妙法蓮華經文句 白話全本 · 冊2

The first half of the first fascicle of the Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sūtra, taught by the Tiantai Master Zhiyi.

[Note beneath the title: It is difficult for a buddha to appear in the world, difficult for a buddha to teach this scripture, difficult to transmit and translate it, difficult to awaken through it oneself, difficult to hear a teacher explain it, and difficult to record it completely after hearing it only once. I received the teaching in Jinling at the age of twenty-seven and augmented and abridged it in Danqiu at the age of sixty-nine. I leave this work to worthy people of later generations so that together we may aspire to accomplish the Buddha's wisdom.]

1. Why Is It Called the Introduction Chapter?

The title of the scripture was explained in detail in the preceding work. We now begin by explaining the word “introduction.” An introduction may be understood through the order of an ancient academy: ranks have their sequence, host and guests have their sequence, and questions and answers proceed calmly without overstepping their place. Those who compiled the scriptures interpreted “introduction” according to the meaning as having three senses: sequence, occasion, and narration.

The five matters beginning with “Thus” and “I heard” stand at the very front of the scripture: this is sequence. The Buddha emits light and manifests six auspicious signs, forming the occasion from which the whole scripture begins: this is the introduction as occasion. Questions and answers resolve uncertainty and serve as a lead-in to the main teaching: this is narration. Because all three meanings are present, it is called an introduction.

Next comes the word “chapter.” The Madhyama Āgama calls it varga, translated into Chinese as “chapter.” Material of the same doctrinal kind is gathered into a single section, and for that reason it is called a chapter. Some chapter titles are spoken by the Buddha himself, as in the Brahmā's Net Sūtra; some are supplied by those who compiled the scriptures, as in the Great Treatise; and some are completed by the translator, as in Kumārajīva's work. In the present scripture, “The Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King” is a chapter title spoken by the Buddha himself. As for “The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound,” “The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World's Sounds (Guanshiyin),” and the like, no clear account has been heard as to whether their titles were supplied by the compilers or added by the translator. Since the present chapter stands at the beginning of all the chapters, it is called the first.

2. Why Must the Scripture Be Divided into Sections?

In adapting to the causes and conditions of beings, the Buddha sometimes taught as though scattering flowers and sometimes as though stringing flowers into a garland. The compilers transmitted the Buddha's teaching accordingly, and authors of treatises clarified its meaning on the basis of the scriptures; originally they did not divide the text and establish headings. Ancient lecturers likewise unfolded and propagated the meaning without separating it into chapters and sections. If this method were followed without qualification, later students might be unable even to distinguish where a passage begins and ends.

Moreover, the Buddha's teaching itself included both scattered statements and connected discourse, and the compilers also established chapter titles according to meaning. The Ekottarika Āgama says that the discourses form one division, the discipline one division, and the abhidharma one division. The discourses are further opened into four collections: the Ekottarika, Dīrgha, Madhyama, and Saṃyukta Āgamas. The Ekottarika explains causes and results among humans and gods, the Dīrgha refutes wrong views, the Madhyama explains profound meanings, and the Saṃyukta explains meditative concentration. The discipline is further opened into five divisions and eighty recitations, while the abhidharma is opened into works such as the Six Feet and the Eight Granthas.

The Āgamas also say that giving, keeping precepts, wisdom, and the six perfections may all be called “feet,” while faculties, natures, paths, concentrations, and the like form eight collections of dharmas. Vasubandhu composed the Treatise on the Lotus Sūtra, dividing the Introduction chapter according to seven accomplishments and the Skillful Means chapter according to five manifestations; each of the remaining chapters likewise has its corresponding analytical place.

3. How Did Earlier Masters Divide the Whole Scripture?

Formerly Ping of Hexi and Yao of Jiangdong drew upon this principle and began to divide the scriptural text and establish headings. In later generations, divisions became especially numerous. Guangzhai's analysis turned finer still, like dense clouds and mist obscuring the high sky until the three lights—the sun, moon, and stars—withdrew their radiance; those seeking a route or asking for the ford did not value such intricacy. Tanluan once said, “Minute analytical headings scatter like smoke; jumbled whetstones drift like dust.” The point seems to be that overly fine division is certainly improper, but complete absence of division also falls short.

Master Long of Mount Lu divided the whole scripture into introduction, main teaching, and transmission, and gathered its twenty-seven chapters under two categories. From the Introduction chapter through the Dharma Teacher chapter, the scripture speaks both of verbal skillful means and verbal reality. Principle is originally one, but speech opens it into three, so these chapters belong to the first category. From the Beholding the Jeweled Stūpa chapter onward, it manifests both bodily skillful means and bodily reality. Buddhahood was actually attained in the distant past, but awakening is manifested as recent, so these chapters belong to the second category. He also classified the chapters from Skillful Means through Peaceful Practices as the gate of cause and those from Emerging from the Earth onward as the gate of result.

During the Qi dynasty, Master Yin of Zhongxing Monastery and Xiaoshan Yao both received the scripture from Master Long and divided the text in the same way. Xuanchang instead treated the Introduction through Beholding the Jeweled Stūpa as the division of cause, Exhortation to Uphold the Sutra through The Supernormal Powers of the Tathāgata as the division of result, and Entrustment through the end of the scripture as the division of protection and preservation.

Another Dharma master said that the Introduction through Predictions for Those in Training and Beyond Training constitutes the body of the Lotus Sūtra; the Dharma Teacher through Entrustment explains the merit of receiving and upholding the scripture; and The Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King through the end of the scripture praises the original vows of the bodhisattvas.

Another Dharma master divided the whole scripture into four sections: the first chapter is the introductory section; Skillful Means through Peaceful Practices is the section of opening the three to reveal the one; Emerging from the Earth through Distinguishing Qualities is the section of opening the recent to reveal the distant; and the remainder carries forward the preceding meanings as the section of transmission.

Fayun of Guangzhai received the scripture from Master Yin. He first divided each of the three sections—introduction, main teaching, and transmission—into two: the introduction into the common introduction and specific introduction; the main teaching into the gate of cause and gate of result; and the transmission into transmission for transforming others and transmission for one's own practice. He then opened each of the common and specific introductions into five sections, each of the cause and result gates into four, and each of the two forms of transmission into three, making twenty-four sections in all.

4. Divisions May Differ, but They Must Not Become Grounds for Contention

How the scripture is divided ultimately reflects the arrangement later readers make according to their own understanding; orchids and chrysanthemums each have their beauty. Later students should not therefore pronounce one another right or wrong and fall into contention. If they do, they will fail to obtain the three benefits and will also lose the one path. The three benefits are those of the first three siddhāntas, beginning with the worldly; the one path is the siddhānta of ultimate meaning.

5. Zhiyi's Three Divisions and the Trace and Origin Gates

The Tiantai Master Zhiyi divides the whole scripture into three parts. The first chapter is the introduction. From the Skillful Means chapter through the nineteen lines of verse in the Distinguishing Qualities chapter—fifteen and a half chapters in all—is the main teaching. From the end of those nineteen lines through the end of the scripture—eleven and a half chapters—is the transmission.

The whole scripture may also be divided at once into two gates. The fourteen chapters from the Introduction through Peaceful Practices constitute opening the provisional to reveal the real on the basis of the trace. The fourteen chapters from Emerging from the Earth through the end of the scripture constitute opening the provisional to reveal the real on the basis of the origin. Both the Origin Gate and the Trace Gate possess their own introduction, main teaching, and transmission.

Within the Trace Gate, the first chapter is the introduction; Skillful Means through Predictions for Those in Training and Beyond Training is the main teaching; and the Dharma Teacher through Peaceful Practices is the transmission.

Within the Origin Gate, the half chapter beginning with Emerging from the Earth and ending where “Maitreya has now asked about this and the Buddha is about to answer” occurs is the introduction. From “The Buddha told Ajita” through the verses in the Distinguishing Qualities chapter is the main teaching. From that point through the end of the scripture is the transmission. In explaining the text passage by passage, the present record follows the earlier division of the whole scripture into introduction, main teaching, and transmission.

6. How Can One Scripture Have Two Introductions?

Someone asks: why would a single scripture have two introductions?

The answer is that the Avataṃsaka Sūtra gathers an assembly anew at each teaching site, every individual discourse in the Āgamas has its own opening such as “Thus have I heard,” and the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra has entrustments both before and after. None of these arrangements violates the fact that the work is one scripture. What difficulty, then, could there be in two introductions?

The introduction to the Origin Gate does not repeat the five matters such as “Thus” and “I heard” because it does not stand at the beginning of the sequential whole. The Trace Gate has only one section of transmission because the teaching of the whole scripture had not yet been completed at that point. This is the reason something is present in one place and absent in another.

7. Four Stages and Four Approaches for Joining the Explanation to the Text

We now begin explaining the text passage by passage. First establish four stages: enumerate the approaches; explain why they are used; cite scripture as evidence; and show their actual forms.

First enumerate the four approaches to explaining the text: causes and conditions, the teaching, origin and trace, and contemplating the mind. From “Thus” at the beginning of the scripture through “withdrew” at its end, every sentence may be resolved through these four meanings. In the actual written record, however, the explanation is abbreviated: sometimes three approaches are written, sometimes two, and sometimes only one. What matters is grasping the original intent; the writing itself need not become burdensome.

8. Why Are There Exactly Four Approaches?

Second, explain why this is so.

Someone asks: if brevity is desired, a single interpretation should suffice; if breadth is desired, there would not be only four. Why establish precisely four?

The answer is that an explanation too broad makes people's wisdom recoil from the difficulty, while one too brief cannot make the meaning complete. The present account takes a middle course so that the principle is easy to understand.

Causes and conditions is also called stimulus and response. If beings lack a receptive capacity able to evoke a response, they cannot see the sage even when nearby. Through the power of the sage's compassion and wholesome roots, those far away can nevertheless connect naturally. The stimulus of beings and the response of the sage meet, and so the text is explained through causes and conditions. Beings seek liberation through very many receptive capacities, and the sage initiates very many appropriate responses. This meaning could itself be explained at length, so where does the middle course lie? The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says that the power of compassion and wholesome roots has immeasurable Dharma gates, but in brief it is supernatural power; the responsive capacities of beings throughout the ten directions are as broad as space. Here we consider only the Sahā world, where sound performs the Buddha's work and thereby opens the gate of ambrosia. Interpretation in terms of the teaching gathers immeasurable breadth into a middle account in precisely this way.

The sage establishes teachings according to beings' capacities. What is taught may be provisional or real, shallow or profound. One must therefore set aside the finger that points at the moon while preserving the moon it indicates, and forget the outward Trace while seeking its Origin. Master Sengzhao said: without the Origin there is nothing from which to extend a Trace, and without the Trace there is no means of revealing the Origin. This is why the text is interpreted in terms of Origin and Trace.

If one pursues only outward traces, their vast number merely exhausts the seeker; if one seeks only the lofty and distant origin, its height has no limit. This is like counting another person's jewels day and night while possessing not half a coin oneself. If instead one contemplates the height and breadth of one's own mind, one can evoke the sage's inexhaustible responses. When one's own receptive capacity matures, stimulus and response can meet and one finally obtains a benefit that is truly one's own. This is why the text is interpreted through contemplating the mind.

9. Scriptural Evidence for the Four Approaches

Third, cite scripture as evidence.

The Skillful Means chapter says that buddhas throughout the ten directions appear in the world for the sake of one great cause and condition. If what is sought were only a human, heavenly, or Lesser Vehicle result, it would be neither one nor great, nor would it be the work proper to buddhas, and so it could not be the receptive capacity and response meant here. The true mark is called “one,” breadth is called “great,” and the Buddha identifies this as the great matter to be accomplished. Because buddhas appear in the world for this purpose, it is called the one great cause and condition.

The Skillful Means chapter also says that the Buddha reveals the Buddha path to beings through many Dharma gates. From this we know that all teachings conveyed by sound—whether subtle or manifest, provisional or real—are only traps and snares serving the Buddha path. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says that coarse words and gentle words finally return to ultimate meaning. This is precisely the point.

The Lifespan of the Tathāgata chapter says: “Today humans, gods, and asuras all suppose that I left the Śākya palace while young, renounced the household life, and attained complete awakening not far from the city of Gayā. In truth, however, it has been immeasurable, boundless asaṃkhyeya kalpas since I attained buddhahood. I use this skillful means to guide and benefit beings.”

The Skillful Means chapter also says: “I originally made a vow to enable all beings universally to attain this path just as I have, without any difference.”

The Five Hundred Disciples Receive Their Predictions chapter further says: “Inwardly they conceal bodhisattva practice while outwardly appearing as śrāvakas. In truth they are purifying their own buddha lands, yet before the assembly they manifest the three poisons of greed, anger, and delusion and display the appearance of wrong views. My disciples are like this: they liberate beings through skillful means.” This shows that teacher and disciples alike reveal the two levels of Origin and Trace.

The Parable chapter says: “If anyone trusts what you teach, that person thereby sees me, sees you, and also sees the community of monks and the bodhisattvas.” From this we should understand that whatever one hears must be contemplated attentively and in accord with reality, so that within faith one sees the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha. Hearing what is taught is seeing the Dharma jewel; seeing me is seeing the Buddha jewel; and seeing you is seeing the Saṅgha jewel.

10. Showing the Aspect of Causes and Conditions through the Three Divisions

Fourth, show the actual forms. Begin with the aspect of causes and conditions as disclosed through introduction, main teaching, and transmission.

In the distant past, beings received the Buddha's skillful means and thereby planted causes and conditions for the Buddha path. When they encountered the Buddha in the interval, different skillful means helped reveal ultimate meaning and brought their wholesome roots to maturity. At today's Lotus assembly, exquisite flowers rain from the sky, the earth trembles, and the Buddha uses the matter of the Tathāgata's passing into extinction to bring beings to extinction.

Seen from another angle, the distant past is sowing, the past interval is ripening, and the recent age is liberation; the bodhisattvas emerging from the earth and others are examples of this.

Again, the intermediate period is sowing, the teachings of the four flavors are ripening, and the Lotus assembly at the royal city is liberation; those who today open, reveal, awaken to, and enter the Buddha's knowledge and vision are examples of this.

Again, the present life is sowing, the next life is ripening, and a later life is liberation; those who attain liberation in the future are examples of this. Although the Origin Gate has not yet formally begun here, its meaning is provisionally drawn upon. Each of these periods can in turn be treated through past, present, and future, making three phases and nine ages; at every level, sowing, ripening, and liberation may again be discussed without contradiction.

Why can the teaching be presented with such freedom? Because the Tathāgata possesses the power of sovereign supernatural mastery, the power of the lion's expansive advance, and the power of great, mighty authority, and can therefore teach the Dharma freely. These causes and conditions account for the scripture's introduction.

The assembly beholds auspicious signs never seen before. Everyone looks upward and thirsts to hear the complete path. Responding to beings' receptive capacities, the Buddha establishes transformative teachings that enable them to open, reveal, awaken to, and enter the Buddha's knowledge and vision. This accounts for the main teaching. Not only did those present in the assembly receive great benefit; beings in the latter five-hundred-year period can also be touched from afar by the wondrous path. This accounts for the transmission.

11. Showing the Aspect of Teaching through the Three Divisions

Next, show the aspect of teaching. This introduction is not made so that humans and gods may attain purified ascent, not made for the lesser path of the two vehicles, not made for the teaching of emptiness shared by three classes, and not made only for the distinctive Dharma gate of bodhisattvas. It is made solely for setting skillful means aside directly and teaching only the unsurpassed Buddha path.

This main teaching does not call worldly dharmas “main,” does not call the wisdom that analyzes dharmas, like a firefly's light, “main,” does not call the wisdom that directly realizes dharmas, like a lamp or torch, “main,” and does not call the wisdom of paths, like the light of stars and moon, “main.” It calls only the wisdom of all modes, like the radiance of the sun, “main.”

This transmission does not transmit yellow leaves, wooden oxen, or wooden horses; it does not transmit the half-letter Dharma, the shared-letter Dharma, or the distinct-letter Dharma. It transmits solely the full-letter Dharma of the perfect sūtra.

12. Showing the Aspect of Origin and Trace through the Three Divisions

Next, show the aspect of origin and trace. While practicing the bodhisattva path in the distant past, the Buddha propagated the Lotus Sūtras of earlier buddhas; at that time too there were upper, middle, and lower divisions, as well as origin and trace. But if each buddha were traced back to yet another buddha, the regress would be endless. We therefore take the upper, middle, and lower divisions of the Lotus taught when Śākyamuni first attained buddhahood and designate them specifically as the “upper,” also calling them the origin.

Why establish the terms in this way? Because this was his first attainment of buddhahood and first teaching of the Dharma, it is called the upper and called the origin. The meaning is readily understood.

During the intermediate period, Śākyamuni taught according to conditions and assisted buddhas such as Great Universal Wisdom Excellence and Dīpaṃkara in propagating the three divisions of the Lotus. These are called only the middle and only traces. Why? Because what was called upper and what was called origin already preceded them.

The three divisions taught today at the royal city are called only the lower and only traces. Even the three divisions that he will teach throughout the boundless future by the power of the lion's expansive advance will still point to the first teaching as the upper and the origin.

It is like a great tree with a thousand branches and ten thousand leaves. To speak of its root, one cannot point from branch to earlier branch, one after another without end, and call each the root; every branch and leaf shares a single root. This simile helps make the meaning clear.

13. Showing the Aspect of Contemplating the Mind through the Three Divisions

Next, show the aspect of contemplating the mind. Precepts, concentration, and wisdom should be described as three divisions on the basis of one's own mind. In the sequence of practice, precepts come first, concentration in the middle, and wisdom last. From the standpoint of origin and trace within the Dharma gate, wisdom is the origin, while concentration and precepts are traces.

Precepts, concentration, and wisdom may each in turn be divided into three parts. The three parts of precepts are the preliminary preparations, the formal motion and three proclamations, and final completion. The three parts of concentration are the twenty-five preparatory practices; the main contemplation as one encounters conditions and engages objects; and skillfully entering, emerging from, and dwelling in hundreds and thousands of samādhis. The three parts of wisdom are contemplating dharmas born of causes and conditions as at once empty, provisional, and the middle.

14. Different Words, the Same Intent

The four aspects have now been shown through the three divisions, and this meaning should be applied when reading the scripture. From “Thus” through “bowed in reverence and withdrew,” every passage may be explained through the four approaches. Once this standard is used for comparison, the application is easy to know; if every layer had to be written out separately, the prose would be difficult to arrange.

