解脫道論 白話全本 · 冊11

Five Aspirations and Five Fields of Method

At this point, a beginning meditator aspires to escape aging and death, to remove the cause of birth and death, to dispel the darkness of ignorance, to cut the cord of craving, and to attain noble wisdom. In five fields he should arouse a method: the method concerning the aggregates, the method concerning the sense bases, the method concerning the elements, the method concerning conditionality, and the method concerning the noble truths.

The word “aspires” occurs five times in this one sentence, and the five fields of method are named together here.

The Method concerning the Aggregates: Five Aggregates

Question: What is the method concerning the aggregates?

Answer: the five aggregates—the aggregate of form, the aggregate of feeling, the aggregate of perception, the aggregate of formations, and the aggregate of consciousness.

The Aggregate of Form: The Four Great Elements and Form Derived from Them

Question: What is the aggregate of form?

Answer: the four great elements and form derived from the four great elements.

The Four Great Elements

What are the four great elements? The earth element, water element, fire element, and wind element.

What is the earth element? The nature and characteristic of hardness: this is called the earth element.

What is the water element? Form consisting in the cohesion of moisture: this is called the water element.

What is the fire element? Form consisting in the ripening warmth of fire: this is called the fire element.

What is the wind element? Form consisting in the sustaining action of wind: this is called the wind element.

All four elements are introduced by “what is” and closed by “this is called.” Four questions and four answers follow one pattern.

The beginning meditator apprehends the hindrances in two ways—briefly and extensively. This is to be understood as in the earlier explanation of contemplating the four great elements.

The base text here reads “apprehends the hindrances.” The earlier passage to which “as explained in contemplating the four great elements” points has the same sentence but reads “apprehends the great elements.” The wording differs in the two places; it is retained here without emendation.

The List of Form Derived from the Four Great Elements

What is form derived from the four great elements? The eye base, ear base, nose base, tongue base, body base; the visible-form base, sound base, odor base, taste base; the female faculty, male faculty, life faculty; bodily intimation, verbal intimation; the form of the space element, lightness of form, softness of form, adaptability of form, growth of form, continuity of form, arising of form, aging of form, impermanence-bolus-food-domain form, and sleep form.

Counting the entries as divided by punctuation gives only twenty-four, although the final sentence of the passage reports “twenty-six derived forms.” The difference lies in the single heading “impermanence-bolus-food-domain form”: the explanations below treat it as three entries—impermanence of form, flavor as morsel food, and form as the domain of the elements. The received string is preserved without repunctuation or supplied entries.

Detailed Explanation of the Five Internal Bases

What is the eye base? Through it one sees visible form; it is resistant in relation to visible form, and eye-consciousness arises dependent on it. This is called the eye base.

Further, it rests in the fleshly mass of the eye, within three circles of the white and black eyeball and five layers of flesh, blood, wind, phlegm, and saliva. It is like half a mustard seed and as large as the head of a louse. It is produced by the first kamma, derived from the four great elements, and has fire as its predominant element. This purified form is called the eye base.

As the Venerable Śāriputra said: with eye-consciousness purified, one sees various forms, whether small or minute, as in the simile of the window branch.

What is the ear base? Through it one hears sound; it is resistant in relation to sound, and ear-consciousness arises dependent on it. This is called the ear base.

Further, at the border of red hairs in the two openings, it rests upon a membrane like the stem of a green bean. It is produced by the first kamma, has space as its predominant element, and is purified form derived from the four great elements. This is called the ear base.

What is the nose base? Through it one smells odor; it is resistant in relation to odor, and nose-consciousness arises dependent on it. This is called the nose base.

Further, in the threefold conjunction within the nostrils, it rests upon fine openings and has the shape of a kovidāra. It is produced by the first kamma, has wind as its predominant element, and is purified form derived from the four great elements. This is called the nose base.

What is the tongue base? Through it one knows taste; it is resistant in relation to taste, and tongue-consciousness arises dependent on it. This is called the tongue base.

Further, on the flesh of the tongue it rests across the breadth of two fingers, in the shape of an utpala flower. It is produced by the first kamma, has water as its predominant element, and is purified form derived from the four great elements. This is called the tongue base.

What is the body base? Through it one feels touch; it is resistant in relation to touch, and body-consciousness arises dependent on it. This is called the body base.

Further, excluding the hair of the head, body hair, nails, teeth, and the remaining parts that do not receive sensation, it extends throughout the receptive body. It is produced by the first kamma, has earth as its predominant element, and is purified form derived from the four great elements. This is called the body base.

The explanation of each internal base follows a fixed order. It first establishes the base by the object known, resistance, and the consciousness that arises dependent on it. It then explains it again through its bodily site, a simile for its shape and measure, production by the first kamma, the predominant element, and purified form. Among the five, only the eye base is followed by a separate statement attributed to the Venerable Śāriputra.

The External Bases, Two Sex Faculties, Life Faculty, and Two Intimations

What is visible is the visible-form base. What is resistant as sound is the sound base. What is resistant as odor is the odor base. What is resistant as taste is the taste base.

What is female is the female faculty; what is male is the male faculty.

Form produced by protective kamma is called the life faculty.

That by which formations are made manifest through the body, and which is therefore named an activity, is called bodily intimation. That by which formations are made manifest through speech, and which is therefore named an activity, is called verbal intimation.

The treatment of these four external bases is briefer than that of the five internal bases: it states only visibility or resistance, without again giving a site or measure. No “tangible base” is named here.

Detailed Explanation of the Twelve Items Beginning with the Space Element

The differentiation of form is called the space element.

The nature of lightness in form is called lightness of form; the nature of lightness in form is called softness of form; and the nature of adaptability in form is called adaptability of form. These three are the nature of bodily freedom from sluggishness.

In these three sentences, the base text gives “the nature of lightness in form” for both lightness and softness. Other witnesses read “the nature of softness” in the latter sentence. The base is followed here and the difference is recorded without alteration.

The gathering of the bases is called a cluster of form. A cluster of form is called continuity of form.

The earlier list has “growth of form,” while the explanation has “cluster of form.” The wording differs and is preserved without correction.

The bringing forth of form is called the arising of form. The ripening of form is called the aging of form. The breaking down of form is called the impermanence of form.

That through whose flavor beings are sustained is called flavor as morsel food.

Form arises dependent on the elements and the consciousness element; this is called form as the domain of the elements.

The sluggishness of the elements is called sleep form.

Total

These twenty-six derived forms, together with the four great elements, make thirty forms.

The detailed explanations yield twenty-six items, agreeing with the stated number. The preceding list yields only twenty-four unless “impermanence-bolus-food-domain form” is divided into three. Both the list and the explanations are preserved as received.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · General Outline of the Five Means and the Aggregate of Form · Vernacular · Summer 2026

The Difference between the Four Great Elements and Derived Form

Question: How do the four great elements differ from form derived from them?

Answer: the four great elements arise together in mutual dependence. Derived form arises dependent on the four great elements. Derived form is neither a support for the great elements nor a support for other derived form.

Just as three sticks can stand by leaning upon one another, so the four great elements should be understood. Just as the shadows of three sticks lean together, so derived form should be understood. This is called the difference.

Thirty Forms Understood in Five Ways

With regard to these thirty forms, the meditator can know what distinguishes them in five ways: through what brings them forth, through their clusters, through birth, through their varieties, and through their unity.

The following discussion first answers “what brings them forth” and then “clusters.” The other three follow later.

What Brings Them Forth: Six Groups

Question: How are they understood through what brings them forth?

Answer:

Nine forms are brought forth by kamma as condition: the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body bases; the female faculty, male faculty, life faculty, and domain form.

Two forms are brought forth by mind as condition: bodily and verbal intimation.

One form is brought forth by mind at a time: the sound base.

Four forms are brought forth by time, mind, and food as conditions: lightness, softness, adaptability, and sleep form.

Twelve forms are brought forth by four conditions: visible form, odor, taste, space-element form, cluster form, continuity, and the compressed string “arising-form-morsel-food-four-elements.”

Two forms have nothing that brings them forth: aging and impermanence of form.

Further, arising conditions aging, and aging conditions impermanence. In this way, what distinguishes form through its arising can be known.

The six announced numbers add to thirty, agreeing with the preceding passage. The fifth group announces twelve, but punctuation yields only seven expressions. Its final string must contain arising of form, morsel food, and four elements—six items—to reach twelve. The received string is retained without editorial repunctuation.

Clusters: Four Classes and Twenty-Seven Clusters

Question: How are forms understood through clusters?

Answer: nine clusters are brought forth by kamma, nine by mind, six by time, and three by food.

Nine Clusters Brought Forth by Kamma

Question: What are the nine clusters brought forth by kamma?

Answer: the eye-ten, ear-ten, nose-ten, tongue-ten, body-ten, female-faculty-ten, male-faculty-ten, domain-ten, and life-faculty-nine.

Detailed Explanation of the Eye-Ten

Question: What is the eye-ten?

Answer: eye-purity has the four elements as its domain. Again, dependent on the four elements, visible form, odor, taste, touch, the life faculty, and eye-purity: these ten qualities arise together and are inseparable. This is called a cluster—the eye-ten.

Its arising is birth, its ripening is aging, its breaking is impermanence, and its differentiation is the space element. These four qualities arise together with that cluster.

When this eye-ten reaches aging, a second eye-ten arises. These two tenfold clusters are called a cluster; their following one another is called continuity. These six qualities arise with them.

Again, when the second eye-ten reaches aging, a third eye-ten arises. The second and third eye-tens are called a cluster; only that quality follows, and this is called continuity.

The first ten breaks apart, the second ten ages, and the third ten arises: together they make one moment.

The interval between eye-tens arising in this way cannot be known. Because a moment is light and swift, it does not appear to worldly knowledge.

The meditator sees the continuity of the eye like the flow of a river or the continuity of a lamp flame. This is called the eye-ten.

In the same way, the ear-ten, nose-ten, tongue-ten, body-ten, female-faculty-ten, male-faculty-ten, and life-faculty-nine may be understood extensively.

Nine Clusters Brought Forth by Mind

Question: What are the nine clusters brought forth by mind?

Answer: “pure-eight meaning,” pure-bodily-intimation-nine, pure-verbal-intimation-seven, pure-lightness-nine, light-bodily-intimation-ten, light-verbal-intimation-eleven, pure-eye-nine, eye-bodily-intimation-ten, and eye-verbal-intimation-eleven.

The first item here is literally “pure-eight meaning.” The corresponding first item under time and food below is simply “pure-eight.” The word “meaning” is not further explained and is retained.

Detailed Explanation of the Pure-Eight

Question: What is the pure-eight brought forth by mind?

Answer: the four elements, the dependent element, visible form, odor, taste, and touch—these eight qualities arise together and are inseparable; “those ten” are named the pure-eight.

Its arising is birth, ripening is aging, breaking is impermanence, and differentiation is the space element. These four qualities arise following it.

When that pure-eight breaks, it arises together with a second mind. With the second pure-eight, the first pure form breaks and the second arises within one moment. This is not successively a cluster, because it is clustered with three arisings.

In the same way, the pure-lightness-nine and pure-eye-nine, and the six intimation clusters, are neither the first breaking nor the second arising and do not have one moment.

Why? One mind does not bring forth two intimations. The rest is as stated at first.

Six Clusters Brought Forth by Time

Question: What are the six clusters brought forth by time?

Answer: pure-eight, pure-sound-nine, pure-lightness-nine, light-sound-ten, pure-eye-nine, and eye-sound-ten. There are two external clusters: pure-eight and sound-nine.

Three Clusters Brought Forth by Food

Question: What are the three clusters brought forth by food?

Answer: pure-eight, pure-lightness-nine, and pure-eye-nine.

