fruits of these dharmas; and also the noble and holy persons, namely the srota-āpanna, the sakṛdāgāmin, the anāgāmin, the arhat, the pratyekabuddha, the bodhisattva-mahāsattva, and the buddhas. World-Honored One! Are these dharmas also conjuration?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘All dharmas are conjuration. Among these dharmas there is the transformation of the śrāvaka dharmas, there is the transformation of the pratyekabuddha dharmas, there is the transformation of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva dharmas, there is the transformation of the dharmas of the buddhas, there is the transformation of the dharmas of the afflictions, there is the transformation of the dharmas of the causes and conditions of deeds. For these causes and conditions, Subhūti, all dharmas are conjuration.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! These severings of the afflictions—namely the fruit of the srota-āpanna, the fruit of the sakṛdāgāmin, the fruit of the anāgāmin, the fruit of the arhat, the pratyekabuddha; and the Buddha path, which severs the afflictions and their habitual residues—are they all transformation?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘If there is a dharma that has the mark of arising and ceasing, it is all transformation.’

Subhūti said: ‘World-Honored One! What dharma is not transformation?’

The Buddha said: ‘If a dharma is without arising and without ceasing, this is not transformation.’

Subhūti said: ‘What is it that is unarisen and unceasing and is not transformation?’

The Buddha said: ‘Nirvāṇa with the mark of non-deception: this dharma is not transformation.’

‘World-Honored One! As the Buddha himself has said: 「諸法平等，非聲聞作、非辟支佛作、非諸菩薩摩訶薩作、非諸佛作，有佛、無佛諸法性常空。」 tr. "Dharmas are equal; they are not made by śrāvakas, not made by pratyekabuddhas, not made by the bodhisattva-mahāsattvas, not made by the buddhas; whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, the nature of dharmas is ever empty." The emptiness of nature is precisely nirvāṇa; how is it said that the one dharma, nirvāṇa, is not like a conjuration?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Just so! Just so! Dharmas are equal; they are not made by śrāvakas, and so on up to: the emptiness of nature is precisely nirvāṇa. If a bodhisattva who has newly aroused the mind hears that all dharmas are ultimately empty of nature, and so on up to nirvāṇa too being all like a conjuration, his mind is startled and afraid; it is for the sake of these bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the mind that I distinguish and say that what arises and ceases is like a conjuration and what does not arise or cease is not like a conjuration.’

Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! How is a bodhisattva who has newly aroused the mind to be taught, so that he knows this emptiness of nature?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘Did dharmas exist from the first and now not exist?’

Treatise ①: The Treatise-Author Explains Why Subhūti Asks Again When the Buddha Had Already Answered; Equality without Doing and Benefiting with Doing; the Meaning of the Two Emptinesses; Being Far from the Marks of All Dharmas; Empty Because of the Emptiness of Emptiness; All Dharmas Are Conjuration and yet Have Distinctions; the Six Kinds of Transformation Item by Item; the Near Cause and the Far Cause by Which the Afflictions Give Birth to Wholesome Deeds; the Transformation of Deeds and the Six Destinies; Why It Does Not Speak Only of the Transformation of Deeds; Why Only Nirvāṇa Is Not like a Conjuration, and the Two Paths Whose Two Sayings Are without Fault; and Finally Explaining That, Since Dharmas Were Non-existent of Themselves Before and Are Non-existent Now Too, One Should Not Be Afraid

The treatise-author asks:

The Buddha has already answered this matter before; why does Subhūti now ask again? Namely: ‘World-Honored One! If dharmas are equal and there is nothing to be done, how can the bodhisattva not move within the equality of dharmas and yet greatly benefit beings?’

The treatise-author answers:

Because this matter is hard to understand, although it was spoken of before he asks again.

Again, because the sūtra is about to end, the Buddha said 「深空，凡夫、聖人所不能行、所不能到」 tr. "Deep emptiness, where ordinary people and sages cannot go and cannot reach"; therefore Subhūti knows that the mark of the equality of all dharmas is certainly empty; then how can the bodhisattva abide within this dharma and yet be able to benefit beings? The equal dharma has the mark of non-doing; benefiting has the mark of doing.

The Buddha approves Subhūti's meaning, and answers by turning back Subhūti's own question. He approves the equality Subhūti spoke of, and answers what he asked about benefiting beings, namely: if beings themselves knew that dharmas are equal and ultimately empty, the Buddha would have no power of kindness to exert. As when a patient knows of himself how to tend himself, the physician has no work.