Practitioners should reflect well: different explanations may employ different words while still pointing to the same intent, like a thousand carts following a common track and ten thousand streams entering the sea to become one taste.

1. The Common Introduction and the Specific Introduction

There are two kinds of introduction: common and specific. The passage from “thus” through “withdrew and sat to one side” is the common introduction. The passage from “At that time, the World-Honored One” through the end of the Introduction chapter is the specific introduction. The common introduction is shared by many scriptural teachings, while the specific introduction belongs uniquely to this scripture. The common introduction may be joined and spoken of as five aspects, or separated and spoken of as six or seven. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

“Thus” presents the whole Dharma that was heard. “I heard” identifies the person able to receive and preserve it. “At one time” indicates that hearing and preservation met together rather than occurring at different times. “Buddha” indicates that the teaching was heard from the Buddha. “Rājagṛha and Vulture Peak” identify the place where hearing and preservation occurred. “Together with the great bhikṣus” identifies the companions who heard and preserved it together. All these conditions converge through causes and conditions and arise one after another.

2. Explaining “Thus” through the Four Siddhāntas

Consider “thus” once more. Scriptures of buddhas throughout past, present, and future all place “thus” at their beginning. The path practiced by the buddhas is the same and does not contend with the world: this is the worldly siddhānta. The Great Treatise says that stating the time and place of a teaching causes people to give rise to confidence: this is the individual siddhānta. Buddhist scriptures also use “thus” to counter the senses of “not thus” and “not so” conveyed by the outsiders' syllables a and u: this is the counteractive siddhānta.

“Thus” also expresses faithful acceptance and receptive assent. Through faithful acceptance one can meet the principle heard. Through receptive assent, the way of transmission between teacher and disciple can be established. This is the siddhānta of ultimate meaning. Explaining “thus” through causes and conditions could be very extensive, but the whole cannot be recorded here. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

3. Explaining “Thus” according to Different Scriptural Teachings

Next explain it in terms of the teaching. The scriptures say that the teachings of buddhas throughout the three times all begin with “thus.” Earlier buddhas had gradual, sudden, esoteric, and indeterminate scriptures. Within the gradual teaching were also the Tripiṭaka, shared, distinct, and perfect teachings. The Buddha of today is the same. Because the scriptures differ, the meanings borne by “thus” also differ; one key cannot open every door.

One may also say that when the wording taught by the Buddha does not conflict with the wording transmitted by Ānanda, it is “thus”; when the wording that explains truly reaches the meaning indicated, it is “so.” Yet what kind of wording spoken by the Buddha is Ānanda now transmitting, and what meaning does it explain? One cannot use the language of the gradual teaching to transmit the meaning of the sudden teaching, or the language of a partial teaching to explain the meaning of the perfect teaching. If transmission and explanation are mistaken, the wording no longer accords as “thus.” If the wording does not accord as “thus,” the principle it indicates is no longer “so.” This is difficult to understand and must be examined with care.

First distinguish the gradual teaching. The Tripiṭaka teaching says that conventional truth has words while ultimate truth has none. Ānanda transmits the conventional words spoken by the Buddha without contradicting the Buddha's speech, and so they are called “thus.” Through conventional words one also enters the principle of ultimate truth, and so it is called “so.” This is the “thus” at the beginning of a scripture of the Tripiṭaka teaching.

The shared teaching says that form itself is emptiness and emptiness itself is form; form and emptiness, emptiness and form, have no dual characteristics and no difference. That emptiness does not differ from form is called “thus”; that truth is present in the very matter at hand is called “so.” The wording transmitted by Ānanda does not conflict with what the Buddha taught and is therefore called “thus.” The words that explain are themselves not separate from the meaning explained and are therefore called “so.” This is the “thus” at the beginning of a scripture of the shared teaching.

The distinct teaching says that saṃsāra is the extreme of existence and nirvāṇa the extreme of nonexistence. One first leaves the existing extreme of saṃsāra and enters the nonexistent extreme of nirvāṇa, then leaves the nonexistent extreme of nirvāṇa and enters the middle path. Ānanda transmits this sequence of leaving existence, entering nonexistence, leaving nonexistence, and entering the middle without contradicting what the Buddha taught, and so it is called “thus.” From shallow to deep, no level is not so, and therefore it is called “so.” This is the “thus” at the beginning of a scripture of the distinct teaching.

The perfect teaching says that saṃsāra itself is nirvāṇa and is also the middle path. If this is true of saṃsāra, how could nirvāṇa not also be the middle path? Suchness, the Dharma realm, real nature, and the limit of reality pervade everywhere; there is no place that is not the Buddhadharma. Ānanda transmits this principle without contradicting what the Buddha taught, and so it is called “thus.” Because suchness as such is unmoving, it is called “so.” This is the “thus” at the beginning of a scripture of the perfect teaching.

Moving conventional truth in order to enter suchness expresses only the meaning of the Tripiṭaka teaching. Not moving conventional truth and seeing it immediately as such expresses the shared teaching. Moving from one level of suchness into another expresses the distinct teaching. Not moving suchness and seeing it immediately as such expresses the perfect teaching. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

The “thus” of the sudden teaching is the same as that of the perfect teaching. In the indeterminate teaching, the earlier and later meanings of “thus” can exchange places. The content of the esoteric teaching is hidden and cannot be transmitted publicly. Even when the net of the eight scriptural teachings is spread across the ocean of the Dharma realm, one must still worry that fish may escape its meshes. How then could spreading only one mesh accomplish the catch by itself? A person able to catch arrows shot at once from all four directions without letting them fall would still not dare call himself swift. If one urges on a dull donkey and drives a lame turtle but cannot reach even one place, how could one reach four at once? [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

4. Explaining “Thus” through Origin and Trace and through Contemplating the Mind

Next explain “thus” in terms of origin and manifestation. The ten directions are the horizontal dimension and the three times the vertical. However distant the past, long the present, or endless the future may be, all are thus. Where, then, is the origin and where the trace?

Provisionally take Śākyamuni's first attainment of the path as the standard. At the time of his first awakening, the “thus” at the beginning of the scripture was origin; his manifestations of becoming a buddha and teaching scriptures during the intermediate period, together with the “thus” at the beginning of the scripture taught today, are traces. One may also say that the “thus” transmitted by Ānanda is trace and the “thus” spoken by the Buddha is origin. At a deeper level, the teacher and disciple did not first penetrate “thus” today or during the intermediate period: that long-standing penetration is origin, while their manifested transmission during the intermediate period and today is trace.

Next explain it through contemplating the mind. Contemplating how the preceding meanings of “thus”—through the siddhāntas, the teachings, and Origin and Trace—are all born through causes and conditions is shared contemplation. Contemplating how dharmas born through causes and conditions are immediately empty and immediately provisional is distinct contemplation. Using the first two contemplations as skillful means, entering the middle path of ultimate meaning and simultaneously illuminating both ultimate and conventional truths is contemplation that is both shared and distinct. If everything described above was originally the middle path, it is contemplation that is neither shared nor distinct.

A later passage says: “If anyone trusts what you teach, that person will see me, see you, and also see the community of bhikṣus and the bodhisattvas.” This is explicit textual evidence for contemplative practice. Trust concerns beings' receptive capacity; seeing concerns the response aroused in the sage: this is causes and conditions. Trust may be shallow or deep, and seeing may be provisional or real, yielding many differences: this is distinction in terms of the teaching.

Again, by faithfully receiving the words of the Lotus Sūtra, one sees the origin of the true mark. By seeing Śāriputra's manifestation, one also sees his origin as Longtuo. By seeing Śākyamuni's recent attainment of the path, one also sees the earlier Buddha who attained buddhahood in the distant past. By seeing the twelve hundred bhikṣus and eighty thousand bodhisattvas, one also sees their origins.

One may also return to one's own mind. On hearing the Dharma of the scripture, trust it deeply without doubt. To be aware that this single thought of trust is lucid is to see the Buddha. When the mental factor of wisdom is clear and distinct, that is seeing Śāriputra. When the remaining mental factors are clear and distinct, that is seeing the community of bhikṣus. When the compassionate mind is pure, that is seeing the bodhisattvas. When the four levels of interpretation are joined to the mind in this way, each turn becomes clearer than the last.

When explaining other scriptures, only causes and conditions, the teaching, and contemplating the mind are used because those scriptures have not yet disclosed the origin by opening the trace. Understand that the first three interpretations of the present scripture are shared with other scriptures, while interpretation in terms of Origin and Trace distinguishes it from them. The fourfold explanation of “thus” is now complete. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

5. Explaining “I”

Some scriptural witnesses write “heard thus” instead of “thus have I heard.” This is only a difference among witnesses, each order bringing forward the other. We now continue to explain it through four meanings. The Great Treatise says that the ear faculty is undamaged, the sound is within audible range, the mind forms the intention to listen, and the several conditions converge; therefore it says, “I heard.”

Someone asks: if the ear hears, it should say “the ear heard.” Why does it say “I heard”?

The answer is that “I” is the ear's general master; by naming “I,” all the conditions involved in hearing sound are gathered. This is the worldly siddhānta.

When Ānanda mounted the high seat and proclaimed “I heard,” the assembly naturally cried out in grief: only moments before they had seen the Tathāgata, and now they heard Ānanda saying only “I heard.” Those beyond training also rose into the air and spoke verses. The Sutra of the Buddha's Words further says that when Mañjuśrī compiled the teachings, he first proclaimed the scripture's title and then said, “Thus have I heard”; the assembly likewise cried out in grief. This is the individual siddhānta.

Ānanda's proclamation of “I heard” from the high seat also dispelled three doubts in the assembly. Ānanda's physical appearance resembled the Buddha's and was only three finger-widths shorter. The assembly might wonder whether Śākyamuni had appeared again, whether a buddha from another direction had come, or whether Ānanda himself had become a buddha. When Ānanda plainly said “I heard,” all three doubts disappeared. This is the counteractive siddhānta.

Ānanda was still a trainee and said “I heard” in conformity with convention. In ultimate meaning, however, there is no real self and no real hearing. The various ancient explanations reached only the approach through causes and conditions.

Next explain “I” in terms of the teaching. The Treatise of Explanation says that ordinary people have three kinds of self: the self of views, the self of conceit, and the nominal self. Trainees have two—the self of conceit and the nominal self. Those beyond training have only the nominal self used in conformity with convention. Ānanda was a trainee. He had no self of wrong views, could subdue the self of conceit, and used “I” only as a provisional conventional name, without fault. This explains “I” through the Tripiṭaka teaching.

The Treatise on the Ten Stages of the Vibhāṣā says that whichever of the four propositions one uses to name a self, one falls into wrong views. In the Buddha's true Dharma there is no real self; who, then, is hearing? This explains “I” through the shared teaching.

The Great Nirvāṇa Sutra says that Ānanda, learned in hearing, knows self and no-self without falling into either extreme and can distinguish self and no-self together. This explains “I” through the distinct teaching.

Ānanda can also know that self and no-self are nondual. He skillfully manifests as the Buddha's attendant, preserves the Tathāgata's unobstructed wisdom, and uses a sovereign voice to transmit both provisional and real teachings. He can of course say “I” in accord with convention. This explains “I” through the perfect teaching.

The Scripture of Mindfulness of the True Dharma further speaks of three Ānandas. Ānanda means Joy and preserves the Lesser Vehicle treasury. Ānandabhadra means Joyful Worthy and receives and preserves the mixed treasury. Ānandasāgara means Ocean of Joy and preserves the Buddha treasury. An Āgama also speaks of Ānanda the Keeper of the Treasury, who preserves the bodhisattva treasury. This probably means that the same Ānanda possessed four virtues and could transmit four Dharma gates; the meaning is then naturally clear. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

In terms of Origin and Trace, before entering the Origin Gate one may say that Ānanda calls himself “I” in conformity with convention. Once the trace is opened to reveal the origin, the Buddha and Ānanda are seen to have aroused the aspiration for awakening together in the presence of Buddha King of Emptiness. Ānanda only skillfully manifests as the person who transmits the Dharma; what could he not accomplish?

In contemplating the mind, contemplate dharmas born through causes and conditions as immediately empty, provisional, and the middle. Immediately empty means that neither self nor no-self can be obtained. Immediately provisional means that one can distinguish the conventional self. Immediately the middle means the true and wondrous self. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

6. Explaining “Heard”

Next explain “heard.” Ānanda was born on the night the Buddha attained the path and served the Buddha for more than twenty years. Before he began serving the Buddha, he could not reasonably have heard the earlier teachings firsthand. The Great Treatise records Ānanda's statement when compiling the Dharma treasury: “When the Buddha first turned the wheel of Dharma, I did not see it myself. I heard these teachings successively from others.” We therefore know that he did not hear every scripture firsthand.

An old interpretation says that Ānanda attained the samādhi of the Buddha's awakening and could hear by the power of that samādhi. The Scripture on Requiting Kindness says that Ānanda requested four wishes from the Buddha, one of which was that the Buddha repeat scriptures he had not heard. Another account says that the Buddha personally taught them to him in private. The Womb Scripture says that the Buddha extended his golden arm from the golden coffin and again manifested for Ānanda the scene of entering the womb, enabling him to hear all the scriptures taught within the womb; how much more could he hear scriptures taught elsewhere? The present scripture also says that when Ānanda received his prediction, he recollected his original vow and preserved the Dharma treasuries of earlier buddhas just as he heard the teachings today. These constitute the interpretation through causes and conditions.

Next explain in terms of the teaching. The first is Ānanda Joy, whose face resembles the pure full moon and whose eyes resemble blue lotus blossoms. He personally receives the Buddha's intent as an intact vessel held upward to catch water, then transmits the Dharma to others as water from one jar is poured into another. He preserves and transmits the Dharma of “hearing and hearing.”

The second is Joyful Worthy. He abides at the stage of training, attains emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness, and his eye, ear, nose, tongue, and other faculties do not leak out afflictions. He preserves and transmits the Dharma of “hearing and not hearing.”

The third is Ānanda the Keeper of the Treasury. He contains and receives many Dharma gates as a great cloud holds rainwater. He preserves and transmits the Dharma of “not hearing and hearing.”

The fourth is Ānanda Ocean. Learned in hearing, he naturally understands permanence and impermanence. If one can know that the Tathāgata constantly does not teach Dharma, one is called a bodhisattva complete in learning through hearing. The waters of the great ocean of Buddhadharma flow into Ānanda's mind. He preserves and transmits the Dharma of “not hearing and not hearing.” This Lotus Sūtra is the wondrous Dharma of “not hearing and not hearing,” preserved and transmitted by Ānanda Ocean.

In terms of Origin and Trace, the four modes of hearing above are all manifested traces used to guide beings, while Ānanda's original ground is inconceivable. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

In contemplating the mind, contemplating conditioned dharmas is the contemplation of “hearing and hearing”; contemplating emptiness is “hearing and not hearing”; contemplating the provisional is “not hearing and hearing”; and contemplating the middle is “not hearing and not hearing.” [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.] When all are contemplated within a single thought, it is wondrous contemplation. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

7. Explaining “At One Time”

Master Sengzhao explains “at one time” as the auspicious occasion on which the Dharma king initiates the movement of transformation and the excellent opportunity and assembly come together. This is the worldly siddhānta.

The treatise says that kāla is practical time, used to indicate the times governing the daily life of the Buddha's disciples. Dressing and acting according to the time for eating, for example, gives people everyday benefit. This is the individual siddhānta.

Samaya is time provisionally established by name and is used to break the wrong view of outsiders who cling to time as real. This is the counteractive siddhānta. When the occasion for teaching accords with the causes and conditions for attaining the path, it is the siddhānta of ultimate meaning. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

Next distinguish in terms of the teaching. From seeing the truths through those not yet beyond training is called the lower “one time.” When the three kinds of persons enter ultimate meaning together, it is called the middle “one time.” The bodhisattva grounds and above are called the upper “one time,” and the first abode and above the highest “one time.” What the present scripture teaches is the highest “one time.”

In terms of Origin and Trace, the several occasions of transformation described above are traces, while that one time of actual buddhahood in the distant past is origin.

In contemplating the mind, first contemplating emptiness, then the provisional, and finally the middle is sequential contemplation of the mind. Contemplating the present mind as immediately empty, immediately provisional, and immediately the middle is perfectly integrated and wondrous contemplation of the mind.

8. Explaining “Buddha”

At the beginning of a kalpa beings have no illness; as the kalpa approaches its end, illnesses are many. Long lives bring ease and short lives suffering. The eastern continent is prosperous and long-lived; the western has many jewels, cattle, and sheep; the northern has no distinction between self and subjects. None of these times or places can evoke a buddha's appearance. In the southern continent, during such periods as lifespans of eighty thousand years or a hundred years, beings can cultivate causes before seeing their fruits, and so the Buddha appears in this land.

A Licchavi said, “The country of Magadha is like a great pond, and the Buddha's appearance in this country is like a great lotus arising in the pond.” Invincible said, “The Buddha is equally disposed toward all beings without distinction. You do not see him only because you are lost and dissipated in the five desires; it is not that the Buddha has abandoned you and appears only in Magadha.” These are explanations through the worldly siddhānta.

If the sun did not rise, lotuses not yet born and already born in the pond alike would unquestionably wither in shadow. When the Buddha appears in the world, he benefits kṣatriyas, brahmins, householders, the Four Heavenly Kings, and even beings in the heaven at the summit of existence. This is the individual siddhānta.

Beings with the capacities of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas—the Three Vehicles—can evoke the Buddha's appearance; other beings cannot. They can skillfully cut off the cause of renewed birth at the summit of existence and forever cross beyond the stream of birth and death. This is the counteractive siddhānta.

The Buddha abides in Dharma-nature and in reality neither moves nor appears from anywhere, yet beings' receptive capacities allow them to see him move and appear in the world. For the Tathāgata himself, there is truly neither movement nor appearance. This is the siddhānta of ultimate meaning. The foregoing comprises the interpretation through causes and conditions.

Next explain in terms of the teaching. “Buddha” means an awakened one and a knower. Beneath the tree at the place of awakening, he knows and sees the general and specific characteristics of the world and what transcends the world. To awaken to the world is to awaken to suffering and its accumulation; to awaken to what transcends the world is to awaken to the path and cessation. He also enables others to awaken.

The Buddha of the Tripiṭaka teaching has a sixteen-foot body, lives eighty years, and manifests the appearance of an elderly bhikṣu. Beneath the bodhi tree he uses thirty-four moments of mind to end both the primary afflictions and their habitual tendencies. This is the self-awakening and awakening of others accomplished by the Buddha of the Tripiṭaka teaching.