The continuity and meditation subject of clusters brought forth by time and food are to be known by resemblance; the rest is as first explained.

The “life-nine-heavenly cluster” is formed in the sense realm and at the site of kamma. Eight clusters live by longevity.

The nose, tongue, body, female and male faculties, the three beginning with lightness, and sleep have no “life-nine-heavenly cluster” in the form realm.

In nonperception and the Brahmā realm, everything enters the body, and by this it lives.

Thus forms are understood through clusters.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Differences among Forms, Their Arising, and Clusters · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Through Birth: How Many Forms Arise at the Moment of Rebirth

Question: How is form understood through birth?

Answer:

When a male or female enters the womb, thirty forms arise at that moment: domain-ten, body-ten, and either female-faculty-ten or male-faculty-ten.

For one who is neither male nor female, twenty forms arise: domain-ten and body-ten.

For one spontaneously born in the sense realm, with the faculties complete and entering as male or female, seventy forms arise at the moment of rebirth: domain-ten, body-ten, eye-ten, ear-ten, nose-ten, tongue-ten, and either female-faculty-ten or male-faculty-ten.

For a woman or man spontaneously born blind in a bad destination, sixty forms arise at rebirth, with eye-ten excluded.

Likewise, for one born deaf, sixty arise, with ear-ten excluded.

For one born blind and deaf, fifty arise, with eye-ten and ear-ten excluded.

For one spontaneously born in a bad destination with the other faculties complete but neither male nor female, and for people at the beginning of an eon, sixty forms arise at rebirth, with the sex faculty excluded.

For one blind and also neither male nor female, fifty arise, with eye-faculty-ten and the neither-male-nor-female faculty excluded.

For one deaf and neither male nor female, fifty likewise arise, with ear-ten and the neither-male-nor-female faculty excluded.

For one blind, deaf, and neither male nor female, forty arise: domain-ten, body-ten, nose-ten, and tongue-ten.

For a Brahmā, forty-nine forms arise at rebirth: domain-ten, eye-ten, ear-ten, body-ten, and life-faculty-nine.

For a being in the heaven of nonperception, nine forms arise at rebirth: life-faculty-nine.

Thus form is understood through birth.

Each reported total agrees with the sum of its listed clusters; each exclusion likewise agrees with the amount subtracted.

Through Varieties: Six Ways of Dividing All Form

Question: How is form understood through varieties?

Answer:

First Division: Gross and Subtle

All form is of two kinds: gross and subtle.

Here twelve forms are gross—the internal and external form bases—because they are resistant. The remaining eighteen are subtle because they are nonresistant.

Second Division: Internal and External

Again, form is of two kinds: internal and external.

Here five forms are internal—the five beginning with the eye base—because they have an objective domain. The remaining twenty-five are external because they have no objective domain.

Third Division: Faculties and Nonfaculties

Again, form is of two kinds: faculty and nonfaculty.

Here eight forms are called faculties—the five internal bases, female faculty, male faculty, and life faculty—because they serve as supports. The remaining twenty-two are nonfaculties because they do not serve as supports.

Fourth Division: Received, Unreceived, and Vulnerable

All form is of three kinds: received form, unreceived form, and vulnerable form.

Here nine forms are received: the eight faculties and domain form, because they are produced as the result of kamma.

Nine forms are unreceived: sound, bodily intimation, verbal-intimation form, lightness, softness, adaptability, aging, impermanence, and sleep, because they are not produced as the result of kamma.

The remaining twelve forms are vulnerable, in two senses.

Fifth Division: Visible and Resistant, Invisible and Resistant, Invisible and Nonresistant

Again, form is of three kinds: visible and resistant, nonvisible and resistant, and invisible and nonresistant.

Here one form is visible and resistant—the visible-form base—because it is seen and touched.

Eleven forms are invisible and resistant: the remaining gross forms apart from visible form, because they are not seen but can be touched.

Eighteen forms are invisible and nonresistant: the remaining subtle forms, because they can neither be seen nor touched.

Sixth Division: Intrinsic Form, Shaped Form, Characteristic Form, and Differentiating Form

All form is of four kinds: intrinsic form, shaped form, characteristic form, and differentiating form.

Here nineteen are intrinsic forms: the remaining twelve gross forms; the female, male, and life faculties; water-element-morsel-food-domain form; and sleep form, because they are ultimate.

The final item in the base is “sleep form.” The Korean witness reads “eye form,” but the critical edition records that reading without adopting it. The body therefore follows “sleep form.” The string “water-element-morsel-food-domain form” must contain three items—water element, morsel food, and domain form—to reach the announced nineteen.

Seven are shaped forms: bodily and verbal intimation, lightness, softness, adaptability, received form, and continuity-intrinsic-form, because they change.

Three are characteristic forms: arising, aging, and impermanence of form, because they are conditioned characteristics.

One is differentiating form: the space element, because it differentiates clusters.

Here intrinsic form becomes differentiating; the rest has no differentiation.

Thus form is distinguished through varieties.

In each of the six divisions, the reported branches add to thirty.

Through Unity: A Shared Series of Predicates

Question: How should form be distinguished as one kind?

Answer: all form is:

not a cause and not without cause, and not associated with a cause;

conditioned, constructed, and included in the world;

with influxes, bonds, knots, currents, peril, and hindrances; touched, with a destination, and defiled;

indeterminate, inactive, not a mental factor, and not associated with mind;

small, bound to the sense realm, uncertain, and not a vehicle;

not arising together with pleasure, not arising together with pain, and arising together with neither-pain-nor-pleasure;

not causing aggregation, and not not causing aggregation;

neither in training nor not in training;

not abandoned by seeing and not abandoned by cultivation.

Thus what distinguishes form through unity can be known. This is called the aggregate of form.

The final sentence closes the treatment of form. The remaining four aggregates follow.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Birth, Varieties, and Unity of Form · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Feeling: From One through Seven, Then to One Hundred Eight

Question: What is the aggregate of feeling?

Answer:

By characteristic, one feeling: it becomes one through the mind’s reception.

By locus, two feelings: bodily and mental feeling.

By intrinsic nature, three: pleasant, painful, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

By quality, four: wholesome, unwholesome, resultant, and functional feeling.

By faculty, five: pleasure, pain, joy, grief, and equanimity faculties.

By dark and bright, six: pleasant feeling with and without influxes, painful feeling with and without influxes, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling with and without influxes.

By door, seven: feeling born of eye-contact, ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, and contact with the mind element. Feeling born of contact with the mind-consciousness element.

The text announces seven but ends the sentence after the sixth. The seventh, feeling born of contact with the mind-consciousness element, begins a new sentence. Six plus one makes seven; the punctuation is retained without moving the item.

Extensively, there are one hundred eight feelings: six feelings arising dependent on craving, six dependent on renunciation, six grief-feelings dependent on craving, six grief-feelings dependent on renunciation, six equanimous feelings dependent on craving, and six equanimous feelings dependent on renunciation.

These six sixes make thirty-six; across three times there are three thirty-sixes. This is called the aggregate of feeling.

Six times six is thirty-six, and three times thirty-six is one hundred eight, agreeing with the announced total.

Perception: The Same Ladder, with Two Sets Each at Three and Four

Question: What is the aggregate of perception?

Answer:

By perception, one characteristic: the mind knows its object.

By dark and bright, two characteristics: inverted and uninverted perception.

By unwholesomeness, three perceptions: sensual desire, ill will, and harming.

By wholesomeness, three perceptions: renunciation, non-ill-will, and nonharming.

By the domain-door of not knowing meaning, four perceptions: perceiving the impure as pure, suffering as pleasure, impermanence as permanent, and nonself as self.

By the domain of knowing meaning, four perceptions: impurity, suffering, impermanence, and nonself.

By Vinaya, five perceptions: perceiving the impure as pure, the impure as impure, the pure as impure, the pure as pure, and doubt.

By object, six perceptions: visible form, sound, odor, taste, touch, and mental objects.

By door, seven: perception born of eye-contact, ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, contact with the mind element, and contact with the mind-consciousness element.

Thus the varieties of perception can be known. This is called the aggregate of perception.

At levels three and four, the perception list gives two sets each—unwholesome and wholesome threes, and unknowing and knowing fours. The other levels give one set. Its seven door-perceptions all remain in one sentence, unlike the seven feelings.

In “two characteristics by dark and bright,” the base has the character for “characteristic”; all four witnesses have “perception.” The base is retained and the variant recorded.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Aggregates of Feeling and Perception · Vernacular · Summer 2026

The Heading List

Question: What is the aggregate of formations?

Answer: contact, volition, initial application, sustained application, joy-mind, energy-mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, life faculty, restraint, non-greed, non-hatred, shame, moral dread, tranquility, desire, release, equanimity, attention, greed, hatred, ignorance, conceit, view, agitation-play, doubt, laziness, shamelessness, and fearlessness in wrongdoing. All mental factors apart from feeling and perception are the aggregate of formations.

Punctuation yields twenty-nine expressions, while the explanations below contain thirty-two items. Three strings are each divided in two: joy and mind, energy and mindfulness, agitation and remorse. In the last, the heading’s second character means “play,” while the explanation has “remorse.” The received forms are preserved without editorial segmentation or correction.

The Individual Explanations: One Meaning, One Simile, One Basis

Here:

Contact is the mind touching an object, like sunlight touching a wall; its place is perception.

Volition is movement of mind, like methods used in building a house; its basis is the door of activity.

Initial application is verbal activity, like reciting a scripture mentally; its basis is perception.

Sustained application is the mind examining an object, like following and reflecting on meaning; its basis is initial application.

Joy is the mind’s gladness, like a person obtaining something; its basis is elation.

Mind is the mind’s clarity, like making water clear with an incantation; its basis is the four factors of stream-entry.

Energy is the mind’s vigor, like a strong ox bearing a load; its basis is the eight fields of activity.

Mindfulness is the mind’s protection, like carrying a bowl of oil; its basis is the four establishments of mindfulness.

Concentration is the mind’s unification, like a lamp inside a hall; its basis is the four jhānas.

Wisdom is the mind’s seeing, like a person with eyes; its basis is the four noble truths.

The life faculty is an immaterial quality and a lifespan, like water for an utpala; its basis is name-and-form.

Restraint is the mind stopping and leaving evil, like one who cherishes life avoiding poison; its basis is practice for the four jhānas.

Non-greed is the mind relinquishing attachment, like release from debt; its basis is departure.

Non-hatred is the mind without anger, like cat skin; its basis is the four immeasurables.

Shame is the mind ashamed of evil, like loathing excrement and urine; its basis is reliance on oneself.

Moral dread is the mind fearing evil, like fearing an official superior; its basis is reliance on the world.

Tranquility is the ending of the mind’s disturbance, like a person hot in summer bathing in cold water; its basis is joy.

Desire is delight in doing good, like a faithful donor; its basis is the four bases of power.

Release is the bending of mind, like water flowing toward a depth; its basis is initial and sustained application.

Equanimity is the mind neither going nor coming, like a person holding scales; its basis is energy and the other qualities.

Attention makes a rule or quality arise in the mind, like a person holding a rudder; its basis is the wholesome and unwholesome.

Greed is the mind’s taking up, like a “my-bird”; its basis is delightful and pleasing form.

Hatred is the mind’s agitation, like an angry venomous snake; its basis is the ten fields of hatred.

Ignorance is the mind’s failure to see, like a blind person; its basis is the four inversions.

Conceit is the mind’s elevation, like two people wrestling; its basis is the three kinds.

View is the mind’s grasping, like blind people touching an elephant; its basis is hearing another’s voice and incorrect recollection.

Agitation is the mind’s unrest, like boiling water; its basis is rapid energy.

