攝大乘論 第十分　果斷分

The three trainings — morality, concentration, wisdom — told, those were the "cultivation of the cause"; the next two chapters take up the "fruit." This chapter is called "the Fruit of Severance": the fruit disclosed once the two obstructions, afflictive and cognitive, are severed. It bears a name peculiar to the Great Vehicle — non-abiding nirvāṇa: neither sunk in birth-and-death (the ordinary being) nor hidden away in nirvāṇa (the two vehicles), but a great mastery that "abides in neither."

How is it established? On the two words "transformation of the basis." To grasp it, first grasp this: birth-and-death and nirvāṇa are not two places but two faces of one and the same "other-dependent nature" (the dependently-arisen flow of consciousness) — the face defiled by false grasping is "birth-and-death," the face disclosed and pure once free of defilement is "nirvāṇa" (just as in Chapter Three's "gold-in-ore simile": the gold lies in the ore; remove the ore and the gold shows — they were one all along). So the transformation of the basis is not swapping one thing for another, but, upon "one and the same" support, turning away from its defiled portion and turning to attain the pure. What the bodhisattva washes away is the defilement, not birth-and-death itself — which is why he can "cast off the defiled yet not forsake birth-and-death."

Asaṅga sets the turning out in six kinds, from before the grounds all the way to buddhahood; and the contrast of "inferior" and "vast" turning lays bare the root divide between the two vehicles and the bodhisattva: the śrāvaka penetrates only "the emptiness of the person," and so single-mindedly flees birth-and-death; the bodhisattva penetrates also "the emptiness of dharmas," and so, right within birth-and-death, sees it intrinsically quiescent — though he severs the defilement he does not flee, but stays within birth-and-death to deliver beings. One saves himself; the other rides his vow into birth-and-death and delivers all.

The four closing verses come to rest on that stirring line — "birth-and-death just is nirvāṇa": if toward birth-and-death and nirvāṇa one gives rise to "the cognition of their equality," seeing through to their being one same suchness, then and there nirvāṇa is found within the birth-and-death now seen through. So toward birth-and-death, neither forsaking nor not-forsaking; toward nirvāṇa, neither attaining nor not-attaining — abiding in neither side, and so sovereign over both.

How the six turnings unfold one by one, the faults and merits of the inferior and the vast, how the four verses turn line by line — you can follow these one stretch at a time. But you need not plunge into the details at once — it is enough to keep this one line: nirvāṇa is nowhere else, but within the birth-and-death now seen through; the bodhisattva neither flees birth-and-death nor hides in nirvāṇa.

The previous chapter treated "the higher wisdom" (wisdom raised one level further). This chapter goes on to ask: the "cessation at the fruit-stage" that this higher wisdom accomplishes — the merit that is cut off and accomplished once one has cultivated all the way to the fruit-stage — what does that look like? What follows runs straight along Asaṅga's words.

1. The opening statement: the fruit of what is cut off is the bodhisattva's non-abiding nirvāṇa

Asaṅga says: the excellence of the higher wisdom has already been treated; so how should we understand the excellence of "the fruit of severance" that it brings about?

The "cessation" spoken of here is precisely the bodhisattva's non-abiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhita-nirvāṇa) — that liberation which is neither bound fast by birth-and-death nor falls back into a stretch of dead stillness. And what is its mark? Its mark is the transformation of the basis (āśraya-parāvṛtti) that is the "shared support of the two" — namely, relinquishing defilement and yet not relinquishing birth-and-death. That is to say: the bodhisattva has relinquished defilement (every kind of contamination), and yet does not leave birth-and-death (does not duck out of saṃsāra, does not let go of beings) — these two sides are both set upon one and the same ground, and the "turning over" of that ground is the mark of non-abiding nirvāṇa.

A few terms here should be pointed out first:

• Birth-and-death (saṃsāra) refers to the "defiled portion" — the contaminated part — within "the other-dependent nature" (that side which arises in dependence on conditions);
• Nirvāṇa refers to the "pure portion" — the clean part — within "the other-dependent nature";
• the shared support of the two refers to the other-dependent nature itself, which runs through both the defiled and the pure portions (one and the same other-dependent, on which both defilement and purity rest).

As for "transformation of the basis," its sense is this: right upon this other-dependent nature, when "the counteragent" (the force that counters contamination — that is, non-discriminating wisdom) arises, then the defiled portion is "turned away and relinquished" and the pure portion is "turned toward and attained" — one side relinquished, one side attained, and this turning-over is what is called the transformation of the basis.