The Buddha of the shared teaching still bears the appearance of a bhikṣu while manifesting a body of excellence. Beneath the tree, a single thought accords with wisdom and removes residual habits. This is the self-awakening and awakening of others accomplished by the Buddha of the shared teaching.

The Buddha of the distinct teaching manifests only the body of excellence, sits upon a lotus platform, and receives the office of buddhahood. This is the self-awakening and awakening of others accomplished by the Buddha of the distinct teaching.

The Buddha of the perfect teaching conceals the preceding three appearances and manifests only an inconceivable form like space. This is the self-awakening and awakening of others accomplished by the Buddha of the perfect teaching.

The scripture therefore says: “Some see the Tathāgata's sixteen-foot body; some see a small body and some a great body; some see him sitting upon a lotus platform, teaching the Dharma gate of the mind-ground to hundreds of thousands of Śākyamunis; and some see his body like space, pervading the Dharma realm without differentiation.” This is the meaning of distinguishing the Buddha's bodies in terms of the teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, one Buddha is origin and three buddhas are traces. During the intermediate period of transformation, the Buddha repeatedly declares that he has taken birth and repeatedly declares that he has entered extinction; all are traces. Only the four buddhas complete on the original ground are origins.

In contemplating the mind, contemplating the mind born through causes and conditions first as empty, then provisional, then the middle is still partial and not yet perfect awakening. Contemplating the present mind as immediately empty, immediately provisional, and immediately the middle is perfect awakening. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

9. Explaining “Dwelling”

“Dwelling” includes the one who dwells and that in which one dwells. The place in which he dwells is Rājagṛha in the Endurance Land. The Buddha who dwells remains in the world through the four deportments of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down and has not yet entered extinction. This is the interpretation of dwelling through causes and conditions and the worldly siddhānta.

Dwelling may also mean abiding in the ten wholesome paths and in the four meditative concentrations. This is the interpretation through causes and conditions and the individual siddhānta.

Dwelling may also mean abiding in the three samādhis of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. This is the interpretation through causes and conditions and the counteractive siddhānta.

Dwelling may also mean abiding in the Śūraṅgama Samādhi. This is the interpretation of dwelling through causes and conditions and the siddhānta of ultimate meaning. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

Next explain in terms of the teaching. The Buddha of the Tripiṭaka teaching gives rise to true, uncontaminated wisdom through the method of analysis and abides in nirvāṇa with remainder and nirvāṇa without remainder. The Buddha of the shared teaching gives rise to true wisdom through direct comprehension and likewise abides in nirvāṇa with and without remainder. The Buddha of the distinct teaching enters the secret treasury through a sequential method; the Buddha of the perfect teaching enters it through a nonsequential method. In the first three, the one who dwells and that in which he dwells are relatively coarse and manifest. In the last, both are wondrous. The present scripture teaches the perfect Buddha abiding in wondrous dwelling.

In terms of Origin and Trace, the Buddha of the Tripiṭaka teaching should originally enter nirvāṇa, yet compassion extends a trace and enables him to remain in the world with an embodied form. The Buddha of the shared teaching uses vows and compassion to sustain residual habits, liberate beings, and accomplish buddha-work. The buddhas of the distinct and perfect teachings both perfume Dharma-nature with compassion, take pity on beings, and therefore extend responses throughout the Dharma realm. Understand that the original dwelling of all four buddhas is buddha-dwelling. Only because of compassion do they dwell in Rājagṛha in the Endurance Land and remain through the deportments; this is called trace-dwelling.

In contemplating the mind, contemplative wisdom abides in the object contemplated. It may abide in the object of impermanence or in objects that are immediately empty, provisional, and the middle. Because it abides in an object by means of the Dharma of nonattachment, it is called dwelling.

10. Explaining Rājagṛha

In India, Rājagṛha is called Luoyueqi Jialuo. Luoyueqi is translated as “king's dwelling,” and jialuo as “city.” The country is called Magadha, translated as “not harming,” because it was said to have no law of execution or killing. It is also called Magadha in another transcription, translated as “Heavenly Snare.” Heavenly Snare was likewise a king's name, so the country was named after him. This king was Spotted-Foot's father.

Long ago, King Heavenly Snare ruled a thousand small states. While traveling in the mountains he encountered a lioness, and all his attendants scattered and fled. The lioness then coupled with the king. When the time for birth arrived, she came to the palace and bore a child. The king knew the child was his son but told the people, “I formerly had no son; Heaven has bestowed this child upon me.” He raised him as the crown prince. The child's feet bore variegated markings, so people called him Spotted-Foot.

Spotted-Foot later inherited the throne. He delighted in eating meat and ordered his cook never to let a day pass without it. One day, when no meat could be found on short notice, the cook prepared a recently deceased child from west of the city. The king found the taste exceptionally good and ordered the cook always to keep human flesh ready. Thereafter the cook seized one person every day, and the whole country fell into sorrow and fear. The thousand small states raised armies together, deposed Spotted-Foot, and exiled him to Vulture Mountain.

Rākṣasas in the mountains assisted Spotted-Foot and made him a ghost king. He vowed to the mountain deity that he would obtain a thousand kings as a sacrifice. He captured nine hundred ninety-nine and lacked only King Universal Radiance; after waiting for his opportunity, he seized that king as well. Universal Radiance wept loudly, grieving that after speaking truthfully all his life he was about to break his word. Spotted-Foot therefore allowed him to return to his country.

King Universal Radiance returned home, made great gifts, established the crown prince as his successor, and then came back to face death. His expression was joyful and his mind settled. Spotted-Foot asked why, and Universal Radiance replied, “I have heard the noble Dharma.” Spotted-Foot asked him to teach it. Universal Radiance extensively praised loving-kindness, condemned killing, and spoke four verses on impermanence. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.] After hearing the Dharma, Spotted-Foot attained the ground of the equality of emptiness, which the present text identifies as the first bodhisattva ground.

Each of the thousand kings provided one drop of blood and three hairs to fulfill Spotted-Foot's vow to the mountain deity. Spotted-Foot and the thousand kings jointly established Rājagṛha as a great country within the five mountains. Each king left his former small state to his descendants, while the kings took turns governing the great country.

Another account says that the people lived within the five mountains and built their houses seven times, only to have them burned seven times. They discussed the matter: “Because our merit is slight, we repeatedly suffer fire. The king possesses meritorious power, and his dwelling is not burned. From now on, let us mark every house as a king's dwelling.” They thereby escaped the fires, and the place was called the City of the King's Dwelling.

Another account says that Spotted-Foot and the thousand kings built dwellings together there, and so it was called the King's Dwelling. Another says that after attaining the path, Spotted-Foot released the thousand kings. Since they were pardoned there, the land was originally called the King's Pardon; the compilers borrowed a homophone and wrote the graph for “dwelling” in place of that for “pardon.” These causes and conditions come from the Great Treatise and various scriptures. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

Next explain in terms of the teaching. The Sutra Resolving Doubts concerning the Semblance Dharma says that members of the assembly saw the same śāla grove differently. Some saw only earth, sand, grasses, trees, and stone walls. Some saw it pure and adorned with the seven treasures. Some saw it as a place where buddhas of past, present, and future had traveled. Some saw it as the inconceivable realm of all buddhas and the real substance of Dharma. By analogy, if the place dwelt in can appear differently according to the viewer, the Buddha who dwells there likewise appears according to beings' capacities. This is distinction in terms of the teaching. Origin and Trace and contemplation of Rājagṛha are left for later.

11. Explaining Vulture Peak and “Within”

“Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain” is translated as Spirit Vulture, Vulture Head, and Wolf Track. Emperor Wu of Liang said, “The wangju is the guanju bird praised in the Book of Odes.” The Erya says its shape resembles a kite.

One explanation says that the summit resembles a vulture and that the mountain was named for the summit's shape. Another says that a charnel ground lay south of the mountain, and after vultures ate the corpses they roosted upon the mountain; people of the time therefore called it Vulture Mountain. Another says that buddhas of the past and the present Buddha dwelt on this mountain. After the Buddha's extinction, arhats dwelt there; after the true Dharma disappeared, pratyekabuddhas dwelt there; when there were no pratyekabuddhas, spirits dwelt there. Because it was inhabited by sages and spiritual beings, these three circumstances together gave it the name Spirit Vulture Mountain.

There were five monastic retreats in this area. The first was Pipoluo Bashu, translated as Cave of the Lord of Heaven. The second was Saduobanna Qiuhe, translated as Seven-Leaf Cave. The third was Yintuoshiluo Qiuhe, translated as Mountain of the Serpent Spirit. The fourth was Saposhu Huen Zhijia Boboluo, translated as Mountain of Slight Solitary Strength. The fifth was Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain itself.

Someone asks: when the fire at the end of a kalpa blazes fiercely and empties heaven and earth, why do buddhas of the past and future still dwell on the same mountain?

The answer is that when the following kalpa is formed, the mountain's former shape appears again. Those with supernormal powers know the name it bore in the previous kalpa and apply the old name to the mountain of the present day. It is like the Gautama surname, which existed in a former kalpa and is still used as a surname by later people.

The mountain may be explained in terms of the teaching by analogy with the preceding explanation of Rājagṛha. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

Next explain through contemplating the mind. The king is the sovereign mind; the dwelling is the five aggregates; and the sovereign mind constructs the dwelling of the five aggregates. If one analyzes this dwelling and sees emptiness, taking emptiness as the city of nirvāṇa, the contemplation remains shallow, like seeing only earth and wood. If one directly comprehends that the dwelling of the five aggregates is immediately empty and takes that emptiness as the city of nirvāṇa, it is the contemplation of the shared teaching.

If one contemplates the dwelling of the five aggregates, then after extinguishing this impermanent form one obtains permanently abiding form; feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness likewise become permanent. These four virtues are always places where buddhas travel. If one contemplates the five aggregates as immediately Dharma-nature, then within Dharma-nature there is no feeling, perception, formation, or consciousness that can be obtained. All beings are immediately nirvāṇa and can no longer be extinguished; this is the ultimately empty and quiescent dwelling. Such nirvāṇa is the real substance of suchness. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

Next contemplate the mountain within the mind. In contemplating the form aggregate, it is unknowing like a mountain. The consciousness aggregate can distinguish and is like the spiritual quality. Feeling, perception, and formations gather and are like vultures. Contemplating this Spirit Vulture as impermanent is analytical contemplation; contemplating it as immediately empty is direct contemplation.

At a deeper level, the spiritual quality is the nature of wisdom and the revealing cause, the adornment of wisdom. The vulture is gathering and the conditioning cause, the adornment of merit. The mountain is Dharma-nature and the direct cause. These three dharmas are unmoving and are called the secret treasury. One dwells within them oneself and also uses them to liberate others. A later passage says that the Buddha himself dwells in the Great Vehicle; these are the contemplations of the distinct and perfect teachings. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

Finally explain “within.” The Buddha delights in the middle path, and so he ascended into the central heaven, was born at midday in what ancient texts called the central country, and entered extinction at midnight; all these express the middle path. Now he again teaches the Dharma within the mountain, and this too teaches the middle path.

1. Why Is the Assembly Who Heard the Teaching Listed in This Order?

The assembly who heard the Buddha's teaching together with Ānanda may be divided into three classes: first the śrāvakas, second the bodhisattvas, and third the various other members of the assembly. Most scriptures arrange them in this order.

There have traditionally been two explanations, one based on concrete circumstances and one based on doctrine. The circumstantial explanation arranges the assembly according to outward form, manifested conduct, and closeness to the Buddha. Śrāvakas manifest the form of renunciants, have already left the net of worldly life, and in their conduct remain close to the Tathāgata. Because they can attest the scripture, they are listed first. Gods and humans differ from the monastic community in form and dress, and their manifested conduct is not that of attendants serving the Buddha. Their relation to scriptural attestation is therefore more distant, so they are listed later. Bodhisattvas are not restricted to one outward observance and have no fixed place of manifestation. Being neither the same as laypeople nor the same as monastics, they stand between the first and last and therefore occupy the middle position.

According to the doctrinal explanation, śrāvakas delight in seeking nirvāṇa, while gods and humans cling to saṃsāra; each inclines toward one extreme. Bodhisattvas neither delight in seeking the nirvāṇa of partial emptiness nor cling to saṃsāra. Taking the middle path as their principle, they are therefore listed between the other two. The meaning of the Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom is similar. Although this is called one traditional explanation, it seems to contain two: the circumstantial explanation resembles interpretation through causes and conditions, while the doctrinal explanation resembles interpretation in terms of the teaching. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

Interpreted through origin and manifestation, the śrāvakas inwardly conceal bodhisattva practice and only outwardly manifest as śrāvakas; how could they rigidly abide in the nirvāṇa already attained? Gods and humans are likewise originally great bodhisattvas; how could they truly be immersed in saṃsāra? In their outward traces they separately manifest in order to guide people attached to the two extremes of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, while in their origin they constantly abide in the middle path.

Interpreted through contemplating the mind, entering the contemplation of emptiness from provisional existence emphasizes breaking attachment to saṃsāra; entering contemplation of the provisional from emptiness emphasizes breaking attachment to nirvāṇa. Correct contemplation of the middle path transcends both inclinations, and then there is no longer anyone who comes first or last. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

2. Which Kind of Śrāvaka Is Listed First?

The śrāvaka assembly is divided into two groups: bhikṣus are listed first and bhikṣuṇīs afterward. The bhikṣus are again divided into two groups: those widely known to the public are listed first, and those of lesser renown afterward. Traditionally these have been called those of great renown and those of lesser renown. Although these two names have no textual basis, the distinction can still be made from the wording of the scripture.

The widely known śrāvaka assembly is further divided into six sections: first class, second number, third stage, fourth praise, fifth listing the names, and sixth conclusion.

First comes their class. They all belong to the class of great bhikṣus. People from various regions may differ in honor and rank, yet each still has an appropriate order and standing. These bhikṣus are people widely known to the assembly, eminent in reputation and weighty in virtue.

3. The Shared Relation Contained in “Together With”

The Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom explains “together with” in the scripture as expressing commonality and uses seven forms of “one” to describe it: one time, one place, one discipline, one mind, one view, one path, and one liberation.

If the different teachings are traversed, each should explain its own seven unities. The Tripiṭaka teaching has one set of seven; the shared teaching has two sets according to two kinds of practitioners; the distinct teaching has immeasurable sets; and the perfect teaching has one set.

Before their original identities are disclosed, what is principally visible here are the seven unities of the Tripiṭaka and shared teachings. If one compares only how these two sets differ, then time, place, discipline, and liberation are the same, while mind, view, and path differ. When the provisional three vehicles are opened and the reality of the One Buddha-Vehicle revealed, they can enter the seven unities of the perfect teaching.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra speaks of four kinds of śrāvaka. Here those who abide in fruition are divided into two: those who analyze dharmas and abide in fruition are śrāvakas of the Tripiṭaka teaching, while those who directly realize that dharmas are empty and abide in fruition are śrāvakas of the shared teaching. Emanated śrāvakas are also divided into two: those who respond through manifestation after reaching the first ground belong to the distinct teaching, while those who respond after reaching the first abode belong to the perfect teaching. Śrāvakas who cause others to hear the Buddha path are likewise divided into two: those who cause others to hear it sequentially belong to the distinct teaching, while those who cause others to hear it without sequence belong to the perfect teaching.

Seen in this way, the meaning of śrāvaka unfolds very broadly. How could it be judged solely by the single category of those who have realized nirvāṇa? [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

4. Why Does “Great” Also Include “Many” and “Superior”?

Next comes the explanation of “great.” The Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom says that “great” can also mean “many” and “superior.” Because their capacity is expansive and worthy of respect, and because they are honored by great persons such as heavenly kings, they are called great. Because they surpass the ninety-five outsider paths, they are called superior. Because they know both Buddhist and non-Buddhist scriptures throughout and number twelve thousand, they are called many.

Here “great” is further explained through a great path, great function, and great knowledge. Because their path, function, and knowledge are superior, they are called superior; because their path, function, and knowledge are manifold, they are called many. Path is the mindfulness practice based on intrinsic nature, vast and superior to the outsiders' claim to omniscience. Function is the shared mindfulness practice, superior to outsiders' supernormal powers. Knowledge is the mindfulness practice taking conditions as its objects, knowing more than the outsiders' four Vedas.

When great, many, and superior are explained according to different teachings, the meanings just given—such as being honored by great persons—belong to the Tripiṭaka teaching.

In the shared teaching, “great” means being honored by powerful arhats who cultivate direct realization of the emptiness of dharmas; “many” means comprehensively knowing that dharmas of arising and ceasing are, in their very substance, dharmas of nonarising and nonceasing; and “superior” means surpassing the four gateways into the path taught in the Tripiṭaka teaching.

In the distinct teaching, “great” means being honored by powerful arhats who directly realize dharmas; “many” means knowing buddhadharmas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges; and “superior” means surpassing people of the two vehicles.

In the perfect teaching, “great” means being honored by the great bodhisattvas; “many” means knowing all the immeasurable dharmas of the Dharma realm; and “superior” means surpassing other bodhisattvas.

In terms of origin and manifestation, these great disciples had long been praised by buddhas. In their origin they had already attained the Victory-Banner Samādhi and surpassed the various outsider paths; they had also long since accomplished knowledge of all modes and knew all things throughout. Now, in their outward traces, they come to assist the Buddha's transforming work. They manifest great, many, and superior among beings of craving and wrong views in order to guide beings of the milk stage into the flavor of curds. They then manifest the great, many, and superior of the Tripiṭaka teaching in order to lead from curds into raw ghee; manifest the great, many, and superior of the Vaipulya teaching in order to lead from raw ghee into refined ghee; and manifest the great, many, and superior of the Prajñāpāramitā teachings during the period of transferred instruction in order to lead from refined ghee into the flavor of clarified essence. They therefore also manifest the great, many, and superior of the Lotus. Their original great, many, and superior are greater still. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

In contemplating the mind, contemplation of emptiness is called great, contemplation of the provisional is called many, and contemplation of the middle is called superior. Or, speaking directly from contemplation of the middle, mind-nature is expansive like space and therefore called great; it simultaneously blocks the two extremes of emptiness and existence and enters the sea of quiescence and is therefore called superior; it simultaneously illuminates ultimate and conventional truth and contains multiplicity—one mind containing all minds—and is therefore called many.