Remorse is the mind’s retreat, like delighting in impurity; its basis is doing evil and retreat from good.

Doubt is the mind not grasping one thing, like a person traveling to a distant country or standing between two roads; its basis is improper attention.

Laziness is the mind’s indolence, like a snake hidden in hibernation; its basis is the eight fields of indolence.

Shamelessness is the mind having no shame in doing evil, like a caṇḍāla; its basis is disrespect.

Fearlessness in wrongdoing is the mind having no fear in doing evil, like an evil king; its basis is the six kinds of disrespect.

This is called the aggregate of formations.

Two Irregularities in the Pattern

All thirty-two entries define a quality as a movement of mind, give a simile, and attach a basis. Only the first, contact, ends with “its place is perception” rather than “its basis.” The Ming witness adds the character for “basis.” The base is followed and the difference recorded.

The final phrase also has two forms: some entries begin it with “that,” others with “its.” Both are retained without being made uniform.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Qualities of the Aggregate of Formations · Vernacular · Summer 2026

The List of Consciousnesses

Question: What is the aggregate of consciousness?

Answer: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, the mind element, and the mind-consciousness element.

In the listing, the six Chinese characters rendered “mind element mind-consciousness element” are written continuously, with no break between them. Below, however, each is given its own entry and its own definition, and the whole list is called “seven consciousnesses”; they are therefore two, not one. The wording here follows the source characters as they stand and does not supply a comma.

Five Sense Consciousnesses: One Formula Five Times

Here—

Eye-consciousness is consciousness that arises dependent on the eye and conditioned by visible form; this is called eye-consciousness.

Ear-consciousness is consciousness that arises dependent on the ear and conditioned by sound; this is called ear-consciousness.

Nose-consciousness is consciousness that arises dependent on the nose and conditioned by odor; this is called nose-consciousness.

Tongue-consciousness is consciousness that arises dependent on the tongue and conditioned by taste; this is called tongue-consciousness.

Body-consciousness is consciousness that arises dependent on the body and conditioned by touch; this is called body-consciousness.

Mind Element and Mind-Consciousness Element

The mind element depends on a locus, five objects, and two objects; when consciousness arises before or after the five sense consciousnesses in sequence, this is called the mind element.

The clause “depends on a locus, five objects, and two objects” is not explained further by the treatise in this passage. Its only point of comparison is the statement below, “the mind element has five objects,” whose words “five objects” are the same as those here. As for “depends on two objects,” there is nowhere else in this passage against which to check it. The wording here follows the source characters as they stand.

The mind-consciousness element is the remaining mind after these six consciousnesses have been excluded; this is called the mind-consciousness element.

The relative distinctions among these seven consciousnesses can be known from three perspectives: from locus and object, from object, and from quality.

First Approach: Locus and Object

Question: How can they be known from locus and object?

Answer: the five sense consciousnesses have various loci and various objects; the mind element and the mind-consciousness element have one locus; the mind element has five objects, and the mind-consciousness element has six objects.

The five sense consciousnesses are internal qualities, have internal loci, and have external objects; the mind element is an internal quality, has an external locus, and has external objects; the mind-consciousness element is an internal quality, has an external locus, and has internal as well as external objects.

These three clauses run together in a single string in the base text, and each of the last two subjects is attached to the end of the preceding clause. Each of the three subjects must be matched with all three categories—quality, locus, and object. The symmetry in the “object” column can be checked against the immediately preceding sentence: it has just said that the mind element has five objects and the mind-consciousness element six, corresponding exactly to “external objects” here for the mind element—all five are external—and “internal as well as external objects” for the mind-consciousness element—five external plus one internal. The wording here follows the source characters as they stand and does not supply punctuation.

The six consciousnesses have an initial birth-locus and an initial birth-object—mind-consciousness element. At the moment of entering the body, the co-arising locus is first the birthplace; in formless existence there is no locus and all objects occur.

The three Chinese characters rendered “mind-consciousness element” here may belong to the preceding clause—as what “initial birth-object” refers to—or to the following clause—as the subject of the next sentence. The treatise itself does not divide the text. The wording here follows the source characters as they stand; both readings are recorded, and no punctuation is supplied.

Thus, from locus and object, they can be known.

Second Approach: Object

Question: How can they be known from object?

Answer: each of the five sense consciousnesses receives its own domain; they do not arise one by one in sequence, do not arise before or after one another, and do not arise scattered.

The five sense consciousnesses do not know all existing qualities, except at the first arising.

The mind element does not know all existing qualities, except the turning of mind.

The six consciousnesses do not establish bodily posture; it is rapidity that establishes it.

The six consciousnesses do not take up and sustain bodily action and verbal action; the six consciousnesses do not receive wholesome and unwholesome qualities; it is rapidity that takes them up and sustains them.

The six consciousnesses do not enter concentration and do not arise calmly; it is rapidity that enters concentration, while a later phase is calm.

The six consciousnesses do not end and are not born; ending occurs through either a later phase or that object, and birth occurs through the resultant mind-consciousness element.

The six consciousnesses do not sleep, do not wake, and do not see dreams; sleeping occurs through a later phase, waking through the turning of mind, and dreaming through rapidity.

Thus, from object, they can be known.

Third Approach: Quality

Question: How can they be known from quality?

Answer: the five sense consciousnesses have initial and sustained application, and the mind element has initial and sustained application; the mind-consciousness element may have initial and sustained application, may have no initial application and little sustained application, or may have neither initial nor sustained application.

The five sense consciousnesses are accompanied by equanimity; body-consciousness may be accompanied by pleasure or may be accompanied by pain; the mind-consciousness element may be accompanied by joy, may be accompanied by grief, or may be accompanied by equanimity.

The five sense consciousnesses are resultant; the mind element may be resultant or may be preparatory; the mind-consciousness element may be wholesome, may be unwholesome, may be resultant, or may be preparatory.

The six consciousnesses are without cause and without arising.

Worldly qualities have influxes and knots, bonds and currents, peril and hindrances, contact, grasping, and defilement; they are not abandoned through seeing and not abandoned through cultivation; they are neither aggregative nor nonaggregative; neither training nor not training; small and bound to the sense realm; uncertain and not a vehicle; the mind-consciousness element entirely breaks.

Thus, from quality, their relative distinctions can be known. This is called the aggregate of consciousness; this is called the five aggregates.

Two Irregularities in the Closures

Each of the three approaches closes with one sentence, but the three sentences are not uniform in form: the first closes, “Thus, from locus and object, they can be known”; the second closes, “Thus, from object, they can be known”; only the third reads, “Thus, from quality, their relative distinctions can be known,” with one additional source character, rendered here by “relative distinctions,” compared with the first two. The forms are transcribed as they stand and are not made uniform.

Again, the final sentence closes two matters at once: it closes both the aggregate of consciousness and the five aggregates. The answer on the five aggregates began with the aggregate of form and reaches its end here, so the treatise places two closing formulas in the same sentence. Both are transcribed as they stand.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Three Approaches to the Aggregate of Consciousness · Vernacular · Summer 2026

General Heading: Four Reexaminations

Further, the distinctions among these five aggregates can be known from four perspectives: phrase-meaning, characteristic, classification, and inclusion.

The account of the five aggregates began with the aggregate of form and has already explained each in turn. This passage adds no new name; it simply looks again, in four ways, at the five aggregates already established.

First Approach: Phrase-Meaning

Question: How by phrase-meaning?

Answer: form means manifestation; feeling means what can be felt; perception means knowing; formations mean making; consciousness means understanding; aggregate means a gathered class.

Thus they can be known by phrase-meaning.

The question asks for the phrase-meanings of the five aggregates, but the answer lists six items—one for each of the five aggregates, followed by an additional phrase-meaning for the word “aggregate” itself. It is recorded as it stands: this edition neither deletes the extra item nor explains why one more item appears.

Second Approach: Characteristic

Question: How by characteristic?

Answer:

Form has its own form as its characteristic; it is like seeing a thorn; its basis is the four great elements.

Feeling has feeling as its characteristic; it is like a grave leprous illness; its basis is contact.

Perception has holding a sign as its characteristic; it is like making an image; its basis is contact.

Formations have combination as their characteristic; they are like turning a wheel; their basis is contact.

Consciousness has knowing as its characteristic; it is like knowing a taste; its basis is name-and-form.

Thus they can be known by characteristic.

In this approach, all five items are presented in the same three-part form: one characteristic, one simile, and one basis; not one of the five lacks any part. Of the five bases, three are contact—feeling, perception, and formations are all connected with contact; form is connected with the four great elements, and consciousness with name-and-form. This is recorded as it stands.

Third Approach: Classification

Question: How by classification?

Answer: aggregates are classified in three ways—the five aggregates, the five clinging aggregates, and the five Dhamma aggregates.

In this connection: the five aggregates are all conditioned qualities. The five clinging aggregates are all qualities with influxes. The five Dhamma aggregates are the aggregates of virtue, concentration, wisdom, release, and knowledge-and-vision of release. Within these five clinging aggregates is what can be enjoyed.

Thus they can be known by classification.

Fourth Approach: Inclusion

Question: How by inclusion?

Answer: inclusion is of three kinds—inclusion by sense base, inclusion by element, and inclusion by truth.

The base text here reads, “three kinds of inclusion: sense-base inclusion, element-inclusion-truth, inclusion”; its punctuation attaches the word “truth” to the end of “element inclusion.” The treatise itself reports three kinds, and the following text discusses inclusion one by one in the order of sense base, element, and truth; thus the three names can be recovered in that order as given above. The original wording is recorded as it stands; this edition does not repunctuate it.

In this connection—

First, inclusion by sense base: the aggregate of form is included in eleven sense bases; the three aggregates (feeling, perception, and formations) are included in the Dhamma base; and the aggregate of consciousness is included in the mind base.

Next, inclusion by element: the aggregate of form is included in eleven elements; the three aggregates are included in the Dhamma element; and the aggregate of consciousness is included in seven elements. The aggregates of virtue, concentration, wisdom, and knowledge-and-vision of release are included in the Dhamma base and the Dhamma element; the aggregate of release is included in the Dhamma base and the mind base, and in the Dhamma element and the mind-consciousness element.

Then, inclusion by truth: the five aggregates may be included in truth or not included in truth. The five clinging aggregates are included in the truths of suffering and origin. The aggregates of virtue, concentration, and wisdom are included in the truth of the path; the aggregate of release is not included in truth; and the aggregate of knowledge-and-vision of release is included in the truth of suffering.

Four Alternatives concerning Aggregates and Truth

Some phenomena are included in the aggregates but not in the truths; some are included in the truths but not in the aggregates; some are included in both the aggregates and the truths; and some are included in neither the aggregates nor the truths.

In this connection:

Form not bound to a faculty, and fruits of recluseship associated with the path, are included in the aggregates but not in the truths.

Nibbāna is included in the truths but not in the aggregates.

The three truths are included in both the aggregates and the truths.

Regulation is included in neither the aggregates nor the truths.

Thus, through these approaches, one knows the method of distinguishing the aggregates. This is called the method concerning the aggregates. (The method concerning the aggregates is complete.)

One Irregular Closure

The first three approaches each close with a sentence of their own—the first says, “Thus it can be known by phrase-meaning”; the second, “Thus it can be known by characteristic”; and the third, “Thus it can be known by classification.” The fourth does not use this closing formula. Instead it says, “Thus, through these approaches, one knows the method of distinguishing the aggregates. This is called the method concerning the aggregates.”

After it comes a one-line interlinear note: “The method concerning the aggregates is complete.” It is recorded as it stands.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Phrase-Meaning, Characteristic, Classification, and Inclusion of the Five Aggregates · Vernacular · Summer 2026

The Listing of the Twelve Sense Bases

Question: What is the method concerning the sense bases?