Subhūti asks again: ‘If the real mark of all dharmas is ultimate emptiness and there is nothing it can do, why does the bodhisattva abide within it and benefit beings?’ If the bodhisattva used this equality to benefit beings, he would destroy the real mark!

The Buddha answers: ‘The bodhisattva does not benefit beings by the real mark of all dharmas; it is only because beings do not know ultimate emptiness that the bodhisattva teaches and instructs them so that they know it.’ The bodhisattva teaching and transforming beings is the siddhānta of counteraction; Subhūti makes his difficulty from within the siddhānta of the highest meaning, in which there is no benefit.

The Buddha answers: beings are inverted and do not know; the Buddha only breaks their inversion and does not say that this is real. Therefore the bodhisattva abides within this mark of equality, far from the mark of a self and so on up to the marks of a knower and a seer; this is called 「眾生空」 tr. "the emptiness of beings"; with this dharma, in which there is no I and self at all, he teaches and transforms beings.

Beings are of two kinds: first, those in whom craving predominates; second, those in whom views predominate. Those in whom craving predominates, on obtaining this dharma of non-self, give rise to a mind of weariness and parting and become free of desire, and have this thought: ‘If there is no self, what use are the other things!’ Those in whom views predominate, although they know the dharma of non-self, yet engage in idle discourse about form and the other dharmas as permanent, as impermanent, and so on; therefore next he speaks of the mark of form, the five aggregates, the twelve sense-fields, the eighteen elements, and so on up to being far from the marks of the conditioned nature and obtaining the marks of the unconditioned nature—the marks of the unconditioned nature are precisely emptiness. This is called the emptiness of dharmas.

The treatise-author asks:

Why does Subhūti ask this question: 「用何等空故一切法空？」 tr. "By what emptiness are all dharmas empty?"

The treatise-author answers:

Emptiness is of all kinds: as there is no water in fire and no fire in water, that too is emptiness; non-self within the five aggregates is also like this; sometimes there is the emptiness of beings, sometimes the emptiness of dharmas. Within the emptiness of dharmas, someone says: ‘Though dharmas are empty, they are not wholly empty; as within the emptiness of form the root atoms remain.’ Therefore Subhūti asks: 「以何等空故，一切法空？」 tr. "By what emptiness are all dharmas empty?"

The Buddha answers: 「以無所得畢竟空故，遠離一切相。」 tr. "By the ultimate emptiness of nothing to be attained, far from all marks." Therefore herein he speaks of the emptiness of beings and the emptiness of dharmas; because of these two emptinesses, there is no dharma that is not empty.

The treatise-author asks:

If so, why does it say here 「離一切法相」 tr. "far from the marks of all dharmas"?

The treatise-author answers:

All dharmas cannot be wholly destroyed; only leave their wrong recollection and imagining, and all dharmas are left of themselves. As when a person of supernormal power destroys the mark of form, stone walls do not obstruct him. As the Buddha said: 「汝等當於五眾中修正憶念，斷貪欲，得正解脫。」 tr. "You should cultivate right recollection within the five aggregates, sever greed and desire, and obtain right liberation." Therefore it speaks of being far from marks.

When Subhūti had heard these words, his mind was startled and doubtful: ‘How is it that all dharmas, whether great or small, have no root reality at all? Ordinary people are false, and it may be said that they have no real matter; but sages should have a little reality!’ Although Subhūti is an arhat and deeply values the dharmas of the Buddha, he also asks for the sake of bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the mind.

The Buddha knows Subhūti's mind and wishes to make this matter clear, so he speaks a simile and asks Subhūti in return: 「於汝意云何？如化人復作化，是化有本實不空不？」 tr. "What do you think? If a conjured person makes a further conjuration, does this conjuration have a root reality that is not empty, or not?"

The answer: 「不也！是化無有實事而不空者。空及化人二事，不合不散，皆空故，用空空故空。」 tr. "No! This conjuration has no real matter that is not empty. The two things, emptiness and the conjured person, are neither joined nor dispersed; because both are empty, they are empty by the emptiness of emptiness."

The treatise-author asks:

Why is it named 「空空故空」 tr. "empty because of the emptiness of emptiness"?

The treatise-author answers:

To refute the eighteen matters as real there are the eighteen emptinesses; to refute the dharma of transformation and emptiness in the minds of beings one uses the emptiness of emptiness.