5. How Do the Three Meanings of Bhikṣu Run from the Beginning to the End of Practice?

Next comes the explanation of “bhikṣu.”

Sengzhao says: “In Chinese it may be divided into such meanings as living on pure livelihood by alms, breaking afflictions, being able to uphold the precepts, and causing Māra to fear. One Indian name contains all four, while Chinese has no single term that can translate them completely, so the original designation is retained.”

Kumārajīva says: “At first, having left the household of wife and children, one should sustain oneself through alms and live by pure means. Finally, having left the household of the three realms, one must break afflictions and uphold the precepts in self-discipline. When both dimensions of meaning are present, the heavenly Māra fears that this person will leave his domain.”

The Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom says: “Frightening Māra, breaking evil, and an alms-seeker. Māra delights in beings remaining in saṃsāra. A renunciant leaves home himself and transforms others so that all leave the three realms, thereby opposing Māra's wishes. Māra exerts himself to stop this, but instead becomes bound in five places and can only grieve and fear; hence ‘frightening Māra.’ A renunciant must break the seven evils committed by body and speech; hence ‘breaking evil.’ Householders have three lawful livelihoods: first farming, second commerce, and third public service, by which they sustain their lives. The Buddha did not permit renunciants to engage in these activities and allowed only alms to sustain themselves. When the body is secure, the practice of the path can endure, and donors can gain merit. The three meanings mutually complete one another and together constitute the meaning of bhikṣu.”

The Great Parinirvāṇa Sutra and the Ratnakūṭa Sutra both explain bhikṣu only by citing the breaking of evil; they do not state all the meanings.

Here the three meanings—frightening Māra, breaking evil, and alms-seeker—should be understood as running through both the beginning and the later stages of practice. When one first leaves home and receives the precepts, the precept Dharma is established through a formal act with one motion and three proclamations. The power of nonmanifest precepts extends throughout every conditioned object and can reverse nonmanifest evil. When one first cultivates concentration and gives rise to the precepts co-arising with concentration, one can prevent and subdue greed and anger in the mind so that they do not arise. When one first cultivates contemplative wisdom and gives rise to an approximation of the precepts co-arising with the path, one can subdue afflictions. If even a beginner may be called one who breaks evil, why should only one at the later stage be so called?

Frightening Māra is the same. When one first shaves the beard and hair and receives the precept Dharma, Māra is already made to grieve. Cultivating concentration is directed toward subduing afflictions, and cultivating wisdom toward breaking them. If even a beginner causes Māra to fear, why should only one at the later stage be so called?

The same applies to alms-seeker. At first one leaves wrong livelihood and sustains oneself by alms. While cultivating meditation, one ranges through various objects and conditions in search of concentration. While cultivating wisdom, one takes truth as the object and seeks uncontaminated knowledge. All these are meanings of alms-seeker. How much more, once one corresponds with what is cultivated, could one cease to be an alms-seeker? Because all these meanings are present, the name bhikṣu applies from beginning to end. The compilers of the scriptures, however, praise only bhikṣus at the later stage of practice. The foregoing is the meaning according to the Tripiṭaka teaching.

To seek ultimate truth throughout various conditioned objects is to be an alms-seeker; to break delusions that obstruct truth is to break evil; and to cultivate this practice so that the four Māras fear is the meaning according to the shared teaching.

To seek the principle throughout the three truths is to be an alms-seeker; to remove shared and distinct delusions is to break evil; and to cause the eight or ten Māras to fear is the meaning according to the distinct teaching.

To seek the flavor of the true mark without leaving saṃsāra is to be an alms-seeker; to penetrate afflictions as themselves awakening is to break evil; and to penetrate the realm of Māra as itself the realm of the Buddha is the meaning according to the perfect teaching.

Before their original identities are disclosed, only the meanings of the first two teachings are made clear. Once the origin is disclosed, the profound meanings of the latter two are also present.

In terms of origin and manifestation, they had originally long since ascended the summit of Mount Nirvāṇa. They had left the parents called ignorance, delusion, and craving; left the wife called afflictive bonds and karma; and departed from the households of fragmentary and transformational birth-and-death. They had long since removed the afflictions of the five abodes—what evil could remain unbroken? They had attained the true joy of Dharma, like those who had eaten milk gruel and sought nothing else. They also upheld the precepts co-arising with the path of the middle and used the precept of gathering beings within the perfection of discipline to transform them. The realm of Māra had been subdued and was itself suchness as the realm of the Buddha. Their original merit had long since been accomplished, sufficient to bear and guide beings. To tame beings, they manifested outwardly as bhikṣus passing through the five flavors and guided beings in sequence, as previously explained.

In contemplating the mind, observe one thought as pure like space, unobstructed by the fetters of the extremes of emptiness and existence. When impartial great wisdom has no abiding and no attachment, this is called leaving home. To nourish oneself through contemplation of the middle so that the Dharma body and wisdom-life endure is to be an alms-seeker. To contemplate the afflictions of the five abodes as themselves awakening is to break evil. To see that every extreme view and inversion is none other than the middle path is to frighten Māra. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

6. In What Sense Is the Assembly Harmoniously United?

Next comes the explanation of “assembly.” In India it is called saṃgha, translated into Chinese as a harmoniously united assembly. One person cannot be called a harmony; four or more are called a harmony. In shared communal affairs there is no second, divided assembly, and in the Dharma-principle shared in common there is no second, divergent principle.

The Buddha was constantly together with twelve hundred and fifty people: the disciples of the three Kāśyapas totaled one thousand, and the disciples of Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana totaled two hundred and fifty. Another account also lists Yaśas and fifty companions.

The Wenju cites fascicle forty-five of the Saṃyukta Āgama: “Among five hundred bhikṣus, ninety possessed the three knowledges, ninety attained liberation in both ways, and the rest attained liberation through wisdom alone.”

The Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom speaks of four kinds of saṃgha. Those who do not live by pure right livelihood are called a saṃgha that has broken the precepts; those who do not understand the discipline are called an ignorant saṃgha; those who practice at the five preparatory stages are called a conscience-bearing saṃgha; and those from the stage of patience with the Dharma of suffering onward are called the true saṃgha. The present assembly is none of the first three but only the true saṃgha.

According to the four teachings, this community had passed through the various teaching assemblies of the five flavors, both partial and perfect, as companions hearing together. At present they are precisely the assembly of the perfect teaching that attests the scripture.

In terms of origin and manifestation, they were originally united with the principle of the true mark and also united with the capacities of all beings throughout the Dharma realm. Only in outward manifestation did they appear as a saṃgha united in communal affairs and principle within the half-word teaching, passing through the five flavors to guide beings. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

In contemplating the mind, one who first studies contemplation of the middle and enters approximative contemplation but has not yet given rise to true realization feels shame before the heaven of ultimate meaning and moral dread before the sages; this is the conscience-bearing saṃgha. When contemplative wisdom truly arises, this is the true saṃgha. Depart from this contemplative practice and one falls into the first two kinds: those who do not accord with contemplative practice are called a saṃgha that has broken the precepts, while those who do not understand the characteristics of the object contemplated are called an ignorant saṃgha. This completes the meaning of class.

7. How Does Twelve Thousand Become a Gate of Contemplation?

Second comes the number: twelve thousand people.

In terms of origin and manifestation, they were originally twelve thousand bodhisattvas and outwardly manifested as twelve thousand śrāvakas.

In contemplating the mind, contemplate the twelve entrances. Each entrance possesses the ten Dharma realms, and each Dharma realm in turn possesses all ten Dharma realms; each realm has the ten suchnesses. Thus one entrance contains one thousand. Since one entrance already has one thousand, the twelve entrances together make twelve thousand Dharma gates.

8. How Do the Three Meanings of Arhat Run from Cause to Fruition?

Third comes the stage. The scripture says that all these people were arhats. The Ābá Scripture calls arhat “one who responds to truth,” while the Sutra of the Crown Prince's Auspicious Response calls it “true person”; both explain arhat through nonarising.

According to the old translation, arhat contains the three meanings of unattached, nonarising, and worthy of offerings. Others say that no single Chinese term can translate the name completely because it contains three meanings.

Just as grain is freed from the husk of ignorance, one no longer undergoes the fruit of birth-and-death in the field of later lives and is therefore called nonarising. Because all ninety-eight compulsions of affliction have been exhausted, one is called a slayer of thieves. Because one possesses the merits of wisdom and severance and can serve as a field of merit for humans and gods, one is called worthy of offerings. These three meanings together explain arhat.

Another explanation contrasts the beginning of practice with fruition. When one first begins to study nonarising, birth-and-death has not yet completely ceased to arise. Although one initially causes Māra to fear, he is not yet greatly afraid. Although one is initially an alms-seeker, one is not yet manifestly a field of merit worthy of offerings. Now one has attained patience with the nonarising of dharmas, destroyed the thieves of affliction, and become an excellent field of merit. This explains the three meanings of arhat at fruition by looking back to the three causal meanings of bhikṣu.

If one speaks only of accomplishment, one should take the three meanings at fruition; if one wishes to include the beginning, the three causal meanings may also be used. These explanations all belong to the Tripiṭaka and shared teachings.

In the distinct and perfect teachings, the meaning differs. One must not only slay the thieves of affliction but also break attachment to nirvāṇa, which people of the two vehicles do not regard as a thief; hence one is called a slayer of what is not regarded as a thief. One not only ceases to be born in saṃsāra but also does not abide in the nonarising of the two vehicles; even uncontaminated nonarising no longer arises. One not only receives offerings but in turn makes offerings to all beings worthy of offerings. These all praise the merit of the first ground or first abode.

9. The Origin, Manifestation, and Contemplation of the Arhat Stage

In terms of origin and manifestation, they had originally attained the Samādhi of Nonreception and were unstained by either saṃsāra or nirvāṇa, and so were called nonarising. They had severed the afflictions of the five abodes and so were called slayers of thieves. They could bring merit and benefit to beings throughout the nine Dharma realms, benefiting beings, and were therefore worthy of offerings. These are meanings of origin. Only as a skillful means for liberating beings did they pass through the five flavors and manifest nonarising at successive levels; this is manifestation.

Another formulation says: originally they were Dharma body, while in manifestation they displayed the attainment of their own benefit; originally they were prajñā, while in manifestation they displayed nonarising; originally they were liberation, while in manifestation they displayed the slaying of thieves. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

In contemplating the mind, contemplation of emptiness is prajñā, contemplation of the provisional is liberation, and contemplation of the middle is Dharma body. Or, from contemplating the mind again, entering emptiness from provisional existence also possesses the three meanings of arhat. In contemplation of the middle, one slays the thief of ignorance and no longer gives rise to the mind of the two vehicles. Offering to such a practitioner is like offering to the World-Honored One.

The Vaipulya teachings say: “Making offerings to the Buddha and Mañjuśrī does not equal providing one meal to a practitioner of the Vaipulya teachings so that the practitioner's body may be sustained.” A later passage in this scripture also says: “The wrongdoing or merit obtained by slandering or praising the Buddha is lighter; that obtained by slandering or praising a person who upholds the scripture is heavier.”

Why? The Buddha has no thought of seeking food and has long since left the eight winds of gain and loss behind. Slander or praise can neither harm nor benefit him. Giving to one who upholds the scripture, however, can preserve that person's flesh-and-blood body, prolong the life of the person's retributive body, cause the Dharma body to grow, and increase wisdom-life; it therefore brings real benefit. If one slanders such a person, causing distress, retreat, and regret, then once the opportune time for cultivating the path is missed, rescue may become impossible; the harm is therefore great. [Original note: the rest is abbreviated.]

10. How Do Five Sentences Praise the Three Virtues of the Arhat?

Fourth comes the praise of virtue. The scripture has five statements praising the three virtues described above. The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra says: “The first statement is general, and the following statements explain it separately.” We therefore know that every following statement praises a merit contained in “arhat.”

“Their outflows were exhausted; they had no further afflictions” praises the slaying of thieves described above. Outflows are the three outflows: sensual outflow, existence outflow, and ignorance outflow. The Satyasiddhi Treatise says: “Because it causes one to lose the true path, it is called an outflow.” A Vinaya text says: “An ignorant person creates karma and opens the various gates of outflow.” An Abhidharma text says: “Outflows make one fall and circulate through saṃsāra.” Although treatise and Vinaya phrase the matter differently, both explain the meaning of outflow.

The thieves of affliction deceive beings, cause them to lose the jewel of truth, and leave them poor, solitary, and without protection. They make beings create various evil actions, incur the suffering of saṃsāra, lose the Dharma body and wisdom-life, and forfeit precious treasure. All these are meanings of thief. These two statements should therefore not be understood as praising nonarising.

Afflictions are the ninety-eight compulsions and such forces as currents, yokes, entanglements, and hindrances that torment practitioners. Afflictions are what moisten karmic seeds; karma associated with outflows is what is moistened. When both what moistens and what is moistened have been exhausted, this is precisely the meaning of slaying thieves. How could it instead be classified as praise of nonarising?

11. One's Own Benefit, Bonds of Existence, and Mastery of Mind

“They had attained their own benefit” praises worthiness of offerings. Causes and fruits within the three realms are all called “other”; only the merits of wisdom and severing delusion are called one's own benefit. Because one's own benefit is complete, one can become worthy of offerings.

“They had exhausted all bonds of existence; their minds had attained mastery” praises nonarising. The various existences are the twenty-five modes of existence, the places where beings take birth. Bonds are likewise related to the twenty-five modes of existence but refer to the causes that bring birth about. When the cause of birth is exhausted, the fruit of birth disappears; the virtue of nonarising is clear. These statements should not be classified as praise of slaying thieves.

Strictly speaking, an arhat should only be said to have exhausted the bonds that are causes of birth; one should not yet say directly that the retributive modes of existence are already exhausted. “Existence is exhausted” here speaks of the fruit in advance while still at the causal stage, and also reflects that retributive existence will soon reach its end.

“Mastery of mind” means concentration is complete; “mastery of wisdom” means wisdom is complete. A person with mastery of wisdom does not necessarily have mastery of mind, while one with mastery of mind necessarily also has mastery of wisdom. Since the scripture here says that their minds had mastery, these are people liberated in both ways, complete in concentration and wisdom. The rebirth of one liberated in both ways is certainly exhausted. We therefore know that this sentence praises the virtue of nonarising.

According to the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra, this is called the successive rising from higher to higher, meaning that a later statement explains an earlier one. The treatise says: “Because all outflows have been exhausted, they are called arhats; because their minds have attained mastery, they are said to have exhausted the bonds of existence.” In this way, each later statement explains the preceding one.

12. Origin, Contemplating the Mind, and the Conclusion of the Five Statements

In terms of origin and manifestation, when even the nonarising in which the two vehicles abide no longer arises, this is called great nirvāṇa. The sources of the currents of afflictive outflow had long since dried up; they no longer fell to the ground of the two vehicles or the ground of ordinary beings. This is original nonarising. Dharma body, wisdom, the merit of severance, and the merit of the true mark are originally their own benefit. Having attained the King Samādhi, they can break the twenty-five modes of existence and display the eight masteries possessed by the self of intrinsic nature. This is original slaying of thieves; only in their traces do they manifest the merits of the two vehicles.

In contemplating the mind, correct contemplation of the middle path does not flow down into the two extremes of emptiness and provisional existence, and the afflictions of both extremes thereby cease. The nature of the contemplating mind is called the highest concentration. The secret treasury, like a jewel sewn into one's robe, was originally one's own possession; this is one's own benefit. When correct contemplation of the middle illuminates, the thieves of afflictive bonds are severed. Once the bonds no longer exist, the modes of existence born from them are also cut off. Neither the extreme of emptiness nor that of existence can bind this mind, and so it is called sovereign.

Thus, although afflictions still appear to be present, it is as though there were no afflictions. One enters nirvāṇa without annihilating afflictions. This is precisely the meaning expressed by this passage.

1. General Meaning of the Listing of Names

The fifth division is the listing of names. The scripture cites about twenty-one elders. In fact, all the Buddha's disciples possessed many kinds of practice. Here their complete capacities are left implicit, and each is named according to one particular virtue in order to guide people with different inclinations. The Ekottarika Āgama says that those who followed the monk Kauṇḍinya were all senior elders, eminent in virtue and held in honor; those who followed Śāriputra possessed profound and incisive wisdom; and those who followed Maudgalyāyana possessed great supernormal power. Each mastered one Dharma gate with which to guide beings who favored a particular approach.

To explain each name, one must therefore understand that person's conduct and virtue. Since names are established from virtues, interpretation by this method will be coherent wherever it is applied. In principle, each arhat below is explained through four meanings: causes and conditions, interpretation in terms of the teaching, Origin and Trace, and contemplating the mind [and so forth].

2. Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya: Name, Former Vows, and First Attainment of the Path

“Kauṇḍinya” is a surname, translated as Fire Vessel. He belonged to the brahman caste. His ancestors made a livelihood from serving fire, and so fire was used to name their lineage. Fire has two functions, illumination and burning: illumination prevents darkness from arising, while burning prevents things from arising. The surname is therefore explained through the meaning of nonarising.

“Ājñāta” is his given name, translated as Already Knew; it is also translated as Unknowing. “Unknowing” does not mean knowing nothing, but knowing the “not.” In terms of the two truths of ultimate and conventional, it means knowing the ultimate truth, and his name is established from the knowledge of nonarising. The Sutra of Immeasurable Life, the Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions, the Abhidharma, and the Vibhāṣā all call him one who understood the original limit or knew the original limit. In terms of the four truths, he knew the truth of cessation. Many sutras translate his name as Unknowing, and some as Attained the Path. The Ekottarika Āgama says that within the Buddhadharma the monk Kauṇḍinya was foremost in broad-mindedness and learning and in being first to receive the taste of Dharma. Hence Ājñāta became his name.

In terms of his former vow, during a famine in a past life the Buddha transformed himself into a great red-eyed fish, held his breath, ceased moving, and appeared to be dead. Five carpenters were the first to cut flesh from the fish with their axes. The Buddha then vowed, “In a future life, I shall deliver these five first.” The Buddha had first vowed that they would attain nonarising, so he is called Ājñāta. Again, in the time of Kāśyapa Buddha, nine people studied the path. Five of them had not yet attained the fruit and therefore vowed to awaken first within Śākyamuni Buddha's Dharma. Drawn by this former vow, they were the first to attain nonarising and hence the name Ājñāta.