Answer: the twelve sense bases—the eye base and form base, the ear base and sound base, the nose base and odor base, the tongue base and taste base, the body base and touch base, the mind base and Dhamma base.

At the point where they are listed, the six pairs of names run on one after another. There is no separator within each pair; separators occur only between pairs. The twelve items are arranged in these six pairs. The wording is recorded as it stands.

Five Faculty Bases: One Formula Five Times

In this matter—

The eye base is purity of the element; by it, form is seen.

The ear base is purity of the element; by it, sound is heard.

The nose base is purity of the element; by it, odor is smelled.

The tongue base is purity of the element; by it, taste is known.

The body base is purity of the element; by it, 細滑 is touched.

All five use the exact words “is purity of the element,” without changing a single character.

Five Object Bases, Mind, and Dhamma

The form base is the shape of the element and is the eye’s domain.

The sound base is the element’s resonance and is the ear’s domain.

The odor base is the element’s fragrance and is the nose’s domain.

The taste base is the element’s flavor and is the tongue’s domain.

The touch base is the hardness, softness, cold, and warmth of the earth, water, fire, and wind elements and is the body’s domain.

Among the five object bases, the form and odor entries do not begin with “is the element” but directly with “element”; all three of the others include “is.” The wording is recorded as it stands and is not made uniform.

The mind base is the seven consciousness elements.

The Dhamma base is the three immaterial aggregates, the eighteen subtle forms, and Nibbāna.

These are called the twelve sense bases.

General Heading: Five Ways of Reexamining Them

Further, these twelve sense bases can be known in their distinctions of higher and lower from five approaches: phrase-meaning, domain, condition, the arising of the interposed superior mind, and inclusion.

The base here reads, “Thus, through phrase-meaning, through domain through condition, through the arising of the interposed superior mind, and through inclusion.” There is no separator between “through domain” and “through condition.” The treatise itself reports five approaches, and what follows asks in sequence about phrase-meaning, domain, condition, the arising of the interposed superior mind, and inclusion. The five names can therefore be recovered in the order given above. The wording is recorded as it stands; this edition does not add punctuation.

First Approach: Viewed through Phrase-Meaning

Question: How is it viewed through phrase-meaning?

Answer: the eye means seeing; form, manifestation. The ear means hearing; sound, resonance. The nose means smelling; odor, fragrance. The tongue means tasting; taste has flavor as its meaning. The body means right sustaining; touch, that which can be touched. Mind means knowing; Dhamma, lifelessness.

“Base” means the door of immaterial qualities, a locus, and sustaining.

Thus, viewed through phrase-meaning, it can be known.

The question concerns the phrase-meanings of the twelve sense bases, yet after the twelve items the answer adds one more—the meaning of the word “base” itself. Nor does this additional item receive only one meaning; it receives three in succession. The wording is recorded as it stands and is not cut away.

Second Approach: Viewed through Domain

Question: How is it viewed through domain?

Answer: the eye and ear do not reach their domains; the nose, tongue, and body reach their domains; the mind has both kinds of domain.

Another account says: the ear reaches its domain. Why? Because only a nearby obstruction prevents sound from being heard, as stated concerning spells.

Another account says: the eye reaches its own domain. Why? Because it cannot see beyond a wall.

Thus, viewed through domain, it can be known.

The answer first establishes one judgment—the eye and ear do not reach their domains. It then immediately introduces two alternative accounts: one says the ear reaches its domain, and the other says the eye reaches its domain, each tied to a “why?” and a reason. The two alternatives take back, one by one, precisely the two faculties excluded by the answer. The treatise adjudicates neither account and proceeds directly to the closing formula. The wording is recorded as it stands.

Third Approach: Viewed through Conditions

Question: How is it viewed through conditions?

Answer: conditioned by the eye, form, light, and attention, eye-consciousness arises.

In this matter, the eye serves as a condition for eye-consciousness in four ways: first arising, support, faculty, and presence.

Form serves as a condition in three ways: first arising, object, and presence.

Light serves as a condition in three ways: first arising, support, and presence.

Attention serves as a condition in two ways: immediacy and nonpresence.

For all four items, the names of the conditions run straight into the next subject, without separators between them. The treatise reports its own number for each item—four, three, three, and two—and the run-on names are exactly as many in each case, so they can be recovered in the order shown above. The wording is recorded as it stands; this edition does not add punctuation.

Conditioned by the ear, sound, space, and attention, ear-consciousness can arise—using this distinction, the rest should be distinguished accordingly.

Conditioned by the nose, odor, wind, and attention, nose-consciousness can arise.

Conditioned by the tongue, taste, water, and attention, tongue-consciousness can arise.

Conditioned by the body, touch, and attention, body-consciousness can arise.

Conditioned by the mind, Dhamma, release, and attention, mind-consciousness can arise.

Four Kinds of Dhamma-Object

In this matter, mind is the later-phase mind, and Dhamma is the Dhamma-object. This is of four kinds:

The first kind is the six internal sense bases in the past, present, and future.

The second kind is the five external sense bases in the past, future, and present, excluding what is not a faculty-base.

The third kind is the Dhamma base.

The fourth kind is eleven conventional names—namely, beings, direction-and-time, offense, ascetic practice, all signs, nothingness, entry into concentration, cessation, jhāna, true reflection, and untrue reflection.

This is called the Dhamma-object.

Among the four kinds, the first gives the order “past, present, future,” while the second gives “past, future, present”; the order is not the same in the two places. The first and third kinds also lack the word “is” before them, while the second and fourth include it. The wording is recorded as it stands and is not made uniform.

Conditions for Mind-Consciousness

Collected mind is the mind’s following “brightness.” Attention is the turning at the mind door. Mind-consciousness is rapid mind.

In this matter, mind serves as a condition for mind-consciousness through the support condition; Dhamma through the object condition; release through the support condition; and attention through two conditions—immediacy condition and presence condition.

Thus, viewed through conditions, it can be known.

The two conditions for attention are earlier written as “immediacy and nonpresence,” but here as “immediacy condition and presence condition.” The wording differs in the two places: the earlier passage has “non-,” while this passage does not. The wording is recorded as it stands and is not corrected.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Phrase-Meaning, Domain, and Conditions of the Twelve Sense Bases · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Fourth Approach: Seven Minds at the Eye Door

Question: How is the arising of the interposed superior mind understood?

Answer: At the eye door, it takes three forms—apart from the interposition, there are superior, middling, and inferior.

In this matter, with a superior object the interposition forms seven minds, and there is immediate birth in Abi hell: beginning with the continuum mind, there are the turning-and-seeing mind, receiving mind, discriminating mind, initiating mind, rapid mind, and object mind.

The base text separates the items here with enumeration commas: from “continuum mind” onward it yields seven items. Yet when the following passage explains them one by one, the minds it names are turning mind, seeing mind, receiving mind, discriminating mind, initiating mind, rapid-running mind, and resultant object mind—exactly seven; the continuum mind is not among them (it is both the point of departure and the destination). The name “turning-and-seeing mind” in the heading list is divided in the step-by-step explanation into two minds, turning mind and seeing mind. The original wording is recorded here without supplying an enumeration comma.

The Seven Minds One by One

In this matter:

The continuum mind is the root mind in this existence, like drawing a thread.

Turning mind arises because the interposition of a visible object serves as a condition at the eye door. Through conditions the elements proceed in succession, and depending on a base, the continuum mind comes to arise.

In the sequence of the continuum mind: in order to see the visible object, it turns and gives rise to turning mind.

In the sequence of turning mind: depending on the eye, it turns as appropriate; seeing becomes present and seeing mind arises.

In the sequence of seeing mind: having seen, it now receives through the mind and receiving mind arises.

In the sequence of receiving mind: by virtue of receiving, it now discriminates and discriminating mind arises.

In the sequence of discriminating mind: by virtue of discrimination, it now initiates and initiating mind arises.

In the sequence of initiating mind: by virtue of initiation, the karmic mind runs rapidly.

In the sequence of rapid-running mind: by virtue of rapid running and without a method, the resultant mind for that object arises.

From there, it passes again into the continuum mind.

Simile: The King and the Mango

Question: What is the simile?

Answer: A king lies in his palace with the city gate closed. A bent woman rubs the king’s feet, the queen sits, ministers and palace attendants stand before the king, and a deaf man guards the gate, stationed beside it.

At that time, a gardener brings a mango and knocks at the gate. Hearing the sound, the king wakes. The king orders the stooped woman to go and open the gate. She obeys his command and gestures to the deaf man. The deaf man understands her meaning, opens the city gate, and sees the mango.

The knife-bearing woman receives the fruit and carries it inside, presenting it to the minister. The minister gives it to the queen. The queen washes it, places the ripe and the unripe separately, and then presents it to the king. The king receives it and eats it; when he has finished, he speaks of its merits and faults, then goes back to sleep.

Simile and What It Represents: Eleven Correspondences

As the king lies asleep, so the continuum mind is to be understood.

As the gardener brings a mango and knocks at the gate, so the interposition of a visible object at the eye door is to be understood.

As the king hears the sound, wakes, and tells the bent woman to open the gate, so the continuum mind’s arising through the conditioned succession of the elements and dependence on a base is to be understood.

As the bent woman gestures to the deaf man to open the gate, so turning mind is to be understood.

As the deaf man opens the gate and sees the mango, so eye consciousness is to be understood.

As the knife-bearing woman receives the fruit and carries it in to present it to the minister, so receiving-and-holding mind is to be understood.

As the minister takes the fruit and gives it to the queen, so discriminating mind is to be understood.

As the queen washes it, places the ripe and the unripe separately, and then gives it to the king, so initiating mind is to be understood.

As the king eats the fruit, so rapid mind is to be understood.

As the king, after eating it, speaks of the benefit of its merits and demerits, so the resultant mind for that object is to be understood.

As the king goes back to sleep, so the passage into the continuum mind is to be understood.

The first pass lists the sequence by names of minds; this pass matches each item with a simile. The two passes correspond item by item, without a single omission. Only two names change: the first has seeing mind, while this one has eye consciousness; the first has receiving mind, while this one has receiving-and-holding mind. They are recorded as they stand and are not made uniform here.

Middling and Inferior Objects and the Other Doors

In this matter, at the eye door, with the interposition of a middling object, immediately after rapid mind it passes into that existent mind. With the interposition of an inferior object, immediately after initiating mind it passes into the continuum mind.

The other doors are to be understood in the same way.

The Mind Door

At the mind door there is no object-interposition. With attention as condition and liberation as its course, an object is taken up at the mind door.

In this matter: with a superior object, three minds arise—the continuum mind, turning mind, and rapid mind. The object mind; with middling and inferior objects, two minds arise—turning mind and rapid mind.

The base text here reads, “With a superior object, three minds arise: the continuum mind, turning mind, and rapid mind. The object mind, with middling and inferior objects, two minds arise: turning mind and rapid mind.” Under this punctuation, the superior object has three minds and the middling and inferior objects have two, both agreeing with the numbers the text itself reports, while the three Chinese characters rendered “object mind” hang at the beginning of the next sentence. Whether they belong above (in which case the superior object has four minds and conflicts with the reported three) or below, the treatise does not itself decide. The original wording is recorded here, and both readings are preserved.

In this matter, a desirable or undesirable middling object is to be understood through diverse conditions and diverse receptions. Right and wrong attention condition diverse wholesome and unwholesome states.

Thus, the arising of the interposed superior mind is to be understood.

Fifth Approach: Inclusion

Question: How is it understood through inclusion?

Answer: Inclusion is of three kinds—aggregate-inclusion, element-inclusion, and truth-inclusion.

In this matter:

Ten bases are included in the form aggregate. The mind base is included in the consciousness aggregate. The Dhamma base, apart from Nibbāna, is included in the four aggregates.