Worldly people all know that the dharma of illusion and conjuration does not abide long and has nothing it can do, and therefore it is named empty; therefore it says: 「空空故空，不應分別是空、是化。」 tr. "Empty because of the emptiness of emptiness; one should not discriminate: this is emptiness, this is conjuration." Ordinary people know that transformation is empty and unreal, yet say that the other dharmas are real; therefore conjuration is used as a simile, so that they should know that the other dharmas are no different from conjuration. As for the way sages understand, conjuration cannot be used as a simile, because there is no discrimination. All dharmas are named the five aggregates; the Buddha says: 「色、受、想、行、識無不是化，以空故。」 tr. "Form, feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness are none of them other than conjuration, because they are empty."

Subhūti says to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! The dharmas of ordinary people are false and should be like a conjuration; are world-transcending dharmas also like transformation? Namely the four foundations of mindfulness and so on up to the eighteen unshared dharmas. If the four foundations of mindfulness and the other dharmas are like a conjuration because they arise from the side of causes and conditions, is the fruit of these dharmas—namely nirvāṇa—also like a conjuration? Are those who can give rise to this practice—namely the srota-āpanna and so on up to the Buddha—also like a conjuration?’

The Buddha answers: 「若有為、若無為及諸賢聖皆是化，畢竟空故。」 tr. "Whether conditioned or unconditioned, and all the noble and holy ones, are all conjuration, because they are ultimately empty." This meaning has been spoken of at length everywhere from the first chapter onward; therefore it says: 「一切法空，皆如化。」 tr. "All dharmas are empty, all like a conjuration."

The treatise-author asks:

If all dharmas are empty and like a conjuration, why are there the distinctions of all kinds of dharmas?

The treatise-author answers:

As with what the Buddha transforms and what other people transform: though unreal, they have the distinctions of all kinds of shapes and images. So too with the various things seen in a dream: people see good things and bad things in a dream, and some give rise to joy, some give rise to fear. As with images in a mirror: though they have no real matter, they follow the original form, and the images are fair or ugly. Dharmas too are like this: though empty, each has its own causes and conditions.

As the Buddha says herein: 「是化法中，有聲聞變化、有辟支佛變化、有菩薩變化、有佛變化、有煩惱變化、有業變化。是故一切法皆是變化。」 tr. "Within these dharmas of conjuration there is the śrāvaka transformation, there is the pratyekabuddha transformation, there is the bodhisattva transformation, there is the Buddha transformation, there is the transformation of the afflictions, there is the transformation of deeds. Therefore all dharmas are transformation."

The śrāvaka transformation is the thirty-seven limbs of the path, the four noble truths, and so on up to the three gates of liberation. Why? The śrāvaka abides within the keeping of the precepts, gathers his mind by meditative concentration and seeks nirvāṇa, and contemplates the inner and outer body as impure; this is called the foundation of mindfulness of the body. Such dharmas as these arise from vigorous effort for the sake of nirvāṇa. This dharma was from the first non-existent and now exists, and having existed returns to non-existence: this is the śrāvaka transformation.

The pratyekabuddha transformation is, namely, contemplating the twelve links of causes and conditions and other such dharmas. For what reason? Because the wisdom of the pratyekabuddha is deeper than that of the śrāvaka. The bodhisattva transformation is, namely, the six perfections, together with the two kinds of supernormal power: obtained as retribution and obtained through cultivation. The transformation of the dharmas of the Buddha is the thirty-two marks, the eighty minor marks, the ten powers, the omniscience of all kinds, and the other immeasurable dharmas of the Buddha. The transformation of the afflictions is the afflictions giving rise to all kinds of deeds: wholesome deeds, unwholesome deeds, indeterminate deeds; fixed deeds, unfixed deeds; wholesome deeds, unwholesome deeds, unmoving deeds; and other immeasurable deeds.

The treatise-author asks:

The afflictions are evil dharmas; how can they give rise to wholesome deeds and unmoving deeds?

The treatise-author answers:

There are two kinds of cause: first, the near cause; second, the far cause. A person has the mind of self, and for the sake of obtaining permanence and happiness in a later body he cultivates giving: this is the near cause. For the sake of leaving the decaying, vexed, and impure body of the desire realm he cultivates meditative concentration: this is the far cause.

Again, someone says: all ordinary people give rise to deeds because of coming together with the mind of self.

Someone says: there is no sixth consciousness that arises apart from the mind of self; it is by abiding in the mind of self that the sixth consciousness arises, and the mind of self is the root of all the afflictions.