In terms of conduct and virtue, when wisdom arises, delusion is extinguished: this is the practice of knowledge and severance. Through the long night, everyone sleeps and no one awakens first; before the sun has risen, the morning star appears. The monk Kauṇḍinya first attained the knowledge of nonarising, just as the morning star precedes every other light. No one's light of wisdom appeared before Kauṇḍinya's, and so he is called Ājñāta. Nor does anything dispel darkness earlier than the morning star. Kauṇḍinya likewise first extinguished the darkness of beings, and so he is called Ājñāta.

Next come the causes and conditions for his being “first.” The crown prince renounced his country and royal station and entered the mountains to cultivate the path. The king, longing for his son, sent five men to follow and serve him. They were Kauṇḍinya; Aśvajit, also called Aśvaka, Assaji, or Horse-Star; Bhadrika, also called Mahānāma; Daśabala Kāśyapa; and Prince Koli. Two were relatives on his mother's side and three on his father's side. Two regarded sensual pleasure as purity, while three regarded ascetic practice as purity. When the prince practiced austerities, the two left him and the other three remained in attendance. Later, when the prince abandoned austerities and again accepted food, ghee, and warm water, the three also departed.

After attaining the path, the prince first taught the four truths to these five. When he initially taught two of them, Kauṇḍinya attained the pure Dharma eye while the other four did not. Three went out to seek alms, and what they obtained was shared among all six. He next taught the three, who then attained the pure Dharma eye, while the other two went for alms, again sharing what they obtained among the six. At the third teaching, Kauṇḍinya and the other four, together with eighty thousand devas, became far removed from dust and defilement; the five attained nonarising. The Buddha asked three times, “Do you know the Dharma?” Three times they answered, “We already know.” The earth deities proclaimed it, the gods in the sky passed the proclamation one to another, and the sound reached as far as the Brahmā world.

All the gods called him “Already Knew.” Kauṇḍinya was first to behold the signs of the Buddha's attainment of the path, first to hear the Dharma drum, first to receive the fragrance of the path, first to taste the amṛta, first to enter the Dharma stream, and first to ascend to the ultimate truth. Among those in Jambudvīpa who attained the path, he preceded every person, every deva, and every arhat. The Sutra of Twelve Years' Travels therefore says that in the first year after his awakening the Buddha delivered the five, in the second year the three Kāśyapas, and in the fifth year Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana. From this one can know that Ājñāta truly came first. The foregoing is the interpretation through causes and conditions.

3. Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya: Nonarising as Clarified in the Tripiṭaka Teaching

In the interpretation of the Tripiṭaka teaching, a blind person represents the knowledge of nonarising, and a mirror represents the object of nonarising—that is, the aggregates, sense fields, and elements. The six parts, beginning with the head, represent present causes, while the image in the mirror represents future fruit. If one opens one's eyes and takes up the mirror, the face and mirror stand opposite each other and an image arises. Because of delusion, cause and fruit cannot be cut off. If one closes one's eyes as though blind, nothing at all is seen. Not seeing the six parts, beginning with the head, represents the nonarising of the cause; not seeing the image in the mirror represents the nonarising of the fruit.

The Āgamas therefore say: if one regards form as truly existent and pure, this “purity” arises and is not nonarising. If one regards feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness as truly existent, and consciousness as pure, purity arises and is not nonarising. If one regards feeling as pleasure, pleasure arises and is not nonarising; this extends to regarding form as pleasure, in which case pleasure likewise arises and is not nonarising. If one clings to perception and formations and takes formations as self, self arises and is not nonarising; this extends to taking form as self, in which case self likewise arises and is not nonarising. If one reckons consciousness to be permanent, permanence arises and is not nonarising; this extends to reckoning form as permanent, in which case permanence likewise arises and is not nonarising.

This is like taking up a mirror and seeing one's own face: when the facial image arises, it is not nonarising. If the five aggregates are regarded as truly existent, all five become arising and are not nonarising. If one can know that form is not pure, extending to knowing that consciousness is not permanent; and if one can know that everything from form through consciousness is impermanent, suffering, empty, and impure—is impermanent, suffering, not-self, and impure—this is nonarising rather than arising. It is like a blind person holding a mirror, unable to see an image arise: this is nonarising rather than arising.

Having known nonarising, how could one still reckon within form that “I am form,” “I am different from form,” “I dwell within form,” or “form dwells within me”? Feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are contemplated in the same way. Through such contemplation, both present cause and future fruit do not arise, just as a blind person facing a mirror sees neither face nor reflected image. This is called the contemplative knowledge that sees the five aggregates as nonarising.

Next contemplate the sense fields and elements. What people ordinarily call an ocean may be deep and broad, yet it has this shore and the farther shore and remains only a small, bounded body of water. Only when the eye has seen a visible object, delights in it, becomes defiled and attached, craves and enjoys it, and initiates bodily, verbal, and mental action does it become a true great ocean capable of drowning the devas, humans, and asuras of all worlds.

One should therefore know: the eye is the ocean and visible form its waves; attachment to visible objects is the swirling rapid current; the arising of unskillful reflection within it is evil fish and poisonous dragons; jealousy and harm are male rākṣasas; defiling desire is a female ghost; and the further production of bodily, verbal, and mental karma is like drinking salt water and thereby drowning oneself. This is ignorance concerning eye and form, from which ignorance and craving arise.

Because craving arises, it is called formation; because formation arises, it is called karma. Karma binds consciousness and casts it into the intermediate existence: this is the arising of consciousness. Once in the womb, before the five swellings have formed, this is the arising of name-and-form. When the five swellings are formed, this is the arising of the six sense fields. When the six sense fields cannot yet distinguish suffering and pleasure, this is the arising of contact. When they can distinguish suffering and pleasure, this is the arising of feeling. When defiling attachment to sense objects arises, this is the arising of craving. When one races in the four directions seeking them, this is the arising of grasping. The production of bodily, verbal, and mental action is the arising of existence. The five aggregates that will be received in the future are the arising of birth. The changing of the future five aggregates is the arising of old age. The disintegration of the future five aggregates is the arising of death. Inner heat in the mind is the arising of grief. Crying aloud is the arising of lamentation. The wasting and trembling of body and mind are the arising of suffering and distress.

In the instant when the eye sees form, the great mass of suffering constituted by the twelve links across the three times arises from this. It is not nonarising. The same applies to ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind, and to everything from the eye element through the Dharma element. This is the arising of the sense fields and elements, not nonarising.

How, then, is there nonarising? When contemplating eye and form, do not plant the seed of suffering, do not grow the sprout of suffering, do not let foul liquid seep out, and do not gather maggots and flies. If the seed does not arise, the sprout does not arise; if the sprout does not arise, foul liquid does not arise; if foul liquid does not arise, maggots and flies do not arise. Hence it is called nonarising.

What is the seed of suffering? When the eye sees form, thoughts of greed and anger are the seed of suffering; recollection of the five desires produces the sprout of suffering; the six faculties grasping the six sense objects are foul liquid flowing out; and wholesome and unwholesome actions contending in the presence of the six sense objects are maggots and flies gathering. If one knows eye and form to be impermanent, suffering, empty, and not-self, greed and anger do not arise, recollection of sensual pleasure does not arise, grasping at objects does not arise, and wholesome and unwholesome activities do not arise. This is nonarising. The same applies to ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind, and to everything from the eye element to the Dharma element. Ājñāta was the first to attain this Tripiṭaka knowledge of nonarising, and so he is named Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya.

4. Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya: Nonarising as Clarified in the Shared Teaching

The Shared Teaching's contemplation of nonarising is like a conjured person holding a conjured mirror and facing that conjured mirror with a conjured head and its other five parts, then seeing a conjured image. The conjured image is not born from the mirror, from the face, from the combination of mirror and face, or apart from the mirror and face. Since it is not born from any of these four alternatives, it is not inside, outside, or between them. It does not exist eternally of itself, nor is there any place into which it ceases. When it departs, it goes nowhere in the east, west, south, or north.

Its nature has always been unborn; it is not called nonarising because something already born has been extinguished. Its nature has always been unceasing; it is not called nonceasing because some preexisting cessation has been extinguished. Because it neither arises nor ceases, it is called nonarising. Feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are the same.

Again, contemplate conjured form as an image in a conjured mirror, feeling as a bubble, perception as a mirage, formations as a plantain trunk, and consciousness as a conjuring. The conjuring is not born from the conjured object, from the conjurer, from the combination of object and conjurer, or apart from the two. Seeking the birth of the conjuring through the four alternatives, one finds that birth has no place from which it comes; seeking the cessation of the conjuring in the four directions, one finds that cessation has no place to which it goes. Its nature has always been unborn; it is not unborn because birth has been extinguished. Its nature has always been unceasing; it is not unceasing because cessation has been extinguished. Because it neither arises nor ceases, it is called nonarising.

Next contemplate faculty and object as a village occupied by bandits: none of its parts has ever been real, and it arises only from deluded conception. A hollow settlement is provisionally formed by the mechanism of karmic force. The nature of ignorance has always been nonexistent; it exists through the conjunction of deluded conception and causes and conditions. This existence has always itself been nonexistent, but causes and conditions produce the manifold afflictions, karma, and suffering, like a circle of fire formed by whirling a torch. Contemplating that they have always been nonexistent can be understood by the method above. This is the general meaning of the Shared Teaching [and so forth].

[At this point the first part of fascicle one ends in the received edition. The second part of fascicle one follows, still headed “Spoken by the Great Master Tiantai Zhizhe.”]

5. Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya: Nonarising as Clarified in the Distinct and Perfect Teachings

In the Distinct Teaching's contemplation of the knowledge of nonarising, the mirror represents the Dharma realm and the eye represents contemplative knowledge. Blue, yellow, red, and white images, and small, large, short, and long ones, represent the ten Dharma realms. Blue represents the causes and fruits of hell beings; yellow, the causes and fruits of hungry ghosts; red, the causes and fruits of animals; and white, the causes and fruits of humans and devas. Small images represent the causes and fruits of the two vehicles, large images the causes and fruits of bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching, short images the causes and fruits of bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching, and long images the causes and fruits of buddhas. All can be distinguished within the mirror without the least confusion.

To set oneself right, one prevents nine kinds of cause and fruit from arising and causes one kind to arise. To set others right, one likewise prevents nine kinds of cause and fruit in them from arising and causes one kind to arise. Relying on the Dharma realm, one practices bodhi. First one successively uses the contemplative knowledge that analyzes dharmas and that directly realizes dharmas to sever the arising of the four abiding afflictions and prevent them from arising. Next one uses Dharma teachings as numerous as the sands of the Ganges to sever adventitious afflictions and prevent lack of knowledge from arising. Finally one uses the wisdom of the true mark to sever ignorance and prevent the root from arising.

When the four abiding afflictions are absent, fragmentary birth and death do not arise. When lack of knowledge is absent, expedient birth and death do not arise. When ignorance is absent, birth and death in the land of true reward do not arise. Arising does not arise, and nonarising does not arise; hence it is called nonarising. This is called the Distinct Teaching's knowledge of nonarising.

In the Perfect Teaching's contemplation of the knowledge of nonarising, one contemplates the whole mirror in its round completeness. One does not contemplate its back and does not contemplate its images. It is neither the darkness of the back nor the brightness of the front. One grasps neither its various forms nor its various reflected images, but contemplates only round completeness. Round completeness has no boundary, beginning, or end, no brightness or darkness, and no distinction of sameness and difference. It represents perfect contemplation.

Perfect contemplation does not grasp the marks of the ten Dharma realms or establish distinctions of good and evil, deviant and correct, small and great. All are quiescent and extinguished, and its objects are only the true mark of all dharmas and the Buddhadharma of Dharma-nature. Whether form or fragrance, there is no dharma that is not the true mark. Affliction, karma, and birth are contemplated as themselves nonarising, while nonarising does not separately arise. Hence it is called nonarising.

The suffering of the aggregates, sense fields, and elements is precisely Dharma body. It is not that some separate thing appears and is then called Dharma body; obstruction itself is Dharma body. Greed, anger, and delusion are precisely prajñā. It is not that some separate illuminator is called prajñā, for there is nothing to illuminate and self-nature is lucid. Every binding force of karmic activity is called liberation. Liberation is not obtained only after bonds have been severed, for there has never been a substantial entity that can be bound or anything that can bind it.

Liberation is the nonarising of karma; prajñā is the nonarising of affliction; Dharma body is the nonarising of suffering. These three kinds of nonarising are one kind of nonarising, and one kind of nonarising is three kinds. Since it is neither three nor one, it is called nonarising. How much more must the afflictions, karma, and suffering of transformational birth and death be nonarising? This is the Perfect Teaching's contemplative knowledge of nonarising [and so forth].

6. Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya: Origin and Trace and Contemplating the Mind

In terms of Origin and Trace, Kauṇḍinya was originally himself nonarising; he did not only now begin to be nonarising. To guide the milk flavor into the curd flavor, he extended a trace manifesting the first teaching's nonarising; to guide the curd flavor into raw ghee, he extended a trace manifesting the Shared Teaching's nonarising; to guide raw ghee into refined ghee, he extended a trace manifesting the Distinct Teaching's nonarising; and to guide refined ghee into clarified essence, he extended a trace manifesting the Perfect Teaching's nonarising.

His original ground abides in the gate of the letter A: all dharmas have from the very beginning been nonarising. If one hears the gate of the letter A, one can understand that all meanings are neither arising nor nonarising. Extending a trace to guide and transform, he can distinguish arising from nonarising for beings. If beings can enter the complete nonarising, they become the same as Ājñāta: neither Origin nor Trace, neither arising nor nonarising. The causes and conditions of the one great matter are thereby fulfilled.

The later text therefore says that if the Buddha were to tell in full the various transformations manifested by Pūrṇa, beings would hear them and give rise to doubt. This is precisely the meaning explained above. The Āgama also says that Ānanda followed behind the Buddha holding a parasol and lamp, while the Brahmā king followed behind Kauṇḍinya holding a parasol and lamp. These are all manifested functions of the Trace, intended to reveal the Origin.

In terms of contemplating the mind, one need only understand the mind's nonarising through the three contemplations of emptiness, provisionality, and the middle; there is no need to explain it again.

7. Mahākāśyapa: Name, Family, and the Many Kinds of “Greatness”

“Mahākāśyapa” is translated as Great Tortoise Clan. While one of his ancestors was cultivating the path, a numinous tortoise came carrying a hermit's diagram on its back as a confirming sign. The lineage was therefore named Tortoise Clan after this virtue. Paramārtha Tripiṭaka translated Kāśyapa as Wave of Light: the ancient hermit's bodily radiance surged forth in blazing waves, obscuring every other light so that none appeared. Hence Wave of Light. It is also translated as Drinking Light, because Kāśyapa's bodily radiance could likewise eclipse other things.

His given name was Pippala, also rendered Pippalāyana or Tiviri. Pippala is a kind of tree. His parents prayed to the tree deity and obtained this son, so they named him after the tree. He was also born in the settlement of Vṛji, and people called him by the settlement's name. His family was immensely wealthy. The Ekottarika Āgama says that in Rājagṛha there was a great wealthy elder named Kapila, whose wife was Dhānā, son Pippala, and daughter-in-law Bhadrā. His family's wealth surpassed King Bimbisāra's a thousandfold, and none of the sixteen great states could compare with it.

The Record of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasury says that after Vipaśyin Buddha entered cessation, the gold color of a buddha image within a stupa was damaged. A poor woman obtained a gold bead by begging and asked a goldsmith to hammer it into gold leaf. Delighted, the goldsmith restored the image. Together the two vowed to become husband and wife in a future life. For the next ninety-one kalpas, their bodies were always gold-colored in the heavens and among humans, and their minds always experienced pleasure. At last, Kāśyapa was born into the brahman household of Nyagrodha in Magadha. His family feared that wealth exceeding the king's would bring punishment. Although they deliberately reduced their holdings by one plow, they still possessed nine hundred and ninety-nine pairs of oxen and golden plows.

Another scripture says that even the coarsest cotton cloth in his family was worth a hundred thousand taels of gold. If it was fixed to the earth with nails seven feet deep, it did not tear but remained as before. His family had sixty golden granaries of millet, each holding three hundred and forty hu. Another scripture says that in a past life he offered barley rice to a pratyekabuddha. As a donor, he therefore went to and from the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, experiencing pleasure a thousand times in each direction. Kāśyapa possessed thirty of the bodily marks.

Considering only his golden color: the gold of Jambūnada may be hidden beneath turbid water, yet its light still reaches the surface; when placed in darkness, it dispels the dark. Kāśyapa's bodily radiance surpassed this gold and illuminated one yojana. He lacked two marks, presumably the white tuft and uṣṇīṣa. When the devas invited him to compile the teachings, they praised him: advanced in years, he had eliminated desire, anger, and conceit; his form was like a pillar of purple gold, incomparably dignified from head to foot, and his eyes were clear as lotuses.

He abandoned such immense family wealth. He had married a golden-colored woman, yet the two slept by turns, felt no desire for one another, and finally separated when he left home. When leaving home, he wore a priceless jeweled robe. Later he cut it into a saṃghāṭī, folded it into four layers, and offered it to the Buddha as a seat. No one in the world could equal these three great renunciations, and so he is called “great in renunciation.”

He encountered the Buddha at the Vṛji settlement and offered him the jeweled robe. The Buddha gave him his great robe made of discarded rags. This was the great robe of the great sage, and yet it was not coarse or heavy. Kāśyapa said that when he received the Buddha's robe, he regarded it as his teacher and as a buddha stupa. He never once placed it beneath his head, much less covered himself with it while sleeping. This great robe greatly advanced his practice, and so he is called “great in receiving.”

Many disciples of the Buddha were named Kāśyapa, including Daśabala Kāśyapa and the three Kāśyapas; all were eminent persons. He was the eldest among those of the same name, and so he is specially called Mahākāśyapa. At the settlement of Vṛji he first heard the Buddha teach the higher discipline, higher concentration, and higher wisdom, and immediately attained the uncontaminated. He accepted the practice of seeking alms and cultivated the twelve ascetic practices, never abandoning them even in old age.

Later the Buddha told him, “You are old. You may stop seeking alms and return to the Saṅgha to receive food. You may also put aside the coarse and heavy robe of discarded rags and wear instead a light, subdued-color robe donated by householders.” Kāśyapa replied, “Even had the Buddha not appeared in the world, I would have become a pratyekabuddha and practiced the ascetic practices throughout my life. Now I dare not abandon my old training and learn some other method. I also wish to furnish proof for the future. People of later times will say: ‘The senior elder Kāśyapa was praised by the Buddha; I too should learn this difficult ascetic practice.’” The Buddha praised him, saying, “Excellent.” This is “great in practice.”