Eleven bases are included in eleven elements. The mind base is included in seven elements.

The five internal bases are included in the truth of suffering. The five external bases are either included in the truth of suffering or not included in the truth of suffering. The mind base is either included in the truth of suffering or not included in the truth of suffering. The Dhamma base is either included in the four truths or not included in the truth of suffering.

Thus, inclusion is to be understood.

Thus, by these practices, a method is established for causing knowledge to arise regarding the bases. This is called the method concerning the bases. (The method concerning the bases is complete.)

A Passage to Read alongside the Preceding One

In the inclusion approach of the preceding method (the method concerning the aggregates), the answer also reads “three kinds of inclusion,” but its three names are punctuated as “base-inclusion, element-inclusion-truth, inclusion”; here, the three names in the same sentence pattern read “aggregate-inclusion, element-inclusion, truth-inclusion,” each separated by an enumeration comma, without any intermingling. Reading the two passages against each other provides one piece of support for restoring the three names in the preceding passage. They are recorded here as they stand.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Cognitive Sequence, Simile, and Inclusion · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Listing the Eighteen Elements

Question: What is the method concerning the elements?

Answer: The eighteen elements are the eye element, form element, and eye-consciousness element; the ear element, sound element, and ear-consciousness element; the nose element, odor element, and nose-consciousness element; the tongue element, taste element, and tongue-consciousness element; the body element, touch element, and body-consciousness element; and the mind element, dhamma element, and mind-consciousness element.

At the point where the list is presented, the three names in each of the six groups run together: no list separator appears within a group; separators appear only between groups. The eighteen items are arranged in six groups in this way. The twelve bases in the preceding method formed six groups of two names; here there are six groups of three. The wording is reproduced here exactly as it stands.

One Definition and an Abbreviation for the Rest

Here, the purity of the eye is the eye element, the visible shape of form is the form element, and eye-consciousness is the eye-consciousness element.

The rest may be known in the same way.

The treatise gives the explanation of only the three elements in the first group and passes over the other five groups in a single sentence. This is reproduced here as it stands.

Mind Element and Mind-Consciousness Element

At the five doors, there is the function of turning. The mind element receives the result.

The mind element belongs only to the dhamma base. After excluding the dhamma element and the six consciousness elements, the remaining mind is the mind-consciousness element.

The rest is as explained at length under the bases.

Threefold Affiliation of the Elements

Here:

Ten elements are included in the form aggregate. The dhamma element, excluding Nibbāna, is included in the four aggregates. Seven elements are included in the consciousness aggregate.

Eleven elements are included in the eleven bases. Seven elements are included in the mind base.

Eleven elements are included in the truth of suffering. Five elements are either included in the truth of suffering or included in no truth. The dhamma element is either included in the four truths or included in no truth. The mind-consciousness element is either included in the truth of suffering or included in no truth.

This threefold affiliation is listed in the order of aggregates, bases, and truths, but this passage does not give the heading “three kinds of inclusion”; each of the two preceding methods gives that heading before its inclusion section. This is reproduced here as it stands, without supplying the missing heading.

The Domain of Instruction

Question: What is the domain of instruction?

Answer: Only these dhammas—aggregates, bases, and elements—serve as the domain.

In the various ways of teaching dhamma, the characteristic of kinds gathered together is an aggregate, the characteristic of a teaching doorway is a base, and the characteristic of intrinsic nature is an element.

Again, the Blessed One teaches the truth of suffering through the aggregate doorway for people of sharp faculties, through the base doorway for people of middling faculties, and through the element doorway for people of dull faculties.

Again, for a person attached to the sign of name, form is stated briefly and name is distinguished, and aggregates are taught. For a person attached to the sign of form, form is distinguished and name is stated briefly, and bases are taught. For a person attached to the sign of name-and-form, name and form are distinguished, and elements are taught.

Again, speaking of the locus of intrinsic character is speaking of aggregates; speaking of the matter of a locus is speaking of bases; speaking of the arising of mind through that matter is speaking of elements.

Through such procedures comes the method of distinguishing the elements. This is called the method concerning the elements. (The method concerning the elements is complete.)

Two Structural Absences

Each of the two preceding methods gives an overall heading at the beginning of its reply: the method concerning the aggregates has “may be known as distinguished in four ways,” and the method concerning the bases has “may be known as distinguished in five ways.” Each first states the number of approaches, then lists their names, and afterward asks about each approach. This passage gives no such heading and does not state the number of approaches.

Again, in each of the two preceding methods, every approach closes itself with a sentence that begins with “thus, by” and ends with “it may be known.” This entire passage has no such closing formula; it has only the single sentence “thus the rest may be known.”

This is reproduced here as it stands, without supplying what is absent.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Eighteen Elements and the Domain of Instruction · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Forward and Reverse Contemplation

Question: What is the method concerning conditionality?

Answer: Ignorance conditions formations; formations condition consciousness; consciousness conditions name-and-form; name-and-form conditions the six bases; the six bases condition contact; contact conditions feeling; feeling conditions craving; craving conditions grasping; grasping conditions becoming; becoming conditions birth; birth conditions aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress. Thus the whole aggregate of suffering arises.

Only with the cessation of ignorance do formations cease; with the cessation of formations, consciousness then ceases; with the cessation of consciousness, name-and-form then ceases; with the cessation of name-and-form, the six bases then cease; with the cessation of the six bases, contact then ceases; with the cessation of contact, feeling then ceases; with the cessation of feeling, craving then ceases; with the cessation of craving, grasping then ceases; with the cessation of grasping, becoming then ceases; with the cessation of becoming, birth then ceases; with the cessation of birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress then cease. Thus the whole aggregate of suffering comes to cessation.

The forward and reverse series each contain eleven statements, corresponding statement by statement without a single omission. In the forward series, “conditions” stands between the two factors and carries the sequence onward. In the reverse series, “with” introduces the cessation of the preceding factor and “then” introduces the cessation of the following factor. They are reproduced here as they stand.

Definitions of Each Member

Here:

Ignorance is not knowing the four truths.

Formations are bodily, verbal, and mental karma.

Consciousness is the single mind-moment that enters the womb; it is called consciousness.

Name-and-form consists of the mental factors that arise from the mind in shared continuity, together with kalala form.

The six bases are the six internal bases.

Contact is the sixfold body of contact.

Feeling is the sixfold body of feeling.

Craving is the sixfold body of craving.

Grasping is the four kinds of grasping.

Becoming is karma capable of giving rise to sensual becoming, form becoming, and formless becoming.

Birth is the arising of aggregates within becoming.

Aging is the maturation of the aggregates.

Death is the dispersal and breakup of the aggregates.

In the heading list, the final factor is given as “aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress,” combined as a single name. Here, however, aging and death each receive their own definition. Thus the heading lists twelve factors while the individual definitions yield thirteen entries. This is reproduced as it stands; the two are not combined here.

Why Ignorance Conditions Formations and Why Birth Conditions Aging and Death

Question: Why does ignorance condition formations? Why does birth condition aging and death?

Answer: Here an ordinary person, without interval, because he does not know the four truths, delights through the long night in the five appropriated aggregates and clings to them as possessions of self. What he touches becomes for him: this is my possession; this is my body. Thus delight in becoming and attachment to delight combine into a thought of becoming. The latent tendency of that thought is not the sphere of wisdom. For the sake of obtaining becoming, that thought is formed and abides in becoming, like a seed in a well-cultivated field. Without that consciousness, becoming ceases. This is what is called ignorance conditioning formations.

The formations arisen from that ignorance intend toward becoming and cling to the signs and objects of becoming. They gather into a cluster and give rise to continuity in renewed becoming. Within becoming, consciousness follows the mind without being cut off. Therefore formations condition consciousness.

Just as removing the sun leaves no light to remain on the ground and grow, so removing consciousness leaves no name-and-form able to remain and grow without a basis, like reeds depending on one another and leaning against one another in turn. Therefore consciousness conditions name-and-form.

Dependent on a basis, the remaining factors of name arise together, and the mind base grows. Dependent on name, vitality, the four great elements, and timely food, the other five bases arise and grow—not through any other conditions. Therefore name-and-form conditions the six bases.

The remaining faculties, objects, and consciousness come together, and contact arises. Therefore the six bases condition contact.

Through contact, feeling occurs—painful, pleasant, or neither painful nor pleasant. Without what is contacted, feeling does not arise. Therefore contact conditions feeling.

When a deluded ordinary person experiences pleasure, he becomes attached and seeks it again. When he experiences pain, he seeks pleasure as its remedy. If he experiences neither-pain-nor-pleasure, he experiences equanimity. Therefore feeling conditions craving.

Because of thirsting craving, one urgently grasps the object of craving. Therefore craving conditions grasping.

That grasping performs an act that becomes the seed of becoming. Therefore grasping conditions becoming.

In accordance with the predominance of karma, one is born in the various destinations. Therefore becoming conditions birth.

Because aging and death are produced from birth, birth conditions aging and death.

The Simile of Grain and Seed: Ten Links

As grain is a condition for seed, so it should be understood that ignorance conditions formations.

As seed is a condition for sprout, so it should be understood that formations condition consciousness.

As sprout is a condition for leaf, so it should be understood that consciousness conditions name-and-form.

As leaf is a condition for branch, so it should be understood that name-and-form conditions the six bases.

As branch is a condition for tree, so it should be understood that the six bases condition contact.

As tree is a condition for flower, so it should be understood that contact conditions feeling.

As flower is a condition for sap, so it should be understood that feeling conditions craving.

As sap is a condition for rice, so it should be understood that craving conditions grasping.

As rice is a condition for seed, so it should be understood that grasping conditions becoming.

As seed is a condition for sprout, so it should be understood that becoming conditions birth.

As various continuities arise in this way, their former limit cannot be known, and their later limit also cannot be known. In this way there arises a continuity of conditions beginning with ignorance; its former limit cannot be known, and its later limit also cannot be known.

Among the ten links, the second says “as seed is a condition for sprout,” and the tenth again says “as seed is a condition for sprout”—the same sentence appears twice within one passage. The preceding sentence has already reached rice as a condition for seed; here seed again becomes a condition for sprout, so the series joins back onto itself. It is reproduced here as it stands.

What Conditions Ignorance?

Question: What conditions ignorance?

Answer: Ignorance itself is the condition for ignorance. The latent tendency conditions entanglement, and entanglement conditions the latent tendency; the initial is initial, and the later is later.

Again, all defilements become conditions for ignorance. As the Buddha said: from the accumulation of influxes arises the accumulation of ignorance.

The Twelve Conditions in One Moment

Again, consider a single mental event: seeing visible form with the eye, a deluded person gives rise to craving.

At that time, the mind is deluded regarding purity and pleasure; this is called ignorance.

Attached intention is formation conditioned by ignorance.

The attached mind is consciousness conditioned by formation.

The mental factors associated with knowing, together with the form produced by that mind, are name-and-form conditioned by consciousness.

Joy arises from feeling. Through the condition of joy and the condition of delight in visible form, the faculties become purified. This is name-and-form conditioning the six bases.

Ignorant contact is conditioned by the six bases; it contacts joy, and contact conditions desire as feeling.

Feeling conditions craving; through attachment, purity and pleasure are grasped.

This is craving conditioning grasping; attachment and intention are the condition for grasping.

When that state arises, this is birth conditioned by becoming.

After it has remained, that is aging; when the thought disperses and breaks apart, that is death.

In this way, the twelve conditions are completed in a single moment.