2. The transformation of the basis is, in brief, of six kinds

Asaṅga goes on to say: this "transformation of the basis," divided briefly, is of six kinds —

1. The transformation that diminishes [affliction's] strength and increases [practice's] capacity. How so? Because, by the force of excellent resolve, the "perfuming" of the heard Dharma (the residual force left by repeated saturation) is made to abide in the mind; and because, holding a sense of "shame" (conscience and dread of blame), some of the various afflictions only "manifest in a small measure" (rise up just a little) while others outright "do not manifest" (rise up no more) — affliction's strength is whittled down and practice's capacity is built up. That is why it is called the transformation that diminishes strength and increases capacity.

2. The transformation of penetration. This refers to the bodhisattvas who have already entered "the great grounds" (the stages from the first ground upward), able to abide present-and-clear toward "the real and the unreal," "the appearing and the non-appearing" (both seeing the appearing of the real, and not deceived by the unreal) — this stretch runs from the first ground all the way to the sixth ground.

3. The transformation in cultivation. This refers to the transformation at the stage of cultivation, where there are still "obstructions" (residual hindrances) remaining, so that "all marks" (the various appearing marks) still do not appear, while "the real" appears — this stretch runs up to the tenth ground.

4. The transformation of fully accomplished fruit. This refers to the stage where obstruction is forever cut off and exhausted, "all marks" do not appear at all, and "the utterly pure real" appears, and one gains mastery over "all marks" (their coming and going, showing and hiding, all at one's ease).

5. The lesser transformation. This refers to the śrāvakas and the like, who can only penetrate "the emptiness and selflessness of the person" (pudgala — that there is no real "self" to the person, the emptiness and selflessness of just this layer), turning their backs wholly on birth-and-death and relinquishing birth-and-death wholly (thinking only of getting away from saṃsāra in a hurry, never turning back).

6. The vast transformation. This refers to the bodhisattvas who, besides penetrating the person's emptiness, also penetrate "the emptiness and selflessness of dharmas" (that all dharmas too have no real own-nature, the emptiness and selflessness of this layer); just because of this, they see, right within birth-and-death, that it is of itself "quiescent" (birth-and-death is, just as it stands, quiescence), and so, although they have cut off defilement, they yet do not relinquish birth-and-death (do not duck out of saṃsāra, but stay on to deliver beings).

3. Question and answer: what is the fault of abiding in the lesser transformation? what is the merit of abiding in the vast transformation?

Asaṅga, by a question and an answer, lays open the height and lowness of these two transformations —

Question: if a bodhisattva stops at the "lesser transformation," what is the fault? Answer: there are three faults — first, he does not regard the matter of the benefit and ease of all sentient beings (he attends only to his own liberation and disregards beings); second, he goes against and oversteps all the dharmas a bodhisattva should practice (he does not walk the bodhisattva's road); third, he falls into the same liberation as that lesser vehicle (the small vehicle) (liberation is indeed gained, but it is that of the small vehicle). This is where the fault lies.

Question: if a bodhisattva abides in the "vast transformation," what then is the merit? Answer: the merit is this — within the dharmas of birth-and-death, taking his own "transformation of the basis" as his support, he thereby gains mastery (birth-and-death can do nothing to him); he is able, within all the destinies (the various places of going among the six paths), to display the bodies of every kind of sentient being, and within "the most excellent births" and "the three vehicles" (śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva), with every kind of skillful means for "taming" beings, to set the sentient beings he would deliver, one by one, upon the path (manifesting bodies according to kind and teaching according to capacity, leading beings onto the road). This is its merit.

4. Gathering it up with several verses

Asaṅga at last uses several verses to draw the doctrine of this chapter together once more. The gist of these verses is this —

The ordinary person veils the real and brings forth, wholly, only the false; the bodhisattvas relinquish the false and bring forth, wholly, only the real. Know that "the appearing and the non-appearing" correspond precisely to "the real meaning and the non-real meaning" (the ordinary person makes the non-real meaning appear and veils the real; the bodhisattva makes the real meaning appear and relinquishes the non-real). This "transformation of the basis" is, just as it stands, liberation — one may go forth at one's will, at ease and unobstructed.

Toward "birth-and-death" and "nirvāṇa," if one can give rise to "the wisdom of sameness" (no longer seeing these two sides as opposed, as cut clean apart), then at that very moment, by this, one realizes: birth-and-death is, just as it stands, nirvāṇa. Just because of this, toward birth-and-death one is "neither relinquishing nor not relinquishing" (one neither lets go and ducks out, nor is bound by it); likewise, toward nirvāṇa one is "neither attaining nor not attaining" (one does not go off to attain some separate nirvāṇa, nor is it that nothing is attained).