The treatise-author asks:

The afflictions are a stained mind, a wholesome mind is a pure mind; stain and purity cannot come together; why is it said 「住我心中能起善業」 tr. "abiding in the mind of self one can give rise to wholesome deeds"?

The treatise-author answers:

It is not so! Every mind arises together with wisdom; within the mind of ignorance too there should be wisdom; wisdom and ignorance are mutually contrary dharmas, and yet they arise within one mind.

Purity and stain are also like this. Ordinary people have not yet obtained the holy path; how could they part from the mind of self and practise good? Within anger and the other afflictions one cannot practise good; because the mind of self is indeterminate and soft, therefore within the afflicted mind wholesome deeds and unmoving deeds arise, and there is no fault.

The transformation of deeds is the dharma that gives birth to all retribution, namely the six destinies: the retribution of evil deeds is the three evil destinies, the retribution of wholesome deeds is the three good destinies. Evil deeds are of the highest, the middle, and the lowest: the highest are the hells, the middle are the animals, the lowest are the hungry ghosts. Wholesome deeds are also of the highest, the middle, and the lowest: the highest are the gods, the middle are humans, the lowest are the asuras and the like. The highest wholesome deeds have all kinds of distinctions of light and heavy and so on, and the highest evil deeds also have differences of light and heavy. The sequence of light and heavy is as spoken of within the hells; the other destinies too are as spoken of in the chapter "Distinguishing Deeds".

The treatise-author asks:

If it exists from deeds, why is it said to be transformation?

The treatise-author answers:

Ordinary people see dharmas as not like a conjuration; sages, because they know the mark of ultimate emptiness, contemplate beings with the divine eye as all without end, without beginning, and without middle. As the master of conjuration makes transformations from a distant place; deeds too are like this, making the transformation of the present body from within the past world.

As a transformed thing can in all kinds of ways make people give rise to sorrow, joy, fear, and dread; the wise contemplate it as all without reality, while people perversely give rise to sorrow and joy, and such people are laughable! Deeds too are like this; therefore it speaks of the transformation of deeds.

The treatise-author asks:

All these transformations are made by deeds; why does it not speak only of the transformation of deeds?

The treatise-author answers:

Deeds are of two kinds: pure deeds and stained deeds. Pure deeds are the śrāvaka transformation and so on up to the Buddha transformation; stained deeds are the transformation of the afflictions.

Again, there are two kinds of deeds: the deeds of ordinary people and the deeds of sages. The deeds of ordinary people are the transformation of the afflictions; the deeds of sages are the srota-āpanna and so on up to the Buddha.

Therefore, although all are the transformation of deeds, it further makes broad distinctions, and there is no fault. 「是故，須菩提！當知一切法空皆如化。」 tr. "Therefore, Subhūti! Know that all dharmas are empty and all like a conjuration."

Subhūti asks again: ‘World-Honored One! These severings of the afflictions by the sages—namely the fruit of the srota-āpanna and so on up to the fruit of the arhat, the pratyekabuddha path, which severs all the afflictions and their habitual residues—are these severings all like a conjuration?’

Subhūti's meaning is: conditioned dharmas, because they are false and deceptive, are like transformation; unconditioned dharmas, because they are real and without making, should not be conjuration; therefore he asks.

The Buddha answers: 「一切法若生若滅皆如化。」 tr. "All dharmas, whether arising or ceasing, are like a conjuration." Why? Because from the first non-existent they now exist, and now existent they afterwards do not exist, they deceive and delude people's minds. The Buddha's meaning is: all dharmas born from causes and conditions are without self-nature; because they are without self-nature they are ultimately empty; because they are ultimately empty they are all like a conjuration.

Subhūti seeks the real mark of all dharmas and his mind has not yet come to rest; therefore he asks the Buddha: ‘What dharma is not like a conjuration?’ Subhūti's meaning is to say: there is one fixed, real dharma that is not like a conjuration, on which one may rely and seek it with vigour.

The Buddha answers: 「有。若法無生無滅，即是非化。」 tr. "There is. If a dharma is without arising and without ceasing, it is not conjuration." Which is it? It is, namely, nirvāṇa with the mark of non-deception. Because this dharma is without arising it is without ceasing; because it is without ceasing it cannot make people give rise to sorrow. The Buddha distinguishes that all conditioned dharmas are ultimately empty and all like a conjuration; only the one dharma, nirvāṇa, is not like a conjuration.

At that time Subhūti said to the Buddha: ‘As the Buddha has said: 「平等法，非佛所作，非聲聞、辟支佛所作，有佛、無佛諸法常住性空相。」 tr. "The equal dharma is not made by the Buddha, not made by śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas; whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, dharmas abide ever with the mark of the emptiness of nature." The mark of the emptiness of nature is precisely nirvāṇa.’