The earlier account of the twelve conditions speaks in terms of continuity, with both its former and later limits unknowable; here the twelve conditions are completed within a single moment. The two accounts are placed side by side, and at this point the treatise offers no reconciliation. They are reproduced here as they stand.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Sequential and Momentary Conditionality · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Twelve Questions in One Breath

Question: Of the twelve factors of conditionality, how many are called defilements? How many are called karma? How many are results? How many are past? How many are future? How many are present? How many are conditions? How many have arisen? What is conditionality? What is a conditioned dhamma? What is the difference between these two? What is the defiled nature of conditionality?

Within a single question, twelve interrogatives follow one after another: eight ask “how many,” two ask “what,” and the final two each take a different form. They are reproduced here as they stand.

Defilement, Karma, and Result

Answer: Three are defilements—ignorance, craving, and grasping. Two are karma—formations and becoming. The remaining seven are results.

Here, what is called defilement becomes a cause and gives rise to later becoming, like a painter’s pigments; the object does not arise by itself, like the colored object painted by the painter; defilements cause it to arise, and with conditions it comes into being, like colors of various kinds.

Three Times

Two are past—ignorance and formations. Two are future—birth and aging-and-death. The remaining eight are present.

By thus taking up the three times, the beginningless continuity of birth and death can be known.

Two Things That Should Not Be Said

It should not be said that the twelve divisions are conditionality; nor should it be said that conditionality exists apart from the twelvefold conditionality.

What Is Conditionality, and What Is a Conditioned Dhamma?

What, then, is conditionality? Because these twelve dhammas, in their sequence, turn one after another as causes, this is called conditionality.

What brings the twelve divisions of conditionality into arising is an arisen dhamma.

What is the difference between these two? Conditionality is distinct from formations; it is not accomplished and cannot be spoken of. It should not be said to be either conditioned or unconditioned. The formation that gives rise to a conditioned dhamma has become accomplished and conditioned. Herein lies the difference between these two dhammas.

What Is the Defiled Nature of Conditionality?

What is the defiled nature of conditionality? Through this activity and this characteristic, ignorance and formation come to be. Regarding that activity, that characteristic, and that nature, the noble person does not depend on another but penetrates them with the light of wisdom. All of this is called the defiled nature of conditionality.

Master Heading: Seven Approaches

Further, this conditionality can be known through seven approaches: through three junctures, through four summaries, through twenty modes, through the wheel, through drawing, through analysis, and through mutual inclusion.

The seven names are separated one by one with enumeration commas, with none run together; the treatise itself reports seven approaches, and the list yields exactly seven. They are reproduced here as they stand.

Three Junctures

What are the three junctures?

Between formations and consciousness is the first juncture; between feeling and craving is the second; between becoming and birth is the third.

Past karma and defilements condition present results: this is the first juncture. Present results condition present defilements: this is the second. Present defilements condition future results: this is the third.

The first and third are cause-result junctures and becoming junctures; the second is a result-cause juncture and not a becoming juncture.

Becoming Juncture

What does “becoming juncture” mean?

Answer: Immediately after the end, before the aggregates, bases, and elements have been crossed beyond, because initial karma and defilements serve as conditions, there is birth again among the various destinations—this is called the becoming-birth juncture.

The question says “What does ‘becoming juncture’ mean?” while the close says “this is called the becoming-birth juncture.” The name in the question and the name at the close differ. They are reproduced here as they stand and are not made to agree.

Signs of Death

Question: How does this come about?

Answer: An ordinary person who, in association with ignorance and craving, has made meritorious or harmful karma is at this time said to be dying.

Suffering through death, he lies where the dead are placed. He sees neither this world nor the next; having lost mindfulness, he cannot recollect. At this time he experiences the suffering of birth. Intention and knowledge decline; the body’s vigor declines; the faculties gradually fail. From the upper or lower part of the body, the life faculty is lost and moisture is lost, like a palmyra leaf drying.

Four Dhammas: Karma, Karma-Sign, Destination, and Destination-Sign

At this time, as in sleep and dream, through leaf four dhammas arise—karma, karma-sign, destination, and destination-sign.

What is karma? It is what he has done, whether meritorious or unmeritorious, heavy or light, much or little. As though near to what he first did, that karma arises.

What is a karma-sign? At the place where and on the support by which he performed karma, there arises a companion to the karma. When the karma-sign arises, at that time it may be as though he were performing the karma in the present.

What is destination? With merit as condition, a good destination arises; with nonmerit as condition, a bad destination arises.

What is called a destination-sign is this: when entering the womb, birth is obtained through the conjunction of three things; for spontaneous birth, one is born in dependence on a particular place, and the place where he will be born arises—perhaps a palace or a seat, a mountain or a tree or a river. It arises in accordance with his destination and the sign grasped together with it. At this time he goes there, perhaps leaning, sitting, or lying down; he sees it or grasps it.

Final Mind and Resultant Mind

At this time, the karma first performed and its karma-sign, or the destination and its destination-sign, serve as the object. Rapid mind manifests, arises, and ceases; when death comes, immediately after rapid mind, it ceases together with the life faculty and the end is complete.

Immediately after the final mind, in sequence, rapid mind arises, taking only that karma, that karma-sign, the destination, or the grasped sign as its object.

The resultant mind crosses over there into later becoming, as one lamp lights another lamp, as fire comes forth from a fire-jewel. That juncture-mind arises and is therefore like a companion.

Form at Conception

In the mother’s womb, dependent on the parents’ impure substances, thirty forms produced by karma arise; there are ten for the base and body.

For him, at the aging moment, across the mindless juncture, forty-six forms arise—thirty produced by karma, two forms produced by the food juncture, and eight forms across the mindless juncture.

At the aging moment together with the second mind, fifty-four forms arise—thirty produced by karma, three forms produced at the time of food, and eight.

Thus they arise: consciousness conditions name-and-form, and name-and-form conditions consciousness. In this way the becoming juncture is formed. Here it can be known through three junctures.

The three numbers—thirty, forty-six, and fifty-four—increase in sequence, yet if the items listed beneath them are added one by one according to the punctuation of the base text, thirty plus two plus eight makes forty, although the total is stated as forty-six; thirty plus three plus eight makes forty-one, although the total is stated as fifty-four. Neither sum agrees. The treatise gives no method of calculation. They are reproduced here as they stand; this edition neither calculates on the text’s behalf nor adds punctuation on its behalf.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Classifications, Junctures, and Rebirth · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Second Approach: Four Summaries

Question: How is it viewed through four summaries?

Answer: Ignorance and formations are summarized under past karma and defilements; consciousness, name-and-form, the six bases, contact, and feeling are summarized under present result; craving, grasping, and becoming are summarized under present karma and defilements; birth and aging-and-death are summarized under future result.

In this way, it can be understood through four summaries.

Counting the items in the four groups one by one gives two, five, three, and two, making twelve, matching the number of the twelve links. This is recorded as it stands.

Third Approach: Twenty Modes

Question: How is it viewed through twenty modes?

Answer:

Taking past ignorance together with craving and grasping, they become what is taken under the character of defilement;

Taking past formations together with becoming, they become what is taken under the character of karma;

Taking present consciousness, name-and-form, the six bases, contact, and feeling together with birth and aging-and-death, they become what is taken under the character of result;

Taking present craving and grasping, they become what is taken under the character of defilement;

Taking present becoming together with formations, they become what is taken under the character of karma;

Taking future birth and aging-and-death together with consciousness, name-and-form, the six bases, contact, and feeling, they become what is taken.

These twenty-four factors become twenty by taking their accomplishment.

The treatise itself reports twenty-four factors, but counting the items listed in the base text one by one—ignorance, craving, grasping; formations, becoming; consciousness, name-and-form, the six bases, contact, feeling, birth, aging-and-death; craving, grasping; becoming, formations; birth, aging-and-death, consciousness, name-and-form, the six bases, contact, feeling—gives twenty-three. Further, the treatise does not explain how twenty-four become twenty by “taking their accomplishment.” This is recorded as it stands; this edition does not calculate it or add punctuation on the text’s behalf.

Three Groups Stated in the Abhidhamma

As stated in the Abhidhamma:

In initial karmic becoming, delusion is ignorance, gathering is formation, attachment is craving, seeking is grasping, and intention is becoming—these five factors belong to becoming in this life, and the karma first performed is their condition.

Not comprehending the entry of consciousness, delusion is ignorance, gathering is formation, attachment is craving, seeking is grasping, and intention is becoming—these five factors belong to this karmic becoming and are the condition for the time of future birth; when consciousness crosses at the time of future birth, name-and-form is purified.

What is contacted by a base is contact, and taking is feeling—these two factors belong to becoming at future birth, and the karma performed here is their condition.

In this way, it can be understood through twenty modes.

The numbers in the three groups are five, five, and two, making twelve. This is recorded as it stands.

Fourth Approach: Wheel

How is it known through the wheel?

Ignorance conditions formations, formations condition consciousness, and so on until birth conditions aging-and-death—in this way, the entire aggregate of suffering arises.

Not knowing this entire aggregate of suffering is called ignorance.

As for ignorance conditioning formations, it is again so—in this way, it can be understood through the wheel.

Fifth Approach: Drawing

What is meant by drawing?

There are two drawings, namely, beginning from ignorance and beginning from aging-and-death. On this point—

Question: What begins from ignorance?

Answer: It is the sequence of exposition.

What begins from aging-and-death? It is the sequence of crossing.

Further: beginning from ignorance is knowing toward the future while facing the boundary of becoming. Beginning from aging-and-death is knowing toward the past while facing the initial boundary.

In this way, it can be understood through drawing.

The same pair of drawings first receives one explanation (sequence of exposition / sequence of crossing), then receives another explanation (facing the future / facing the past). The two explanations stand together; the treatise does not reconcile them. This is recorded as it stands.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Four Summaries, Twenty Modes, Wheel, and Drawing · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Sixth Approach: Analysis

Question: How is it to be viewed through analysis?

Answer: There are two kinds of conditionality—mundane conditionality and supramundane conditionality.

Here, what begins with ignorance is mundane conditionality.

The heading reads “mundane conditionality” (世間因緣), while here it reads “mundane conditionality” (世因緣): one name in two forms. Both are reproduced here as they stand.

Supramundane Conditionality: Eleven Items

Question: What is supramundane conditionality?

Answer: Suffering depends on suffering; confidence depends on confidence; joy depends on joy; exhilaration depends on exhilaration; repose depends on repose; pleasure depends on pleasure; concentration depends on concentration; knowledge-and-vision according to reality depends on knowledge-and-vision according to reality; disenchantment depends on disenchantment; dispassion depends on dispassion; liberation depends on knowledge of cessation through liberation—this is called supramundane conditionality.

There are eleven items. In ten of them, the same name appears twice, with “depends on” between the two occurrences. Only the last reads “liberation depends on knowledge of cessation through liberation,” with the two extra characters “cessation-knowledge” in its latter half. It is reproduced here as it stands and is not made uniform with the others.

Four Kinds of Condition

A further four kinds of condition are stated: karma-and-defilement as cause, seed as cause, produced activity, and shared karma as cause.

Question: What is karma-and-defilement as cause? Answer: What begins with ignorance.

What is seed as cause? It is like the continuity of seed and shoot.

What is produced activity? It is like transformed form.

What is shared karma as cause? It is like the earth, Snow Mountain, the sea, the sun, and the moon.

The four names correspond one by one to the four questions and four answers; not a single item is missing. They are reproduced here as they stand.

One Alternative Account and One Verse

Another says: It is not that shared karma is the cause. Rather, for material and mental dhammas, season is the cause; there is no shared karma.

As the Blessed One spoke in verse:

Karma is not shared with another; it is a store that another cannot steal.

The merit a person makes brings that person its wholesome result.

Thus, analysis can be known.