Scriptural and Commentarial Ground

The root treatise establishes transformation of the basis upon the other-dependent nature that supports both defilement and purity: the defiled portion is relinquished and the pure portion attained. The two ancient commentaries unfold the six transformations and the inferior and vast transformations; the exposition preserves this relation without collapsing birth-and-death and nirvana into a simple identity.

The previous three chapters dealt with "higher discipline, higher mind, higher wisdom" — the threefold training of discipline, concentration, and wisdom. That was the "cultivating of causes": how the bodhisattva walks this path step by step. From this chapter on, Asanga turns instead to the "fruit": what, finally, this path bears when walked to its end. The ninth of the ten points of excellence, "the fruit of severance" (彼果斷), speaks of the fruit that is "made manifest" once cultivation has cut off the obstructions.

Yet the very name "the fruit of severance" forces out, on the spot, a genuinely scalding question: cultivated to the end, what is it that is actually "cut off"? — and, more pressing still, this chapter gives that fruit a name distinctive to the Mahayana: non-abiding nirvana (apratisthita-nirvana). The moment the words "non-abiding" appear, the question deepens by a further layer: why is this nirvana called "non-abiding"? It abides neither in birth-and-death nor in nirvana — it neither sinks into birth-and-death the way ordinary beings do, nor retreats into the quiescence of nirvana the way the two vehicles do. So where, then, does it come to rest?

Asanga's answer hangs entirely on two words: transformation of the basis (轉依, asraya-paravrtti). The discussion below follows his words in four parts: first clarifying what "transformation of the basis" is, then showing how it unfolds into six kinds, how higher and lower transformations differ among the vehicles, and finally how the closing verses state the heart of the matter.

1. What is it that is "cut off"? — Transformation of the basis: one and the same basis, defilement and purity reversed

To untie the question "what, finally, is cut off?" one must first break a very common misunderstanding: the notion that nirvana lies somewhere outside birth-and-death, and that cultivation is moving house from the "birth-and-death" side over to the "nirvana" side. Asanga blocks this road in his very first words — he says that the bodhisattva's non-abiding nirvana has "the transformation of the basis as its mark, by way of abandoning defilement yet not abandoning birth-and-death." Bite down on these words: what is cut off is defilement (雜染), and not birth-and-death. This turns the whole direction of the question around.

How can it be so? The key lies here: birth-and-death and nirvana are not two places at all, but two faces of one and the same "other-dependent nature" (依他起性). The "other-dependent nature" is the dependently-arisen stream of consciousness — that stream in which all phenomena arise in dependence on their many conditions. This one and the same other-dependent nature, on its face that is defiled by deluded grasping, is called "birth-and-death" — it is its "defiled aspect"; and on its face that, freed of defilement, shows forth purity, is called "nirvana" — it is its "pure aspect." And what runs through and carries both faces is that one other-dependent nature itself — which Asanga calls "the basis of the two," that is, the other-dependent nature that "pervades both aspects." (This follows straight on from the third chapter's "those two aspects": there it was said that the other-dependent nature embraces both the defiled and the pure aspects; here, at the stage of the fruit, that very point is unfolded.)

With this foundation clear, "transformation of the basis" becomes easy to understand. Asanga puts it exactly: transformation of the basis is "when, on the other-dependent nature itself, the counteragent arises, the defiled aspect is turned away from [and discarded] and the pure aspect is turned toward [and attained]." Unpacked — when the power of the "counteragent" (that is, the non-discriminating wisdom taught in the ninth chapter) arises, then upon the one and the same other-dependent nature, its defiled aspect is "turned away from and discarded" and its pure aspect is "turned toward and attained." The underlying basis is not swapped out at all; the very same basis simply turns over a face: this defiled face sinks down, that pure face shows forth. This is the root meaning of the two words "transformation of the basis." (On this point the two commentaries of Vasubandhu and Asvabhava run along with the root treatise, nearly word for word the same — showing that on this much the two houses within the Xuanzang lineage hold no divergent reading.)

So, returning to the question: what, finally, is "cut off"? The answer is — what is cut off is the defiled aspect, not the stream of birth-and-death itself. Precisely because what is washed away is only the defilement and not birth-and-death, the bodhisattva can accomplish "abandoning defilement yet not abandoning birth-and-death": he remains within birth-and-death, but birth-and-death no longer defiles him. This is the first layer of "non-abiding" in "non-abiding nirvana" — not bound by birth-and-death, yet also not departing from birth-and-death.