Subhūti's meaning is to say: deep within prajñāpāramitā, nirvāṇa too is empty, as is said everywhere in the earlier chapters; why does the Buddha now say 「唯一涅槃不如化」 tr. "only nirvāṇa alone is not like a conjuration"? Therefore he cites the Buddha's words to make his difficulty: ‘The real mark of all dharmas, the dharma of the emptiness of nature, abides ever; the buddhas only expound it for people. The emptiness of nature is precisely nirvāṇa. Why now, among the dharmas that arise and cease, do you separately say that nirvāṇa with the mark of non-deception is not like a conjuration?’

The Buddha answers: 「諸法平等常住，非賢聖所作。若新學菩薩聞則恐怖，是故分別說：生滅者如化，不生滅者不如化。」 tr. "Dharmas are equal and abide ever; they are not made by the noble and holy ones. If bodhisattvas new to the training hear this they are afraid; therefore I distinguish and say: what arises and ceases is like a conjuration; what does not arise or cease is not like a conjuration."

The treatise-author asks:

The Buddha alone is the one who does not deceive, and all people come to the Buddha wishing to seek the real matter; why does the Buddha now say that all dharmas are empty, or say that they are not all empty?

The treatise-author answers:

Herein the Buddha himself states the causes and conditions: 「為新發意菩薩故，說涅槃不如化。」 tr. "For the sake of bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the mind, I say that nirvāṇa is not like a conjuration."

The treatise-author asks:

May the marks of dharmas be turned for the sake of people?

The treatise-author answers:

Herein the Buddha says 「諸法相者性空」 tr. "the marks of dharmas are empty of nature"; how could the emptiness of nature be turned? When the Buddha first obtained this real mark of all dharmas, his mind tended only toward nirvāṇa and quiescent extinction. At that time the buddhas of the ten directions and the gods begged the Buddha not to enter nirvāṇa: ‘All beings are suffering and vexed; you should deliver them!’ The Buddha then accepted the request; the Buddha abides only in order to deliver beings. For this reason, knowing that there are beings who can be benefited, he speaks to them according to the matter.

Contemplating that conditioned dharmas are false and deceptive, nirvāṇa is real, unchanging and not different. There are bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the mind who cling to this nirvāṇa, and because of this clinging raise up the afflictions; in order to sever this clinging it is said that nirvāṇa is like a conjuration. If there is no clinging mind, at that time it is said that nirvāṇa is not like a conjuration.

Again, there are two paths: the path of the Small Vehicle and the path of the Great Vehicle. The discussion of the Small Vehicle takes nirvāṇa as real; the discussion of the Great Vehicle, because it enters deeply with keen wisdom, contemplates form and the other dharmas as all like nirvāṇa.

Therefore the two sayings are without fault.

Subhūti asks again: ‘How is a bodhisattva who has newly aroused the mind to be taught and transformed, so that he knows the emptiness of nature that is equal?’

Subhūti's meaning is to say: the emptiness of nature is the place of great fear for ordinary people; hearing that the emptiness of nature is without anything existent is like standing at the edge of a deep pit. Why? Because all those who have not yet obtained the path cling deeply with the mind of self, they fear the dharma of emptiness, and have this thought: ‘The Buddha teaches people to cultivate good conduct diligently, and in the end it returns into what is without anything existent!’ For this reason Subhūti asks: 「以何方便教誨是新發意者？」 tr. "By what skilful means are those who have newly aroused the mind to be taught?"

The Buddha answers: 「諸法先有今無耶？」 tr. "Did dharmas exist before and now not exist?"

The Buddha's meaning is: because those who have newly aroused the mind fear that afterwards there will be nothing, he says: 「諸法先有今無耶？」 tr. "Did dharmas exist before and now not exist?"

Subhūti himself knows clearly that dharmas were non-existent of themselves before and are non-existent now too; only because those who have newly aroused the mind are covered by the mind of the view of self do they become startled and afraid. To remove inversion and make them obtain true seeing, in the end nothing is lost; when one knows the real mark of the afflictions and inversions, namely the emptiness of nature, at that time there is no fear. Such dharmas as these should be taught to those who have newly aroused the mind: if dharmas existed before and became non-existent because of practising the path, one should be afraid; because from the first they are non-existent of themselves, one should not be afraid; it is only in order to remove inversion.