The Ekottarika Āgama says that within the Buddhadharma Mahākāśyapa was foremost in cultivating the twelve ascetic practices and carrying out difficult austerities. Having practiced them for a long time, his hair and beard had grown long and his robes were tattered. When he came before the Buddha, the monks slighted him because of his appearance. The Buddha told him to sit beside him on half his seat, but Kāśyapa declined.

The Buddha then said, “I possess the four dhyānas; from beginning to end, my concentration calms the mind without decline. Kāśyapa is the same. I possess great loving-kindness, with which my benevolent mind embraces and protects all; you are the same, your nature equally loving and compassionate. I possess great compassion with which I rescue beings; you are the same. I possess four kinds of supernormal samādhi: the formless, the immeasurable mind, the accumulation of purity, and nonretrogression; you are the same. I possess the six superknowledges; you are the same. I possess four concentrations—the concentration of dhyāna, of knowledge, of wisdom, and of discipline; you are the same.”

The Ekottarika Āgama also says that a brahman asked the Buddha, “Which brahman came to my home yesterday?” The Buddha pointed to Kāśyapa. The man said, “This is an ascetic, not a brahman.” The Buddha replied, “I know the Dharma discipline of ascetics and the Dharma discipline of brahmans in their entirety; Kāśyapa also knows them all. Kāśyapa's virtues do not differ from mine, so why could he not sit with me?” When the monks heard the Buddha praise him in this way, their hair stood on end.

The Buddha then cited a former cause and condition. Long ago there was a noble king named Māndhātṛ, whose ability and virtue were incomparable. Indra revered his virtue and sent a thousand horse-drawn carriages to the palace to receive him. Indra came out personally to wait for him, shared a seat with the king, entertained him, and then sent him back to his palace. In the past, Kāśyapa had once invited the Buddha to share a seat subject to birth and death; now that the Buddha had attained the path, he repaid that former merit by offering him a seat of the true Dharma. When Kāśyapa sat facing the Buddha, devas and humans all took him to be the Buddha's teacher.

On another occasion, Kāśyapa and Ānanda taught the Dharma to the nuns. One nun was displeased and mocked them, saying that it was like a needle-peddler selling needles before a needle-maker. Kāśyapa said to Ānanda, “This nun regards you as the needle-maker and me as the needle-peddler.” He then asked the nun, “Have you heard that in the Discourse on the Simile of the Moon the Buddha said that only Mahākāśyapa grows daily and always remains like a new student? Have you heard that the Buddha shared half his seat with me before the assembly? Have you heard that before the assembly the Buddha praised me as possessing vast virtues like his own? How can you call such a person a needle-peddler?” All this indicates his confirmation by the Buddha, and so he is called “great in being confirmed by the Buddha.”

In terms of rank, he was great within the assembly, great among the twelve hundred and fifty, great among the five hundred, and great among the four principal disciples. He served as master of the Five Mountains Monastery and as senior elder administering Saṅgha affairs throughout Jambudvīpa. Hence he is called “great in rank.”

After the Buddha was cremated, four pattra trees grew on the ash field. They indicated that Kāśyapa would compile the Dharma of the past three incalculable eons into the Tripiṭaka and the four Āgamas. Sengzhao's preface says that the highest purport transcends every name, and sages are therefore silent; yet the subtle purport cannot be transmitted without language, and so Śākyamuni established the teaching. He regulated body and speech, guarding them through the prohibitions of discipline; he clarified good and evil, guiding them through the discourses; and he expounded the subtle, analyzing it through Dharma characteristics. These are the three collections of discipline, concentration, and wisdom.

The Ekottarika Āgama clarifies the causes and fruits of humans and devas; the Dīrgha Āgama refutes deviant views; the Madhyama Āgama clarifies profound meanings; and the Saṃyukta Āgama clarifies dhyāna and concentration. All are due to Mahākāśyapa's achievement. Distinguished according to the parts they recited at the compilation, Ānanda recited the sūtras, Upāli recited the Vinaya, and Kāśyapa recited the Abhidharma. Hence he is called “great in compilation.”

After the Tathāgata entered cessation, he entrusted the Dharma to Kāśyapa. Kāśyapa could be a refuge for all beings, just like the Tathāgata. The reason is that if people cultivate the ascetic practices, the Buddhadharma can remain in the world; without such people, the Buddhadharma cannot remain. Kāśyapa can shoulder the Buddhadharma and cause it to abide for a long time, until the future buddha appears. Only after entrusting him with the Dharma and the Buddha's robe will he enter cessation. Hence he is called “great in preserving the Dharma.”

When Kāśyapa was about to disappear, he secretly ascended to heaven to venerate the Buddha's hair and taught the Dharma to the devas: the practice of good leads to rebirth in heaven, the doing of evil to descent into the abyss; the five desires are impermanent, like dew on a flower that dries in the sun. Having spoken, he took his leave and departed. The devas wept and lamented: he had always pitied and protected those suffering in alleys, those weakened by calamity, and the poor and exposed. Now that he had relinquished his body and entered cessation, who would protect them hereafter? [And so forth.]

8. Mahākāśyapa: The Twelve Ascetic Practices and Shaking Off under the Four Teachings

In interpreting shaking off in terms of the teaching, first the twelve ascetic practices are listed as ways of shaking off twelve kinds of fault. In seeking fine clothing, one suffers while obtaining it, fears after obtaining it, and grieves when it is lost. A robe made of discarded rags does not bring the five fears of flood, fire, thieves, bandits, and royal confiscation. Accumulating many garments also increases the labor of sewing, mending, washing, and carrying, so one retains only the three robes. Receiving food within the Saṅgha entails management and assistance with Saṅgha affairs, so one seeks alms. Eating leftover or minor meals involves disruptive coming and going that consumes time, so one eats at a single sitting.

Eating too much is difficult to digest and produces drowsiness and laxity. Eating too little leaves one hungry and weak, without strength, so one eats a measured amount. Many utensils create the obstruction of washing and carrying, so one eats from a single bowl. Running about to obtain drinks is also laborious, so one does not drink beverages. Houses readily produce attachment, so one dwells beneath trees; dwelling beneath trees can itself produce attachment, so one dwells among graves; grief and sorrow among graves can obstruct practice, so one dwells in the open; lying down diminishes one's work and increases laziness, so one sits constantly and does not lie down. Of the twelve practices, two concern clothing, six concern food, and four concern dwelling.

For the moment, take only seeking alms as an explanation of shaking off. When food is easily obtained, joy arises; when it is difficult to obtain, anger arises. Fine food produces craving, while poor food produces grief. Grief and joy arise in dependence on form: this is the form aggregate. Experiencing grief and joy is the feeling aggregate; grasping their characteristics is the perception aggregate; the activity of grief and joy is the formations aggregate; and discriminating grief and joy is the consciousness aggregate.

Grief and joy involve the mind sense field and Dharma sense field and extend throughout the three realms. Elements, sense fields, and aggregates are the truth of suffering. If one grasps the thought “I am the one able to seek alms,” one produces a view of self or of no-self. If alms-seeking itself is taken as the path and as reality, one clings to it as fixed and unchanging. Praise brings joy and blame anger. Thinking, “How could I be rebuked?” is doubt; inability to understand is delusion. Greed, anger, delusion, conceit, doubt, and the five views together form the ten compulsions. Extended across the three realms and four truths, they become the eighty-eight compulsions called the truth of origination.

If while seeking alms one can recognize the four inversions: apparent continuity conceals reality, so what is impermanent is mistakenly taken as permanent; temporary agreeableness conceals reality, so what is suffering is mistakenly taken as pleasure; movement and construction conceal reality, so what is not-self is mistakenly taken as self; thin skin conceals reality, so what is impure is mistakenly taken as pure. Recognizing these four coverings, one is free of the four inversions of permanence, pleasure, self, and purity. Diligently preventing two kinds of evil, producing two kinds of good, and cultivating the four concentrations, faculties, powers, factors of awakening, and path constitute the truth of the path.

When one does not reckon a self in seeking alms, delusion ceases. Because delusion ceases, craving ceases; because craving ceases, anger ceases; with anger gone one no longer elevates oneself, so conceit ceases; when conceit ceases, one no longer doubts when rebuked. Because there is no self, the view of self ceases; because the view of self ceases, the view of extremes ceases; because alms-seeking itself is not grasped as the path, the view that clings to precepts and prohibitions ceases; because it is not reckoned as reality, the view that clings to views ceases; because no deviant grasping occurs, deviant views cease. When the ten compulsions cease, the eighty-eight compulsions cease; when the eighty-eight cease, the bonds that function as causes cease; when causal bonds cease, resultant bonds cease; when resultant bonds cease, the twenty-five modes of existence cease. This is the truth of cessation.

If one cannot see the four noble truths in the single act of seeking alms, one will long revolve in the sea of the suffering of birth and death. If one can see the four truths, one can sever birth and death. Once birth and death are exhausted, no further modes of existence are received. This is the contemplative wisdom of shaking off within alms-seeking; the practices concerning clothing and dwelling are the same. The foregoing is the Tripiṭaka Teaching's ascetic practice.

The Shared Teaching's shaking off takes realization of quiescence through conditions of ultimate truth as its dwelling, the wisdom of emptiness as its food, and all practices performed with an empty mind as its clothing. The nature of emptiness is constant; there is not an instant that is not empty. The wisdom of emptiness shakes off all things as conjurations, so that deluded thoughts and evils become quiescent and do not arise, and mental and associated mental dharmas no longer operate, for nothing whatsoever can be obtained. Among all kinds of correspondence, correspondence with emptiness is foremost; among all ascetic practices, the practice of emptiness is foremost; among all kinds of shaking off, shaking off through the wisdom of emptiness is foremost. This concludes the summary.

The Distinct Teaching's shaking off takes Dharma body as dwelling, prajñā-wisdom as food, and all practices as adornment and covering. Practice shakes off the evil of dark karma, prajñā shakes off the evil of affliction, and Dharma body shakes off the evil suffering of birth and death. First one shakes off the affliction, karma, and suffering of fragmentary birth and death; next one shakes off the affliction, karma, and suffering of transformational birth and death. This is the ascetic practice of correct contemplation of the middle, surpassing the austerities practiced by the two vehicles [and so forth].

In the Perfect Teaching's shaking off, dwelling is itself clothing and itself food: one Dharma is distinguished as three. One kind of shaking off is all kinds of shaking off, and all kinds of shaking off are one. It is neither one nor all. Every kind of shaking off is none other than the true mark, the practice of all buddhas and the practice of the Tathāgata, surpassing the purity practiced by bodhisattvas [and so forth].

9. Mahākāśyapa: Origin and Trace and Contemplating the Mind

In terms of Origin and Trace, Kāśyapa originally sat with the Tathāgata in the principle of ultimate emptiness, attained the same vast Dharma body, the same unobstructed wisdom, and the same immeasurable virtues. Inwardly he relinquished attachment to Dharma; outwardly he did not receive defilement. His inward and outward shaking off was originally already pure. To guide beings through the milk flavor, he extended a trace manifesting circumstantial shaking off; next, to guide them through the curd flavor, he manifested shaking off within emptiness; next, to guide them through raw ghee, he manifested shaking off within the distinct; next, to guide them through refined ghee, he manifested shaking off within the perfect.

In terms of contemplating the mind, immediate emptiness can shake off grasping at characteristics, immediate provisionality can shake off the dust-like delusions, and the immediate middle can shake off ignorance. Within a single mind, one shakes off the afflictions of the five abodes [and so forth].

10. The Three Kāśyapas: Uruvilvā, Nadī, and Gayā

All three had the surname Kāśyapa, whose meaning is as explained above. “Uruvilvā,” also rendered Uruvilva or Uruvī, is translated as Papaya Grove. “Nadī” is translated as River or Great River. “Gayā,” also rendered Gayi or Elephant, is translated as City Household. They lived seven yojanas south of Rājagṛha. In the time of Vipaśyin Buddha, the three brothers jointly erected the pillar of a tree shrine, and through this cause and condition became brothers.

The eldest was King Bimbisāra's teacher and had five hundred disciples. His two younger brothers each had two hundred and fifty disciples and both practiced their elder brother's method. The Buddha manifested ten transformations: a poisonous dragon could not injure him; dragon fire could not burn him; the Ganges could not drown him; he traveled east, south, and west to gather fruit, north to obtain fine rice, and to Trāyastriṃśa Heaven for amṛta; knowing that Uruvilvā resented him, he disappeared, and knowing that Uruvilvā thought of him, he appeared; a fire that had gone out could not be lit, and an axe raised aloft could not descend. The various auspicious responses are explained at greater length elsewhere.

Although Uruvilvā saw the many supernormal transformations, his deviant attachment remained unchanged. He still said that Gautama possessed supernormal powers but the path Gautama practiced was not as real as his own. The Buddha then told him plainly, “You are not an arhat and have not attained the path.” He suddenly awakened, and teacher and disciples all submitted. Seeing the signs, the two younger brothers followed their elder brother in taking refuge in the Buddha, making one thousand monks in all.

In terms of the teaching, the Ekottarika Āgama says that Uruvilvā was foremost in protecting the fourfold assembly and providing its members with the four requisites of food, clothing, bedding, and medicine so that they lacked nothing. The monk Nadī was foremost in inner quiescence, subduing every bond, and vigor. The monk Gayā was foremost in contemplating and understanding all dharmas, being wholly unattached, and skillfully teaching and transforming. These are meanings within the curd teaching. Upon turning to raw ghee, they should feel shame at the lesser Dharma and aspire to the great Dharma. Upon turning to refined ghee, they should accept the work entrusted to them and receive the teaching-command. Upon turning to clarified essence, it is as in this sutra: they receive predictions and will attain buddhahood in the future. The other cases can be known by analogy.

In terms of Origin and Trace, they originally abode in the three virtues: the grove is prajñā, the city is Dharma body, and the water is liberation. This is the secret treasury of their original ground. In the Trace, they rely on grove, city, and water to deliver beings.

In terms of contemplating the mind, correct contemplation of mind-nature is the unmoving middle, like a city wall defending against enemies. Moving while unmoving is like water washing away the inversions of the two extremes. Simultaneously illuminating withering and flourishing is like a luxuriant grove. The three dharmas support one another like brothers joined on a single branch.

11. Śāriputra: Name and the Former Life of Uncle and Nephew

The full Sanskrit form of “Śāriputra” should be Śāriputra, translated as Son of the Body. Śāri is also translated as Pearl. His mother was exceptionally intelligent among women, and the sign of her intelligence appeared in the pupils of her eyes. Because he was born to this pearl-eyed woman, he is called Son of the Pearl. Śāri is also translated as Body. His mother possessed a beautiful form, and because he was born to this beautiful-bodied woman, he is called Son of the Body. People of the time used the son to make the mother known, and thus established this title.

His father named him Upatiṣya, also rendered Upatiśa, translated as Discourse on Meaning. His father obtained a wife through discourse on meaning, and the son was likewise named from his father's virtue in discourse on meaning. This makes the father's virtue known. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says, “My name is Tiṣya. My son's style-name was established in relation to mine, as Upatiṣya.” Upa is translated as following, while Tiṣya is the name of a constellation. One may also say that “Śā” indicates his father and “ri” his mother, displaying the virtues of both parents at once; hence Śāriputra, with putra meaning son. His surname was Kolita and he belonged to the brahman caste. The Ekottarika Āgama says that within the Buddhadharma Śāriputra was foremost in inexhaustible wisdom and the ability to resolve every doubt.

The Sutra of Birth Stories once said that in a past life an uncle and nephew were both weavers. Knowing where the king's treasury lay, they dug an underground passage into it, stole from it, and obtained many precious objects. The keeper of the treasury reported this to the king. The king ordered him not to make the matter public, reasoning that the thieves would return and need only be watched and captured in secret.

When uncle and nephew returned, the uncle fell headfirst into a trap and was captured. Fearing that people would recognize the kinship from his face, the nephew cut off the uncle's head. The king had the body placed at a crossroads in order to draw out the dead man's relatives. Later, when merchants gathered and the crowd became dense, the nephew concealed the body beneath two cartloads of firewood and carried it away. The king again sent men to watch for whoever would retrieve the corpse. Taking advantage of children singing, dancing, and playing, the nephew threw in fire and burned the body.

The king then sent men to guard the ashes. The nephew supplied wine, got the guards thoroughly drunk, and carried the bones away in wine jars. Troubled by this cunning man, the king sent his daughter to keep strict guard. He stationed her by the water and first instructed her to seize anyone who came and call out.

The nephew first sent pieces of floating wood downstream. The guards mistook them for people, then found on inspection that they were only wood. After this happened for many days, the guards ceased to be vigilant. The nephew then came to meet the princess. She seized his clothing, but he immediately thrust a dead man's hand into her grasp and escaped. The princess cried out loudly; when the others came to look, they saw only a dead hand in her grasp.

The princess thereby became pregnant and gave birth to a handsome boy. The king ordered a nurse to carry the child outside and arrest anyone at whose sight the boy cried out. After days of hunger and thirst, the boy was brought near a baker's oven. The baker gave him a cake, and the child cried. The king again ordered the nurse to take the boy out. The nephew had already persuaded the watchers to buy strong wine, and when all were drunk, he took the child and fled to another country.

People in that country admired his intelligence and wished to marry a minister's daughter to him, but he did not accept. Instead he gave his own style-name to his son and returned to seek the hand of the princess of his own country. The king consented but suspected that he was the former thief. When he came for the marriage, he brought five hundred riders whose saddles and clothing were all identical. Seeing this, the king of his country asked whether he was the former thief, praised his ingenuity, and finally gave him his daughter in marriage. That nephew was Śāriputra, and the uncle was Devadatta [and so forth].

12. Śāriputra: Virtue in the Womb, Childhood Wisdom, and Attainment of the Path

Next come the causes and conditions of his conception. His father, Upatiṣya, mastered the scriptures, bound an iron plate around his belly, wore a crown of fire, and alone beat the drum of debate in Rājagṛha. The royal teacher Dhara, knowing himself to be old and his physiognomy inauspicious, was defeated in debate and lost his fief; he therefore gave his daughter to Upatiṣya in marriage.