2. The six transformations of the basis: a staircase from ordinary being to Buddha

To say only "turn away from defilement, turn toward purity" is still just the general heading. Asanga next unfolds "transformation of the basis," according to the depth of cultivation, into six kinds — which arrange precisely into a staircase running from the ordinary being all the way to the Buddha. The first four are a vertical progression —

First, the transformation that diminishes the power [of defilements] and increases the capacity [for good] (損力益能轉). This is still at the stage "before the grounds" (before entering the first ground). By the power of resolute conviction in the teaching, by abiding in the perfuming of having heard the Dharma, and together with a measure of "conscience and shame" (慚愧 — a sense of moral embarrassment, a willingness to reflect on oneself), one gradually brings it about that the various defilements "manifest only in part," and at length "do not manifest" — that is, one diminishes the power of the defilements and increases the capacity of wholesome states. The name "diminish-power-increase-capacity" means exactly this.

Second, the transformation of penetrating understanding (通達轉). Here the bodhisattva has already "entered the great grounds" (mounted the first ground) and begins to realize suchness directly. From the first ground through the sixth, the "real" shows forth bit by bit, and the "false" sinks away bit by bit — the real gradually manifests, the false gradually subsides.

Third, the transformation of cultivation (修習轉). Here, although subtle "obstruction" still remains, "all marks" no longer appear and the "real" is fully manifest; this transformation runs up to the tenth ground. Note: the treatise here says only "up to the tenth ground," and does not state from which ground the transformation of cultivation begins — so we too speak only to that, adding no line the original does not state.

Fourth, the transformation of the fulfillment of the fruit (果圓滿轉). At the "Buddha-ground," all obstructions are forever cut off, even "marks" no longer arise, the utterly pure real is fulfilled and manifest, and thereupon one is "sovereign over all marks" — gaining great mastery over all phenomena.

These first four are a vertical line running from ordinary being all the way up to the Buddha-ground. The remaining two, however, do not continue that vertical line upward — they are a crosswise contrast: setting the two vehicles and the bodhisattva side by side, comparing precisely "where, after cutting off [defilement], one comes to a halt."

3. Why "non-abiding"? — The inferior turning and the vast turning: the dividing line between the two vehicles and the bodhisattva

The fifth and sixth of these transformations of the basis are exactly where the second layer of "non-abiding" in "non-abiding nirvana" comes to rest: why will the bodhisattva not, like the two vehicles, plunge headlong into nirvana the moment defilement is cut off? The answer lies in this very comparison.

Fifth, the inferior turning (下劣轉) speaks of the sravaka (the two vehicles). Asanga says it plainly: the sravaka "can penetrate only the emptiness of the person" (the selflessness of the personal self) — he has seen through "the self" as empty, but has not gone on to see through "phenomena" (dharmas) as also empty. Having seen through "the emptiness of self," his revulsion from and renunciation of birth-and-death become extreme, and so he "single-mindedly turns his back on birth-and-death, single-mindedly abandons birth-and-death" — one-pointedly turning away from, casting off birth-and-death, hurrying to retreat into quiescence. This is a nirvana biased toward emptiness, hurrying to enter the still.

Sixth, the vast turning (廣大轉) speaks of the bodhisattva. Asanga says: the bodhisattva "also penetrates the selflessness of the emptiness of phenomena" — he has seen through not only "the self" as empty but "phenomena" too as empty. Precisely because of this twofold penetration, he can, right within birth-and-death itself, see that birth-and-death is from the very start quiescent ("right in birth-and-death he sees it as quiescent"). Since birth-and-death is, in its very substance, originally quiescent, he need not flee at all; and so "though he cuts off defilement he does not abandon [birth-and-death]" — what is cut off is defilement, yet he does not abandon birth-and-death; on the contrary, he abides within birth-and-death to liberate sentient beings. Here one must take especially exact aim: the bodhisattva's "not abandoning" is not that he cannot let go of it — it is that he need not, and will not, abandon it.

This contrast Asanga states with great weight, pointedly noting the import of both ends. If the bodhisattva too were to walk the road of the "inferior turning," there are three great faults: one, "he disregards the benefit and welfare of all sentient beings" — he forsakes living beings; two, "he transgresses against all the bodhisattva's Dharma" — he turns his back on the bodhisattva's own calling; three, "he shares the same liberation as the inferior vehicle" — he lowers his own fruition down to the level of the two vehicles. Conversely, to walk the "vast turning" carries great merit: he can "take his own transformation of the basis as his ground," gaining great mastery within the phenomena of birth-and-death; and he can "manifest the body of every kind of sentient being in every destiny" — appearing in manifold bodies throughout the six destinies, using "manifold skillful means of taming," taming sentient beings one by one and establishing them on the path. In a word: the inferior turning ferries only oneself across; the vast turning rides the vow into birth-and-death and ferries all beings widely.