The verse follows immediately after that alternative account, with no separate marker between them. Does the alternative account cite the verse as evidence for itself, or does the treatise’s author cite it after reporting the alternative? The treatise gives no marker. This is reproduced as it stands, without deciding the attribution.

Seventh Approach: Inclusion

Question: How is it to be viewed through inclusion?

Answer: There are four kinds of inclusion—inclusion under aggregates, inclusion under bases, inclusion under elements, and inclusion under truths.

Here:

Inclusion under aggregates—Ignorance, formations, contact, craving, grasping, and becoming are included in the formations aggregate. Consciousness is included in the consciousness aggregate. Name-and-form is included in four aggregates. The six bases are included in two aggregates. Feeling is included in the feeling aggregate. Birth and aging-and-death are included in the form aggregate and the formations aggregate.

Inclusion under the bases—Ignorance, formations, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and aging-and-death are included in the dhamma base. Consciousness is included in the mind base. Name-and-form is included in five internal bases. The six bases are included in six internal bases.

Inclusion under the elements—Ignorance, formations, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and aging-and-death are included in the dhamma element. Consciousness is included in the mind-consciousness element. Name-and-form is included in five elements. The six bases, twelve...

Inclusion under the truths—Ignorance, craving, and grasping are included in the ten truths. The remaining nine are included in the truth of suffering. Supramundane conditionality and the path factor are included in the truth of the path. The cessation of conditionality is included in the truth of cessation.

Thus, inclusion can be known. Through these approaches, the method concerning conditionality can be known. This is called the method concerning conditionality. (The method concerning conditionality is complete.)

Two Difficult Readings in the Inclusion Passage

First, the base text reads “consciousness mind, included in the base” and “consciousness mind, included in the consciousness element.” The two characters 識, “consciousness,” and 意, “mind,” stand together with no enumeration comma between them. By the symmetry of the surrounding clauses, each occurrence constitutes one item (consciousness belongs to the mind base; consciousness belongs to the mind-consciousness element). The original wording is reproduced here, without supplying punctuation.

Second, the base text reads “the six bases, included in twelve truths” and “ignorance, craving, and grasping, included in ten truths.” This treatise establishes only four truths, yet the expressions “twelve truths” and “ten truths” appear here; each occurs only once in the entire treatise, and the text does not explain either one. Further, the three in “ignorance, craving, and grasping” plus the nine in “the remaining nine” total exactly twelve, matching the number of the twelve links. The original wording is reproduced here, without emendation or added punctuation.

One Difference from the First Three Methods

The inclusion sections of the aggregate method, the base method, and the noble-truth method each read “three kinds of inclusion.” The inclusion section here instead reads “four kinds of inclusion” and takes all four—aggregates, bases, elements, and truths. This is reproduced here as it stands.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Mundane and Supramundane Conditions and Inclusion · Vernacular · Summer 2026

The Fourfold List

Question: What is the method concerning the noble truths?

Answer: The four noble truths—the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the arising of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and the noble truth of the path to the cessation of suffering.

The Truth of Suffering: Ten Sufferings and the Summary of the Five Appropriated Aggregates

Question: What is the noble truth of suffering?

Answer: Birth, aging, death, grief, lamenting grief, distress, pain-as-pain, meeting the hated, separation from the loved, and not obtaining what is sought—summarized as the suffering of the five appropriated aggregates.

The individual explanations follow:

Birth is the arising of the aggregates among classes of beings; this has the sense of gathering all suffering.

Aging is the maturation of the elements through birth; this has the sense of losing strength, complexion, the faculties, mindfulness, and understanding.

Death is the ending of the lifespan; this has the sense of producing fear.

Grief is the mind’s fear upon reaching a painful state; this has the sense of inner burning.

Lamenting grief is suffering reaching speech; this has the sense of inner and outer burning.

Pain-as-pain is bodily suffering; this has the sense of the body suffering because of pain.

Distress is mental suffering; this has the sense of the mind suffering because of pain.

Meeting the hated is joining together with unloved beings; this has the sense of producing suffering.

Separation from the loved is dispersal and separation from loved beings; this has the sense of producing grief.

Not obtaining what is sought is wishing to part from what is unloved and wishing to unite with what is loved, but not obtaining this; this has the sense of losing pleasure.

What has been summarized as the suffering of the five appropriated aggregates does not depart from the suffering of the five appropriated aggregates; therefore it is said to be summarized as the suffering of the five appropriated aggregates.

The explanations of the ten items all close with the word “meaning.” Only the final item (the statement that the suffering of the five appropriated aggregates has been summarized) does not close with “meaning,” but with “therefore it is summarized as the suffering of the five appropriated aggregates.” This is recorded here as it stands.

Five Appropriated Aggregates and Twofold and Threefold Suffering

Question: What are the five appropriated aggregates?

Answer: Form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness as appropriated aggregates—as explained at length in the method concerning the aggregates, so they should be understood.

In this matter there are two kinds of suffering: suffering of situation and suffering by intrinsic nature.

Birth, death, meeting the hated, separation from the loved, and not obtaining what is sought—summarized as the suffering of the five appropriated aggregates—are called suffering of situation.

Grief, lamenting grief, and distress are called suffering by intrinsic nature.

The three kinds of suffering are pain-as-pain, suffering through change, and suffering through formations. Bodily suffering and mental suffering are called pain-as-pain; where tainted pleasant feeling breaks down, this is called suffering through change; the five appropriated aggregates are suffering through formations—this is called the noble truth of suffering.

The passage above lists ten sufferings, while the twofold classification names its items one by one: suffering of situation has five and suffering by intrinsic nature has three, making eight; aging and pain-as-pain do not appear in the twofold classification. The threefold classification separately names pain-as-pain, suffering through change, and suffering through formations; its basis for naming differs from that of the twofold classification. This is recorded here as it stands, without supplying the missing items or reconciling the classifications.

The Noble Truth of the Arising of Suffering

Question: What is the noble truth of the arising of suffering?

Answer: Craving produces renewed birth, arises together with desire, and arises here and there—namely sensual craving, craving for becoming, and craving for not-becoming.

The statement that craving produces renewed birth means that craving for becoming grows abundant and brings forth craving for birth. The arising of suffering belongs to craving alone, not jointly to anything else; therefore it is called the arising of suffering.

As for arising together with desire, craving alone produces delight—this is named arising—and produces staining—this is named staining. Delight arises together with staining. What arises is a place; the place makes bodily nature arise. This place is delight; this place is lovable form; this place is delight.

Thus there are sensual craving, craving for becoming, and craving for non-becoming. Apart from craving for becoming and craving for not-becoming, the remaining craving is sensual craving. Craving for becoming arises together with an eternalist view. Craving for non-becoming arises together with an annihilationist view.

This is called the noble truth of the arising of suffering.

The third of the three cravings first appears as “craving for not-becoming” and later as “craving for non-becoming”: one name has two forms, and each occurs twice. This is recorded here as it stands and is not regularized.

The Noble Truth of Cessation, and an Objection

Question: What is the noble truth of cessation?

Answer: The remainderless cessation of craving alone, relinquishment, distance, liberation, and absence of locus—this is called the noble truth of cessation.

Question: Not so. This too is cessation of arising; why does the Blessed One speak of cessation of suffering’s cause?

Answer: Because the cause of suffering ceases, cessation as non-arising is accomplished; this has the sense of what is to be realized. Therefore, although it is cessation of arising, the Blessed One speaks of cessation of suffering.

This question begins with the two-character phrase “not so,” first rejecting the preceding answer and then asking the reason. The answer does not alter the preceding statement; it only gives the reason. This is recorded here as it stands.

The Noble Truth of the Path: The Eightfold Right Path

Question: What is the noble truth of the path to the cessation of suffering?

Answer: This is the eightfold right path—right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Right view is knowledge of the four truths. Right intention is the three wholesome intentions. Right speech is abstention from four evil actions. Right action is abstention from three evil actions. Right livelihood is abstention from wrong livelihood. Right effort is the four right strivings. Right mindfulness is the four establishments of mindfulness. Right concentration is the four meditations.

Further, when one cultivates the noble path: knowledge-and-vision with regard to Nibbāna is called right view; thought directed only to Nibbāna is right intention; one abandons wrong speech, and this is right speech; one abandons wrong action, and this is right action; one abandons wrong livelihood, and this is right livelihood; one abandons wrong effort, and this is right effort; mindfulness with regard to Nibbāna is right mindfulness; concentrating the mind upon Nibbāna is right concentration.

The eight items receive two explanations: the first gives each its corresponding numbered practice, while the second uniformly connects them with Nibbāna. This is recorded here as it stands.

Thirty-Seven Awakening Dhammas Enter the Eightfold Path

In this matter:

The faculty of wisdom, the power of wisdom, the wisdom basis of success, and the investigation-of-dhammas awakening factor become included within right view.

The faculty of energy, the power of energy, the energy basis of success, the desire basis of success, the energy awakening factor, and the four right strivings become included within right effort.

The faculty of mindfulness, the power of mindfulness, the mindfulness awakening factor, and the four establishments of mindfulness become included within right mindfulness.

The faculty of concentration, the power of concentration, the mind basis of success, the faculty of confidence, the power of confidence, the concentration awakening factor, the joy awakening factor, the repose awakening factor, and the equanimity awakening factor become included within right concentration.

Thus the thirty-seven awakening dhammas become included within the eightfold right path. This is called the noble truth of the path to the cessation of suffering. This is called the four noble truths.

Counting each item in the four groups: the right-view group has 4 items; the right-effort group has 5 items plus the 4 right strivings; the right-mindfulness group has 3 items plus the 4 establishments of mindfulness; and the right-concentration group has 9 items—together 29. Adding the 8 factors of the eightfold right path gives exactly 37. This agrees with the number reported by the treatise. This is recorded here as it stands.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · General Account of the Four Noble Truths · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Why Four, Not Three or Five?

Question: Why are four noble truths taught, not three and not five?

Answer: For all doubts. Because they comprise the worldly and supramundane in terms of result and cause, they are four.

Four Positions of Result and Cause, and Four Tasks

Question: How so?

Answer: The result of the worldly truth is suffering, and arising is the cause of the worldly truth; the cessation of the result is the result of the supramundane truth; the path is the cause of the supramundane truth. Therefore there are four, not three or five.

Again: to be known, to be abandoned, to be realized, and to be cultivated—because of these four tasks, the truths are four.

Master Heading: Eleven Approaches

These four noble truths can be mastered and known through eleven approaches: through phrase-meaning, through character, through sequence, through summary, through simile, through analysis, through number, through unity, through diversity, through sequence, and extensively through mutual inclusion.

Here the base text reads “through sequence, extensively through mutual inclusion.” Its punctuation separates “sequence” from “extended” and attaches “extended” to “mutual inclusion.” The treatise itself reports eleven approaches, while the approaches that follow are each posed as a question; the tenth asks, “How through extended sequence?” Its name can therefore be recovered as “through extended sequence,” with “through mutual inclusion” as the other approach. On this reconstruction, the eleven are phrase-meaning, character, sequence, summary, simile, analysis, number, unity, diversity, extended sequence, and mutual inclusion—exactly eleven. The original wording is recorded here as it stands; this edition does not change the punctuation.

First Approach: Phrase-Meaning

Question: How through phrase-meaning?

Answer: A noble truth is spoken by noble persons and is therefore called a noble truth; because it is penetrated, it becomes a noble truth.

Truth means the meaning of thusness, the meaning of non-difference, and the meaning of its own character not being different.

Suffering means result; arising means cause; cessation means ceasing accordingly; the path means seeing the highest meaning.

Thus it can be known through phrase-meaning.

The question asks for the phrase-meaning of the four truths, yet before the four items the answer first gives two—“noble truth” and “truth”—making six in all. They are recorded here as they stand; this edition does not delete them.