While pregnant, his wife dreamed of a person wearing armor and holding a vajra pestle who smashed every mountain peak and finally stood beside a single mountain. Awakening with heaviness in her body, she asked her husband the dream's meaning. He said, “The child you bear will defeat every master of debate. He will lose to only one person and finally become that person's disciple.”

The child's maternal uncle was Kauṣṭhila. Ordinarily he always defeated his elder sister in debate, but after she became pregnant he could no longer outargue her. The younger brother thought: this is not my sister's own power; there must be a wise person in her womb whose eloquence is expressed through his mother's mouth. If he is already like this in the womb, how much more so after birth? He therefore left home and traveled in all directions to study. He had no time even to cut his nails, and people called him the Long-Clawed Brahmacārin [and so forth].

The two dragon kings Nanda and Upananda lived near Rājagṛha, protected the city, and caused rain to fall in season, so that the country had no barren years. Each year the king and his subjects held a great assembly and set up three high seats for the king, the crown prince, and the master of debate. Śāriputra came to the assembly at age eight and asked the purpose of the three seats. Hearing the answer, he passed through the crowd and mounted the debate seat.

The scholars were all ashamed and refused to debate the child in person. Defeating him would bring no fame, while losing would be too humiliating, so they sent attendants to convey their questions. Śāriputra's replies surpassed every question and toppled the debate banners of all the schools. No one dared answer his challenge. The king and his subjects celebrated beyond measure, believing that the country would soon be at peace because a wise person had appeared in the world.

By age sixteen, he had exhausted the study of every scripture in Jambudvīpa. There was nothing with which he was unfamiliar. Broadly versed in past and present, he could freely expound profound meanings. He was unrivaled in debate throughout the sixteen great states and foremost in the five regions of India. He studied under the brahmacārin Sañjaya and learned all his teacher's arts of the path. All two hundred and fifty of the teacher's disciples also gave their allegiance to Śāriputra and were instructed and brought to accomplishment by him.

At the moment of his death, Sañjaya suddenly became joyful and laughed. Śāriputra asked why, and the teacher said, “Worldly people lack the wisdom eye and are bound by affection and intimacy. I see that the king of the Golden Land has died and his queen is about to cast herself into the fire, wishing to be reborn together with the king.” Having spoken, he died. Later Śāriputra met merchants from the Golden Land and questioned them; events had occurred exactly so. He regretted, “I did not finish learning my teacher's arts. Did he not teach me this one because I was not a suitable person, or did he deliberately keep it secret?” Knowing that his understanding was incomplete, he continued to seek a higher Dharma but could find no one else to serve as teacher. Apart from this one art in which he did not equal his teacher, he had mastered everything and was therefore foremost among outsiders.

On the road he saw Aśvajit, whose bearing was calm and orderly, and asked about his teacher and Dharma. The meaning of Aśvajit's reply was: all dharmas arise from causes and conditions, and his teacher therefore explains those conditions; the causes and conditions of dharmas and the ending of those conditions are what his teacher proclaims. Upon hearing this, Śāriputra attained stream-entry. After coming before the Buddha, within seven days he comprehended the profound ocean of the Buddhadharma. Another account says that he attained arhatship after fifteen days.

He served as preceptor to Rāhula, while Gavāṃpati served separately as teacher. Among the śrāvakas he was the Buddha's disciple on the right. When Devadatta split the Saṅgha and led away five hundred monks, Śāriputra went to teach and transform them, causing the five hundred to return [and so forth]. Raudrākṣa competed with him in supernormal power. Raudrākṣa conjured a flower pond; Śāriputra transformed himself into a great elephant, uprooted the flowers, and trampled the pond. Raudrākṣa conjured a yakṣa spirit; Śāriputra transformed himself into Vaiśravaṇa. Each transformation surpassed the other's and brought Raudrākṣa into submission. The Madhyama Āgama uses the simile of mothers: Śāriputra is the mother who gives birth to the Dharma body and wisdom-life of the fourfold assembly, while Maudgalyāyana is the mother who rears it [and so forth].

13. Śāriputra and Pūrṇa's Questions on the Seven Carriages

The second fascicle of the Madhyama Āgama says that monks who had spent the rains retreat in various places constantly praised Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīputra for few desires and contentment, vigor and secluded dwelling, single-minded right mindfulness, uncontaminated wisdom, and his frequent encouragement of others to arouse and praise these dharmas. Hearing of him, Śāriputra thought, “When will I be able to see this person? When will he come before the Buddha?” Others told him that Pūrṇa had a clear fair complexion, a high nose, and a mouth like a parrot's.

The two later met in Andhavana, translated as Victorious Grove. Śāriputra asked, “Does the worthy one cultivate the holy life under Gautama?” Pūrṇa answered yes. Śāriputra then asked in sequence: Is the holy life cultivated for purity of discipline? For purity of mind, purity of view, purity in crossing beyond doubt, purity in knowing what is and is not the path, purity of knowledge and vision of the path's course, or purity of knowledge and severance of the path's course? To every question Pūrṇa answered no.

Śāriputra asked, “Earlier you said yes, but now you answer no to every item. What does this mean?” Pūrṇa replied, “The holy life is cultivated for nirvāṇa without remainder.” Śāriputra again asked item by item: Is nirvāṇa without remainder designated by purity of discipline? And so on through purity of knowledge and severance of the path's course? Pūrṇa answered no to each.

Śāriputra again asked the meaning. Pūrṇa said that if purity of discipline were equated with nirvāṇa without remainder, what has remainder would be called without remainder. The same applies through equating purity of knowledge and severance of the path's course with nirvāṇa without remainder. Yet if one could dispense with these seven purities, ordinary people too should attain parinirvāṇa, precisely because ordinary people lack the seven purities. Practice cannot dispense with the seven purities. One must therefore proceed from purity of discipline to purity of mind, and successively through purity of knowledge and severance of the path's course.

He then used seven carriages as a simile. King Prasenajit wished to travel from Kosala to Sāketa and stationed seven carriages along the road. Upon taking the first carriage to one place, he left it and mounted the second, continuing until he left the sixth and mounted the seventh. People in Sāketa asked whether the king had arrived on the first carriage alone, and the king said no. They asked whether he had arrived on the seventh carriage alone, and again he said no. They asked whether he had arrived apart from the seven carriages, and he again said no. The relationship among the seven purities in practice can be understood through this simile.

Śāriputra asked the other's name and how those cultivating the holy life addressed him. Pūrṇa said, “My father is named Full, my mother Compassionate; those cultivating the holy life call me Son of Full and Compassionate.” Śāriputra praised him as a disciple of the Tathāgata whose wisdom and eloquence were lucid and decisive, secure and fearless, who had attained great eloquence and the amṛta banner and personally realized amṛta. Those who encountered him gained great benefit, and all who cultivated the holy life should wrap their robes around their heads and carry him upon their crowns in reverence.

Pūrṇa also asked Śāriputra's name. Śāriputra said that his father's style-name was Upatiṣya and his mother was Śāri, so everyone called him Śāriputra. Only then did Pūrṇa exclaim, “Without knowing it, I debated such a disciple of the World-Honored One! Without knowing it, I debated a second World-Honored One! Without knowing it, I debated the Dharma general, the disciple who turns the Dharma wheel again after it has been turned! Had I known this was the elder, I could not have answered even one sentence, much less taken part in so profound a discussion.” He likewise praised Śāriputra and said that disciples of the Tathāgata such as this should be carried upon people's crowns [and so forth].

When the Buddha spoke only one sentence, Śāriputra could take that sentence as root and roar the lion's roar for seven days and nights, developing different expressions and different flavors of meaning without exhausting it. How then could Śāriputra's wisdom and eloquence be exhausted when the Buddha said more?

14. Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana Test Their Supernormal Powers

The twentieth fascicle of the Madhyama Āgama says that when the Buddha was at Lake Anavatapta, the dragon king noted that the assembly had not seen Śāriputra and asked the Buddha to summon him. The Buddha sent Maudgalyāyana to call him from Jetavana Monastery. Śāriputra was then sewing a five-patch robe and replied, “Go on ahead; I shall follow.” Maudgalyāyana said, “I have come at the Buddha's command. How could I leave by myself?” Maudgalyāyana swept his hand across the robe and it was instantly sewn.

Śāriputra thought that Maudgalyāyana was testing him and decided to test Maudgalyāyana in return. He threw the robe-cord to the ground and asked whether Maudgalyāyana could lift it. Knowing that Śāriputra was testing him, Maudgalyāyana exerted all his strength but could not raise the cord. Śāriputra first tied the cord to the jambū tree. When Maudgalyāyana pulled, the entire world system shook but the cord did not move. He then tied it to two, three, and four world systems, yet even four world systems could not make the cord move. Next he tied it to a small chiliocosm, a medium chiliocosm, and a great chiliocosm, but it still did not move. Finally he tied it to the foot of a buddha's seat in another land, and all buddha worlds in the ten directions remained steady and unmoved.

Maudgalyāyana thought: I am foremost in supernormal power, but now I cannot move this. Have I lost my power? He urged Śāriputra to hurry, but Śāriputra still told him to go first. When Maudgalyāyana returned to the Buddha, he found Śāriputra already seated before him.

Seeing the earth shake, the dragon king asked the Buddha the cause. The Buddha said that the two men had been testing their power. The dragon king and five hundred monks consequently looked down upon Maudgalyāyana. The Buddha told them that Śāriputra had mastery over the four supernormal powers and Maudgalyāyana did as well. Maudgalyāyana could not pull up the robe-cord because the Buddha's power held it in place. The Buddha then instructed Maudgalyāyana to manifest his power. Maudgalyāyana placed the five hundred monks in a bowl-net and lifted them to Brahmā's palace. He set one foot on Mount Sumeru and extended the other to Brahmā's palace, where he recited a verse whose sound filled the great trichiliocosm. Only then were the five hundred monks convinced [and so forth].

15. Śāriputra: Wisdom under the Four Teachings, Origin and Trace, and Contemplating the Mind

The wisdom of the Tripiṭaka is the ten knowledges of one beyond training. It can sever the bonds, realize the ultimate, and assist the Buddha in spreading the teaching. The fortieth fascicle of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom calls Śāriputra the great general on the right, precisely in this sense.

The wisdom of the Shared Teaching is illustrated when Śāriputra states in the Prajñāpāramitā Sutra why he is a mahāsattva: he destroys the view of self, the view of beings, the view of buddhas, the view of bodhi, and the view of turning the Dharma wheel, and so is called a mahāsattva. Sages of old spoke their own Dharma for themselves, unlike people today who presumptuously speak the Dharma. From this one can know that Śāriputra destroyed not only the view of birth and death but also the views of buddhas, bodhi, the Dharma wheel, and nirvāṇa. Such wisdom differs from that of the first teaching.

The wisdom of the Distinct Teaching must be distinguished through the five flavors. If at first one hears only of milk and curds and not of the remaining flavors, and when arousing the aspiration to practice one practices only milk and curds, this is the wisdom of the first teaching. If one hears only of curds and regards curds as not coming from milk—holding that the nature of good and evil has always been empty, that there is no need to cultivate good to destroy evil or extinguish form in order to grasp emptiness, and cultivating only immediate emptiness—this is the wisdom of the Shared Teaching.

If from the beginning one hears of clarified essence and, to obtain it, milks the cow for milk, cooks the milk into curds, turns curds into raw ghee, raw ghee into refined ghee, and only then obtains clarified essence, cultivating in this sequence is the wisdom of the Distinct Teaching. If from the beginning one hears only that a cow eating the herb of patient endurance can produce clarified essence, that consuming clarified essence can cure every illness, and that the properties of all medicines are contained within it, and one practices for this purpose, this is the wisdom of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, Śāriputra originally abides in the true mark and takes the perfection of wisdom as mother. Wisdom is born from its object; the object is the body and wisdom the son. Out of compassion for beings, he extends traces manifesting the five flavors. To turn the evil blood of beings' afflictions into wholesome milk, he appears as a wise outsider and great master of debate. To cook milk into curds, he manifests Tripiṭaka wisdom and serves as a second World-Honored One. To guide curds into raw ghee, he conceals the great Dharma and manifests the lesser Dharma, undergoing Vimalakīrti's rebukes. To guide raw ghee into refined ghee, at the prajñā assembly he comforts and benefits his companions in the holy life and receives the teaching-command. To guide refined ghee into clarified essence, he initially awakens at the Lotus assembly. These are outward manifestations in the Trace; the truth inwardly stored in his original ground has been complete since the distant past.

In terms of contemplating the mind, the three contemplations in a single mind can encompass all wisdom. Contemplating mind as immediately empty encompasses the wisdom of the curd flavor. Contemplating mind as immediately provisional encompasses the wisdom of raw and refined ghee together with worldly wisdom. Contemplating mind as immediately the middle encompasses the wisdom of clarified essence. In contemplation of the mind, this is called one wisdom being all wisdom and all wisdom being one wisdom, neither one wisdom nor all wisdom [and so forth].

16. Mahāmaudgalyāyana: Name and Deeds of Supernormal Power

“Mahāmaudgalyāyana” is a surname, translated as Laudatory Recitation. The Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions translates it as Radish Root. Paramārtha said that mudgala is translated as mung bean. Radish roots and mung beans were both foods enjoyed by an ancient hermit and were therefore used to name the lineage. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that he was the son of an auspicious diviner and that his father was named Kolita. Kolita was the name of a tree; his parents prayed to the tree deity and obtained a son, whom they therefore named after the tree. He was also named Maudgalyāyadu. The Sutra of Causes and Fruits in the Future calls him Mahāmaudgalyāyanāyana. Because many people had the same name, “Mahā,” great, was added.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that Śāriputra was respected for his penetrating talent and intelligence, while Maudgalyāyana was esteemed for heroic openness and directness. Their abilities and intelligence were equal, and their virtues matched one another. The Ekottarika Āgama says that among the Buddha's disciples Mahāmaudgalyāyana was foremost in rising lightly through supernormal power and flying to the ten directions. The forty-first fascicle of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom calls him the disciple on the left.

Five hundred outsiders, teachers and disciples, cast spells to move a mountain. After a month, the mountain had begun to shake. Maudgalyāyana thought that if it truly moved, many beings would be harmed. He therefore sat cross-legged in the sky above its summit, and the mountain immediately became stable and still. The outsiders discussed among themselves: by their arts the mountain had already begun to move and should certainly shift on the appointed date. Why was it now as stable as at first? This must be an ascetic's doing. Recognizing that their own power was weak, they turned their minds to the Buddha's path and caused immeasurable people to leave home in accord with the true Dharma.

The brother dragon kings Nanda and Upananda lived in the sea beside Mount Sumeru. The Buddha frequently flew through the sky above them on his way to Trāyastriṃśa Palace. Angered, the dragons asked why the bald-headed man always passed over them. Later, when the Buddha was about to ascend to heaven, they breathed out black clouds and dark mist, obscuring the three lights of sun, moon, and stars. All the monks asked to subdue the two dragons, but the Buddha did not permit them. Maudgalyāyana said that he could subdue them.

A dragon wound its body seven times around Mount Sumeru, stirred the seawater with its tail, and rested its head on the summit. Maudgalyāyana made his own body twice as large, wound fourteen times around the mountain, extended his tail beyond the sea, and rested his head against Brahmā's palace. The dragon grew still angrier and rained down adamantine sand, which Maudgalyāyana transformed into light, soft, and lovely jeweled flowers. The dragon's anger still did not cease. Maudgalyāyana transformed himself into a minute body, entered the dragon through its eye and emerged from its ear, then entered through the ear and emerged from the nostril. He bored and bit within the dragon's body, causing it such pain that its mind submitted. Maudgalyāyana withdrew the transformations of enormity and minuteness, resumed his ascetic form, and brought the two dragons before the Buddha.

Devadatta took five hundred monks as his followers. Maudgalyāyana caused him to fall sound asleep, snoring like thunder and making sounds from his lower wind; Kokālika kicked him with his foot, but he still did not wake. Śāriputra taught the Dharma to the five hundred monks and turned their minds back, while Maudgalyāyana supported them in his hand and carried them home. The Saṅgha was reunited.

The twenty-ninth fascicle of the Saṃyukta Āgama says that when the Buddha was in Śrāvastī for the half-month recitation of the precepts, he remained silent. Ānanda asked him four times to recite the precepts. The Buddha told him, “The Saṅgha is impure. From now on I will no longer personally recite the precepts. You may ask a senior elder, a holder of discipline, or a reciter of the precepts to chant them.” Maudgalyāyana immediately entered concentration and examined who had made the assembly impure. Seeing the monks Aśvaka and Punarvasu, he personally led them outside, closed the door, and again asked the Buddha to recite the precepts. The Buddha said that he did not speak two different ways: having said that he would no longer personally recite the precepts, he would not recite them again. Maudgalyāyana also said, “The Saṅgha is impure. I too will no longer serve as disciplinarian.”

Jīvaka is translated as Firmly Alive. After his death he was reborn in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. One of Maudgalyāyana's disciples fell ill, so Maudgalyāyana used supernormal power to ascend to heaven and inquire about him. He encountered the devas leaving their garden to enjoy themselves. Jīvaka remained seated in his carriage and did not descend, merely joining his palms in greeting. Maudgalyāyana used his power to stop the carriage. Jīvaka said that the devas' pleasures made them so hurried that they had no time even to look at one another, and asked the elder what he wanted. Maudgalyāyana explained his purpose. Jīvaka answered that fasting was essential. Maudgalyāyana released the carriage, which only then could proceed.

After defeating the asuras in battle, Śakra built the Hall of Victory. Its towers and galleries of seven treasures were splendid and extraordinary. The joints between beams and pillars had only a thread's width between them; without touching, they sustained one another, displaying the marvelous power of heavenly merit. Maudgalyāyana flew there, and Śakra showed him the hall. Ashamed to be seen by Maudgalyāyana, all the heavenly women hid themselves and did not appear. Maudgalyāyana thought that Śakra was attached to pleasure and did not cultivate the basis of the path. He therefore conjured a great fire that burned the Hall of Victory. The hall visibly collapsed, and he immediately explained impermanence to Śakra at length. Once Śakra rejoiced, the hall became complete as before without any trace of ash or smoke. Maudgalyāyana also once carried five hundred arhats in a net-bag, as described above.

The Tathāgata's Brahmā voice was profound and far-reaching; even at an extreme distance it sounded no different than beside the Buddha. Wishing to know how far the Buddha's voice could travel, Maudgalyāyana journeyed ever farther, yet the voice always sounded as though heard nearby. Through supernormal power he flew westward past lands as numerous as the sands of the Ganges and still heard Śākyamuni Buddha's voice exactly as before. He continued until his power was exhausted and his body fatigued.