At this point both layers of the words "non-abiding" have come fully to ground: not abiding in birth-and-death (defilement cut off, so neither defiled nor bound by birth-and-death), and not abiding in nirvana either (not, like the two vehicles, retreating into quiescence and casting aside sentient beings). Abiding at neither extreme — and so it is called "non-abiding nirvana."

4. Those few verses: birth-and-death is itself nirvana, neither abandoned nor not abandoned

Having finished the reasoning, Asanga, following the consistent format of the Mahayanasamgraha, uses several verses to gather up once more and point out the heart of this chapter. The prose lays the principle through; at the close, appended verses let one remember the skeleton — and here the verses press, line by line, ever closer to the core.

The first two lines first turn "transformation of the basis" into a contrasting picture: ordinary beings "cover over the real and single-mindedly manifest the false" — they have covered up the real, and only the false remains in their eyes; the bodhisattva "abandons the false and single-mindedly manifests the real" — having abandoned the false, he makes only the real show forth. What is called transformation of the basis is just this one "turning": this single turning-over between the real and the false, between the manifest and the unmanifest.

Then a line points out the worth, on the spot, of this turning: "Transformation of the basis is itself liberation, faring freely as one wishes" — this one turning is, on the spot, liberation, and from then on one can fare freely according to one's heart.

Next comes the most pivotal line of the whole chapter: "Toward birth-and-death and nirvana, when the wisdom of sameness (平等智) arises... birth-and-death is itself nirvana." What is called the "wisdom of sameness" is the wisdom that sees through that birth-and-death and nirvana are originally one and the same other-dependent nature, one and the same suchness — and the moment this wisdom arises, on the spot one realizes that "birth-and-death is itself nirvana." Nirvana is nowhere else; it is right here in this birth-and-death that you have, on the spot, seen through. Note well: this does not say that birth-and-death equals sinking down — it says that "birth-and-death seen through" is, in its very substance, nirvana.

Finally this point is gathered into two clean-cut lines. Toward birth-and-death, it is "neither abandoned, nor not abandoned": not bound by it, so one cannot say he "has not abandoned" it; yet he likewise remains within birth-and-death to liberate beings, not fearing it, so neither can one say he "has abandoned" it. Toward nirvana, it is "neither attained, nor not attained": he is already within nirvana from the start (birth-and-death in its very substance is itself nirvana), so one cannot say he "has attained" anything; yet he does not retreat into nirvana to enjoy it alone, so neither can one say he "has not attained" it. These four "neithers" — neither abandoned, nor not abandoned, neither attained, nor not attained — are precisely where the Mahayana's non-abiding nirvana ultimately rests: abiding neither in birth-and-death nor in nirvana, and so gaining great mastery at both ends.

Looking back over this chapter: what "the fruit of severance" cuts off was never birth-and-death, but only that layer of defilement covering over birth-and-death; and its entire mechanism is "transformation of the basis" — upon the one and the same other-dependent nature, turning away from the defiled aspect and turning toward and attaining the pure aspect, washing away the defilement, not the stream of birth-and-death itself. The six transformations of the basis arrange into a staircase from ordinary being to Buddha, while the crosswise contrast of the "inferior turning" and the "vast turning" lays bare further the root dividing line between the two vehicles and the bodhisattva: one hurries to flee birth-and-death, the other rides the vow and walks into birth-and-death. The final few verses gather all of this onto that line that shakes the heart — "birth-and-death is itself nirvana," toward birth-and-death neither abandoning nor not abandoning, toward nirvana neither attaining nor not attaining. This is the Mahayana's view of nirvana, not held in common with the two vehicles.

What is made manifest by cutting off the obstructions is nirvana — this is the "merit of cessation" of the stage of the fruit. But the stage of the fruit has another side as well: what is accomplished by the fulfillment of the merit of wisdom is the realm of the Buddha. So the next chapter, "the fruit of cognition," goes on to speak of this other side of the fruit — the "three bodies" accomplished through cutting off the obstructions: the self-nature body, the body of enjoyment, and the transformation body.

Later Reception

The last two verses of the Thirty Verses carry forward transformation of the basis and the final stage; the Cheng weishi lun later expands the four nirvanas and the two transformations. Within this treatise, division nine supplies the cognition that transforms, this division displays severance, and division eleven displays cognition at the fruit-stage.