Second Approach: Character

Question: How through character?

Answer: Suffering has the character of danger; arising has the character of cause; cessation has the character of non-arising; the path has the character of a method.

Again: suffering has the characters of oppression, grief, conditionedness, and boundedness; arising has the characters of gathering, conditionality, conjunction, and attachment; cessation has the characters of release, profound peace, unconditionedness, and ghee; the path has the characters of a vehicle, leading-to, seeing, and support.

Thus their distinct characters can be known.

The first round gives one character for each truth, four in all; the second gives four characters for each truth, sixteen in all. Together they make twenty characters. They are recorded here.

Third Approach: Sequence

Question: How through sequence?

Answer: Because of the meaning of coarseness and the meaning of realization, the truth of suffering is taught first. This suffering arises from this; arising is second. When this arising ceases, that is the cessation of this suffering; cessation is third. This means is for true cessation; the path is taught fourth.

Like a discerning physician: first he sees the source of the disease, afterward he asks about the conditions of the disease, and, in order to end the disease, prescribes medicine according to the disease.

In this way, the disease should be understood as suffering. In this way, the conditions of the disease should be understood as arising. In this way, the exhaustion of the disease should be understood as release, as cessation. In this way, the medicine should be understood as the path.

Thus it can be known through sequence.

Fourth Approach: Summary

Question: How through summary?

Answer:

Birth is suffering; what brings about birth is arising; the stopping of suffering is cessation; what brings about stopping is the path.

The locus of defilement is suffering; defilement is arising; the abandoning of defilement is cessation; the means of abandoning is the path.

Suffering can bring about the opening of the personality-view door; arising can bring about the opening of the annihilation-view door; cessation can bring about the opening of the eternalist-view door; the path can bring about the opening of the wrong-view door.

Thus it can be known through summary.

Each of the three groups gives four items, with the four corresponding item by item within each group. In the third group, the base text reads “open,” while all four Song, Yuan, Ming, and Palace witnesses read “close”; the two readings point in opposite directions (one opens these four doors, while the other closes them). Both are recorded here; the body follows the base text.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Why Four Truths and the First Four Approaches · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Fifth Approach: Simile

Question: How through simile?

Answer (here the base text uses a question mark rather than a colon; it is recorded as it stands):

First group—Like a poisonous tree: so suffering can be known. Like a seed: so arising can be known. Like this burning of the seed: so cessation can be known. Like fire: so the path can be known.

Second group—Like this shore, where there is suffering and fear: so suffering can be known. Like a current: so arising can be known. Like the far shore, where there is no suffering and no fear: so cessation can be known. Like a boat that can cross: so the path can be known.

Third group—Like bearing a burden: so suffering can be known. Like taking up a burden: so arising can be known. Like setting down a burden: so cessation can be known. Like the means of setting down a burden: so the path can be known.

Thus it can be known through simile.

The three groups have four similes each. Within each group, they correspond truth by truth, making twelve in all. The third simile begins “like this burning of the seed,” whereas each of the other eleven leads directly into its image with “like”; this simile has the one extra source character “this.” This is recorded here as it stands; this edition does not make the wording uniform.

Sixth Approach: Analysis

Question: How through analysis?

Answer: Four kinds of truth—truth of speech, particular truth, ultimate truth, and noble truth.

Here, speaking truth rather than falsehood is called truth of speech.

In regard to particular truths, deeply entering into the various views is called particular truth. As for that truth, a bhikkhu speaks falsely of a deluded dhamma; when he does not speak falsely of a deluded dhamma, it is truth.

Nibbāna is ultimate truth.

What noble persons practice is noble truth. What they delight in here is noble truth.

Thus it can be known through analysis.

The “four kinds of truth” here and the “four noble truths” discussed in this chapter are both groups of four, but they refer to different things; moreover, “noble truth” is one of the four kinds here. This is recorded here as it stands; this edition does not reconcile them.

Seventh Approach: Number

Question: How through number?

Answer:

First round—Excluding craving, wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate dhammas in the three planes are the truth of suffering; craving is the truth of arising; abandoning that is the truth of cessation; the eightfold path is the truth of the path.

Second round—Further: excluding craving and the other defilements, wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate dhammas in the third plane are the truth of suffering; craving and the other defilements are the truth of arising; abandoning that is the truth of cessation; the path is the truth of the path.

Third round—Further: excluding craving, the other defilements, and all unwholesome states, wholesome determinate dhammas in the three planes are the truth of suffering; craving, the defilements, and all unwholesome states are the truth of arising; abandoning that is the truth of cessation; the path is the truth of the path.

Fourth round—Further: excluding craving, the defilements, and all unwholesome states, unwholesome dhammas in the three planes and indeterminate dhammas in the three planes are the truth of suffering; craving, the other defilements, all unwholesome states, and the wholesome in the three planes—these are the truth of arising; abandoning that is the truth of cessation; the path is the truth of the path.

Among the four rounds, the second reads “in the third plane,” whereas the other three read “in the three planes”; the four-character phrase “in the third plane” occurs only once in the entire treatise. This is recorded here in the source wording; this edition does not alter it.

Four Classes Receive Their Meanings; Character Decides at the End

Here, seeking flavor is the meaning of craving; arising has the meaning of having fetters, and the other defilements are arising; by the meaning of being abandonable and by the meaning of causing becoming to arise, all unwholesome states are arising; by the meaning of bringing about becoming, wholesome dhammas in the three planes are arising.

Here, craving and the other defilements are arising. All unwholesome and wholesome states in the three planes may be either the truth of suffering or the truth of arising—because of the characters of oppression, grief, conditionedness, and boundedness, they become the truth of suffering; because of the characters of gathering, conditionality, attachment, and conjunction, they become the truth of arising.

Thus it can be known through number.

The four characters and the two characters at the end are precisely, within the sixteen characters established by the preceding character approach, the four characters of the two truths of suffering and arising. They are recorded here as they stand.

Eighth Approach: Unity

Question: How through unity?

Answer: These four truths become one through four approaches—through the meaning of truth, through the meaning of thusness, through the meaning of dhamma, and through the meaning of emptiness.

Thus it can be known through unity.

The preceding seven approaches examine the four truths from different aspects; this approach explicitly says that the four truths become one through four approaches. This is recorded here as it stands.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Simile, Analysis, Number, and Unity of the Four Truths · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Ninth Approach: Diversity

Question: How are the truths known through diversity?

Answer: as two truths—worldly truth and supramundane truth.

Worldly truth is affected by influxes, fettered, bound, caught in currents, subject to peril, covered, touchable, grasped, and afflicted by defilements. It comprises suffering and arising.

Supramundane truth is free from influxes, unfettered, unbound, free from currents, free from peril, uncovered, not touchable, free from grasping, and free from defilements. It comprises cessation and path.

The two truths each carry nine items, opposed item by item without one missing: affected by influxes and free from influxes; fettered and unfettered; bound and unbound; caught in currents and free from currents; subject to peril and free from peril; covered and uncovered; touchable and not touchable; grasped and free from grasping; afflicted by defilements and free from defilements. They are recorded here as they stand.

Again, three truths are conditioned, while the cessation truth is unconditioned. Three truths are immaterial, while the suffering truth is both material and immaterial. The arising truth is unwholesome, the path truth is wholesome, the cessation truth is indeterminate, and the suffering truth is wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate.

The suffering truth can be known; the arising truth can be abandoned; the cessation truth can be realized; the path truth should be cultivated.

Thus the truths can be known through diversity.

In the last set of four statements, the first three use “can” and the last uses “should”; earlier, where the treatise explains why there are four truths, the text reads “should be known, should be abandoned, should be realized, should be cultivated,” with “should” in all four. The wording in the two places is not uniform. It is recorded here as it stands, without being made uniform.

Tenth Approach: Extended Sequence

Question: How are the truths known through extended sequence?

Answer:

As one—the conscious body is suffering; conceit is arising; abandoning that is cessation; mindfulness of the body is path.

As two—name-and-form is suffering; ignorance and craving for becoming are arising; abandoning that is cessation; calm and insight are path.

The base here reads, “name-and-form is suffering, is ignorance; craving for becoming is arising,” and its punctuation attaches “is ignorance” to the suffering entry. This round announces itself as two: name-and-form is already two (name and form), and calm and insight are already two; if the arising entry is read as “ignorance and craving for becoming,” it too yields exactly two. It is restored above on this basis. The original characters are recorded here as they stand; this edition does not add punctuation on their behalf.

Formed as three—namely, pain-as-pain is the truth of suffering; the three unwholesome roots are arising; abandoning that is cessation; morality, concentration, and wisdom are path.

Formed as four—the four body-nature loci are suffering; the four inversions are arising; abandoning the inversions is cessation; the four establishments of mindfulness are path.

Formed as five—the five destinations are suffering; the five hindrances are arising; abandoning the hindrances is cessation; the five faculties are path.

Formed as six—the six contact bases are suffering; the six bodies of craving are arising; abandoning the bodies of craving is cessation; the six dhammas of release are path.

Formed as seven—the seven stations of consciousness are suffering; the seven tendencies are arising; abandoning the seven tendencies is cessation; the seven factors of awakening are path.

Formed as eight—the eight worldly dhammas are suffering; the eight wrong extremes are arising; abandoning the eight wrong extremes is cessation; the eight right factors are path.

Formed as nine—the nine abodes of beings are suffering; the nine craving-root dhammas are arising; abandoning that is cessation; the nine right-attention-root dhammas are path.

Formed as ten—the ten directional courses are suffering; the ten fetters are arising; abandoning the fetters is cessation; the ten perceptions are path.

Thus the truths can be known through extended sequence.

The labels of the ten rounds: the first two read “as one” and “as two,” without the word “formed”; each of the following eight adds “formed” after its numerical phrase in the source. They are recorded here as they stand, without being made uniform.

Again, in each of the seven rounds from four through ten, the three positions of suffering, arising, and path carry numbered names that can be checked against the number the round announces—the fourfold round has the four body-nature loci, the four inversions, and the four establishments of mindfulness; the fivefold round has the five destinations, the five hindrances, and the five faculties; the sixfold, sevenfold, eightfold, ninefold, and tenfold rounds have the same agreement. The cessation position instead reads either “abandoning that” or “abandoning the named item.” In the third round, the suffering entry reads “pain-as-pain,” and its number is not visible in the name. This is recorded as it stands; nothing is supplied.

Eleventh Approach: Inclusion

Question: How are the truths known through inclusion?

Answer: through three kinds of inclusion—inclusion by aggregates, inclusion by bases, and inclusion by elements.

In this matter, suffering is included in the five aggregates, arising and path are included in the formation aggregate, and cessation is not included in the aggregates.

Suffering is included in the twelve bases. The other three truths are included in the dhamma base.

Suffering is included in the eighteen elements. The other three truths are included in the dhamma element.

Thus the truths can be known through inclusion.

Through this practice, knowledge of the noble truths is made to arise. This is called the method concerning the noble truths. (The method concerning the noble truths is complete.)

One Pattern Seen Beside the Other Four Methods

In their inclusion approaches, the aggregate method and the base method both read “three kinds of inclusion”; the conditionality method reads “four kinds of mutual inclusion”; and this passage reads “three kinds of inclusion,” naming aggregates, bases, and elements. Those three instances of “three kinds of inclusion” each omit the category bearing the same name as the subject under discussion. This is how the wording of the four passages appears when set beside one another; the treatise does not explicitly state why. It is recorded here as it stands.

Again, with this passage completing the method concerning the noble truths, all five methods are complete. The phrase “the method is complete” occurs five times in the entire treatise, and this passage is the last. Chapter Eleven ends here.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Diversity, Extended Sequence, and Inclusion of the Four Truths · Vernacular · Summer 2026