At that time an assembly in another land was eating together. Maudgalyāyana stopped and paced along the rim of a bowl. The people there exclaimed, “Where did this tiny worm with a human head come from?” The buddha of that land told the assembly, “This is the foremost disciple in supernormal power of a buddha named Śākyamuni, beyond immeasurable buddha lands to the east. He came here while tracing the Buddha's voice; he is not a worm.” The Nirvāṇa Sutra also says that when the Buddha sought an attendant, his mind was upon Ānanda, as the sun rising in the east shines upon the western wall [and so forth].

17. Mahāmaudgalyāyana: Supernormal Power under the Four Teachings, Origin and Trace, and Contemplating the Mind

Relying on the four dhyānas, one accomplishes fourteen transformations. Relying further on contemplation, training, perfuming, cultivation, the eleven totalities, and uncontaminated circumstantial dhyāna, one can perform eighteen transformations. This is supernormal power within the first teaching. Wisdom is generated by relying on emptiness, and the various supernormal powers are cultivated with the mind of empty wisdom: this is the supernormal power of the Shared Teaching. The powers are cultivated sequentially in reliance on the three truths—ultimate, conventional, and middle—progressing level by level and surpassing the two vehicles: this is the supernormal power of the Distinct Teaching. Supernormal power attained in reliance on the true mark does not see buddha lands through dual characteristics. Its function arises from the true limit and, without moving the true limit, pervades the ten Dharma realms: this is the supernormal power of the Perfect Teaching [and so forth].

In a past life, Maudgalyāyana once helped a pratyekabuddha shave his hair, wash and dye cloth, and sew a kāṣāya. He thereby vowed to attain supernormal power [and so forth].

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in the Śūraṅgama Samādhi of the true limit. In one thought he can respond throughout the ten directions and make various manifestations to accomplish buddha-work. Out of compassion, he extends a trace manifesting the supernormal powers of the five flavors and guides beings into the ultimate [and so forth].

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplate how a single mind can suddenly contain all minds, then contemplate how all minds can suddenly be free of every mind. Since mind is neither existent nor nonexistent, penetrating the true mark is the contemplation of supernormal power.

18. Mahākātyāyana: Name and Ten Questions Refuting Annihilationism

“Mahākātyāyana” is translated as Literary Ornament and also as Carried on the Shoulder. Some say this is a scribal error and should be Fan-Cord. It is also translated as Fine Shoulders, and he is also called Kala, translated as Thought Surpassing. All these use the surname as the name. The Ekottarika Āgama says that Kātyāyana was foremost in skillfully distinguishing meanings and expounding the teaching of the path.

The Dīrgha Āgama records an outsider who held an annihilationist view and asserted that there was no other world. Their exchange had ten rounds. First, the outsider said that there is no other world. Kātyāyana answered: Are today's sun and moon devas or humans? Do they belong to this world or another world? If there were no other world, there would be no tomorrow.

Second, the outsider said that he had seen people die and never return to report their suffering; he therefore knew that there was no other world. Kātyāyana answered: once a criminal has been arrested, can he freely return home?

Third, the outsider asked why those reborn in heaven did not return, proving that there was no other world. Kātyāyana answered: after someone falls into a latrine and climbs out, would he be willing to return to it? Moreover, one day in heaven equals a hundred human years. After only three or five heavenly days, someone reborn there has not yet even thought of returning. Even if he later returned, you would already be dead; how could you know?

Fourth, the outsider said that he put criminals into a pot and cooked them, sealed the lid tightly, and watched, but never saw consciousness emerge; therefore there was no other world. Kātyāyana answered: while you sleep during the day, can the people beside you see your consciousness leave?

Fifth, the outsider said that he skinned a dead person, cut apart the flesh, and smashed the bones without finding consciousness; therefore there was no other world. Kātyāyana answered: if a child splits firewood inch by inch to find fire inside it, can he find it?

Sixth, the outsider said that when he weighed a dead person, the body was heavier after death. If consciousness had departed, the body should have become lighter. Therefore consciousness did not depart and there was no other world. Kātyāyana answered: when fire combines with iron, the iron becomes lighter; when iron loses the fire, it becomes heavier. A living person is light because consciousness is present; after death, the body is heavy because consciousness has departed.

Seventh, the outsider said that he repeatedly turned a dying person over but could not find consciousness; therefore there was no other world. Kātyāyana answered: if you turn a conch shell over and over in order to find its sound, can you find the sound itself?

Eighth, the outsider said that even though the elder refuted him by various methods, he had held this view for a long time and still could not abandon it. Kātyāyana answered: a person harvesting wild grain first sees hemp and gathers it. Later he abandons the hemp for hemp fiber, abandons the fiber for thread, the thread for cloth, the cloth for silk, the silk for silver, and the silver for gold. People should abandon what is inferior and take what is superior. Why say that an old view cannot be abandoned?

Ninth, the outsider said that he was not alone in this assertion; many people said the same, so how could he alone be wrong? Kātyāyana answered: two caravans met a ghost. The ghost took human form and told them that the road ahead had ample rice and abundant pasture, so there was no need to carry old rice and grass. One caravan leader believed him and discarded everything. On the road ahead, both people and oxen starved and were eaten by the ghost. The other leader said that they would discard the old provisions only after actually obtaining new rice and grass; therefore neither people nor oxen were eaten. The deluded statements of the crowd are like the ghost's deception. Rejecting true words is like discarding old provisions before obtaining new ones. Now that you have obtained a superior new teaching, why not abandon the old view?

Tenth, the outsider said that he simply could not abandon it and would become angry if urged again. Kātyāyana answered: you are like a pig-keeper who sees dung on the road, puts it on his head, and carries it home. Rain falls halfway along the road, and dung-water runs down, fouling his head and face. When others urge him to throw it away, he becomes angry and blames them, saying that only because they do not raise pigs do they want him to discard it.

In this way Kātyāyana analyzed and refuted the outsider round after round, extensively expounding different meanings. The outsider finally submitted and praised him: “When the elder first answered with the sun and moon, I already understood. I continued to raise objections only because I wished to hear more of your wise eloquence. Excellent indeed!” Such was Kātyāyana's skill in discourse on meaning.

19. Mahākātyāyana: Teaching and Transformation, Discourse under the Four Teachings, Origin and Trace, and Contemplating the Mind

The Vinaya says that Kātyāyana was skilled at teaching people to take refuge and receive precepts. He had a butcher observe precepts at night and a lustful person observe them by day. When they later received their results, each saw during day or night the signs of pleasure obtained from formerly observing the precepts [and so forth].

A brahman named Lokāyata asked five hundred Śākyans whether anyone could debate him. The five hundred said that within the country there was the Śākya Gomukha, who had no talent or wisdom, no learning, and ugly, clumsy speech; among those who had left home there was also Cūḍapanthaka, likewise regarded as the lowest. Only if Lokāyata could defeat these two would they be willing to debate him. Lokāyata thought that defeating them would bring no distinction, while losing to them would be too humiliating.

Later he met Panthaka on the road and asked his name. Panthaka said that one should ask about meaning; why ask a name? Lokāyata asked whether he could discuss meaning. Panthaka replied, “I can debate even Brahmā, how much more a blind man without eyes like you?” Lokāyata said, “Blind means without eyes, and without eyes means blind. Is this not repetition?” Cūḍapanthaka then manifested the eighteen transformations. Lokāyata said that this person could only fly and transform and did not understand meaning.

Kātyāyana heard them from afar with his divine ear. He concealed Panthaka, manifested in Panthaka's form, and descended from the sky. Lokāyata asked his name. He answered that he was named Male Man. Lokāyata said, “Male means man and man means male; is that not also repetition?” Lokāyata finally called a halt, set aside such miscellaneous argument, and turned to profound meaning.

Lokāyata asked whether nirvāṇa could be attained without relying on dharmas. Kātyāyana answered that nirvāṇa could be attained without relying on the dharmas of the five aggregates. He asked on what the five aggregates depended for their arising, and Kātyāyana answered that they arose from craving. He asked how craving could be severed, and Kātyāyana answered that it could be severed by relying on the noble eightfold path. On hearing this, Lokāyata became far removed from dust and defilement and attained the pure Dharma eye. His other discussions of meaning can be understood by analogy.

In discourse on meaning according to the teaching, refuting annihilationist and eternalist views through impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and not-self is discourse according to the first teaching. Refuting annihilationist, eternalist, craving, and speculative views through emptiness, nothing whatsoever, and unobtainability is discourse according to the Shared Teaching; the goddess therefore says that her eloquence is possible because she has attained nothing. Using dhāraṇī and the four eloquences, observing capacities and illuminating the conventional, applying corresponding medicines to cure different illnesses, and refuting annihilationist and eternalist views is discourse according to the Distinct Teaching. Relying on the true mark, ultimately neither existent nor nonexistent, to refute annihilationist and eternalist views is discourse according to the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in the two adornments of merit and wisdom and can both ask and answer. Out of pity for beings, he extends a trace serving as a master of discourse on meaning through the five flavors.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplative knowledge investigates its object and the object in turn activates contemplative knowledge. Knowledge and object repeatedly activating one another is discourse on meaning through contemplating the mind.

20. Aniruddha: Freedom from Poverty, Lineage, and the Divine Eye

“Aniruddha” is also rendered Anuruddha or Aniruddha, merely different segmentations of the Sanskrit sound. It is translated as Freedom from Poverty, Wish-Fulfilled, or No Hunting; this is his given name. During a famine in a past life, he offered barnyard-millet rice to a pratyekabuddha. For ninety-one kalpas thereafter, his karmic results were always abundant, and so he is called Freedom from Poverty. Here the root text instead writes Freedom from Greed.

The following explains his lineage. When the world first formed, great waters moved under the force of wind and were structured into a world. When the lifespans of the beings in the Ābhāsvara Heaven ended, they were spontaneously born as humans. Their bodies emitted light, they could fly through the sky, and they fed on joy. There was no distinction between male and female or honored and lowly. Because the multitude lived together, they were called sentient beings.

At first the earth naturally produced earth-essence, which tasted like clarified essence, had the color of raw ghee, and was as sweet as honey. Those who ate too much lost their bodily radiance, became haggard, and could no longer fly; those who ate little retained their luster. They then developed thoughts of superiority and inferiority and praised or disparaged one another. Consequently the earth-essence disappeared, and they began to eat naturally occurring earth-skin. Later they again slighted one another, so the earth-skin disappeared and they ate earth-fat. When manifold evils arose, the earth-fat also disappeared and they ate naturally occurring fine rice.

After eating rice, male and female organs appeared, and people formed couples. Out of shame, they built houses and also stored large quantities of rice. Later the rice grew husks and chaff; once cut, it no longer grew again by itself, and only dry stalks remained in the ground. People stole from one another, so together they selected a fair and capable person to serve as Lord of the Fields and settle disputes. This was King Mahāsammata, the Great Elect.

Mahāsammata had a son named Jewel, and Jewel a son named Fine Flavor. From the first establishment of Mahāsammata, golden-wheel kings appeared in succession down to Good Thought. The four generations from King Ikṣvāku to King Śuddhodana were iron-wheel kings. Altogether there were eighty-four thousand two hundred and ten kings.

The Sutra of Twelve Years' Travels says that long ago a king lost his parents while young, entrusted his country to his younger brother, and himself served a brahman. The brahman told him to take off his royal robes and change his surname to Gautama. He did so, and people called him the Younger Gautama. He lived in a sugarcane garden.

Thieves who had stolen another's wealth passed through the garden. Pursuers followed their tracks, mistakenly seized the Younger Gautama, impaled him on a wooden stake, and shot him dead with arrows, covering the ground in blood. Grieving, the Elder Gautama gathered the bloodstained earth and returned it to the garden. He placed it in two vessels, one on each side, and cast a spell: “If this Gautama's mind was sincere, the gods should transform his blood into human beings.” After ten months, the left vessel became a boy and the right a girl. The Gautama lineage thereby continued. Gautama is translated as Pure and Gentle and is also called Śākya; Śākya is a noble surname.

At the beginning of the Auspicious Kalpa, when Jewel Tathāgata appeared in the world, Gautama's consciousness first took birth. According to this meaning, the surname Gautama had existed since Mahāsammata. King Ikṣvāku had four sons: the first was named Facial Radiance, the second Elephant-Eater, the third Road-Finger, and the fourth Adornment. Objects of suspicion, they moved north of the Snow Mountains to the Straight-Tree Grove. So many countrymen followed them that the place was like a marketplace, and it gradually became a powerful state. The father king praised his sons as “capable,” and the four took their surname from “capability.”

The śāka trees of that region were also especially luxuriant, and Śākya is translated as Straight Grove. Since they established their country within this grove, they took the grove as their surname. A single word in a foreign language may have many meanings: Śākya carries both the meanings straight and capable.

King Śuddhodana descended through King Adornment's branch. Adornment was Ukkāmukha; Ukkāmukha begot Ukkāmukharāja, Ukkāmukharāja begot Nyagrodha, Nyagrodha begot Sīhahanu, and Sīhahanu was Lion-Cheek. Lion-Cheek begot the three Śuddhas. Droṇodana had two sons, the elder Mahānāma and the younger Aniruddha.

Thus Aniruddha was King Śuddhodana's nephew, the younger son of King Droṇodana, the World-Honored One's cousin, Ānanda's elder cousin, and Rāhula's uncle. He was no ordinary person. The Duke of Zhou once lamented: “I am the son of King Wen, younger brother of King Wu, and uncle of King Cheng. I am not a lowly person under heaven; yet while washing my hair I hold the wet hair up three times, and while eating I spit out the food in my mouth three times, hurrying to honor worthy men. How much more should others do so?”

The Sutra of the Wise and Foolish says that during a famine in the final Dharma of Puṣya Buddha, a pratyekabuddha named Riṣṭa went out seeking alms and returned with an empty bowl. A poor man saw him and was grieved. Asking whether the elder would accept barnyard-millet rice, he immediately offered the meal he himself was about to eat. When the pratyekabuddha had finished, he manifested the eighteen transformations.

Later the poor man went again to gather millet. A rabbit leapt onto his back, clung to him, and turned into a corpse; no one nearby helped remove it. When he reached home after dark and laid the corpse on the ground, it immediately became a golden man. If a finger was pulled off, the finger at once grew back; if a foot was taken, it too grew again. The gold could be used without exhaustion. When evil men or evil kings came to seize it, they saw only a corpse; the poor man himself saw nothing but gold and treasure. Through this, for ninety-one kalpas his results were abundant, and he was titled Freedom from Poverty.

After his birth, his family's property increased day and night. His parents wished to test him. They covered an empty vessel and sent it to him; when it was opened, food of a hundred flavors was already complete inside. Every day twelve thousand people regularly came to his gate, six thousand to borrow and six thousand to repay their principal. After he left home, wherever he went people rejoiced on seeing him. Whatever he needed was as easily obtained as in his own house.

Aniruddha practiced vigorously and did not close his eyes for seven days and nights. Sleep is the eyes' food; after seven days without sleep, his eyes lost their sight. When his physical eyes became blind, the Buddha taught him to seek the divine eye. He fixed his mind on its object, and pure form constituted by the four elements issued from half his head. It could penetrate obstructions and see all things inside and outside, in light and darkness.

He told the Brahmā king that he saw Śākyamuni Buddha's great trichiliocosm as one sees a fruit in the palm of the hand. The Ekottarika Āgama says that within the Buddhadharma the monk Aniruddha was foremost in penetrating and seeing clearly with the divine eye.

After Aniruddha lost his physical sight, the Buddha and the monks often cut and sewed his clothing for him. While the Buddha was dwelling in the Kosala Cave at Śrāvastī, he gathered with eight hundred monks to make Aniruddha's three robes. The Buddha himself stretched out the cloth, while the monks divided the work of cutting and sewing; the robes were completed in one day. The Buddha then extensively taught how those who have left home receive robes and live and move together in harmony, causing immeasurable people to attain the path.

In terms of the teaching, generating the divine eye in reliance on dhyāna-concentration belongs to ordinary people and outsiders; generating it in reliance on uncontaminated circumstantial dhyāna is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Generating practices from the uncontaminated wisdom that directly realizes dharmas, then generating the divine eye from those practices, is the meaning of the Shared Teaching. Generating the physical eye from dispersed goodness, the divine eye from dhyāna-concentration, the wisdom eye from the ultimate truth, the Dharma eye from the conventional truth, and the buddha eye from the middle path is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Generating the divine eye from the true mark, so that the divine eye is immediately the buddha eye, is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

It can also be explained in terms of cultivation. Cultivating the physical eye through dispersed goodness and the divine eye through dhyāna-concentration belongs to the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Cultivating the physical and divine eyes together through emptiness belongs to the Shared Teaching. Cultivating in sequence the physical eye, divine eye, wisdom eye, Dharma eye, and buddha eye belongs to the Distinct Teaching. Cultivating the five eyes without sequence belongs to the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in the true divine eye of the true mark and does not see any buddha land through dual characteristics. Extending a trace, he manifests only the divine eye issuing from half his head.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplating the wholesome mind born of causes and conditions is the physical eye; contemplating the mind born of causes and conditions as empty is the divine eye; contemplating it as provisional is the Dharma eye; and its being immediately the middle is the buddha eye [and so forth].

21. Kapphiṇa: The Chamber Constellation and Lodging

“Kapphiṇa” is translated as the Chamber Constellation. His parents prayed to the star of the Chamber Mansion and obtained this son, so they named him after the star. This is a name derived from his birth-body.

When this monk first left home, he had not yet seen the Buddha and was traveling toward the place where the Buddha dwelled. Meeting rain at night, he sought lodging in a potter's room and made a seat from grass. A little later another monk also came seeking shelter. The monk who had arrived first pushed the grass seat toward the newcomer and sat on the ground himself. At midnight they conversed. The later arrival asked where he was going, and he said he was seeking the Buddha. The later monk then taught him the Dharma; the words can be found in the Āgamas. On hearing them, he suddenly awakened and attained the path. The later monk was the Buddha himself.

He shared one room with the Buddha and thereby saw the Dharma body. He was therefore named Kapphiṇa from the place where he attained the path. The heavenly king Vaiśravaṇa followed Kapphiṇa holding a jeweled parasol. Vaiśravaṇa is lord of the constellations; once their lord came to serve him, the constellations likewise followed.

This monk was also skilled in observing the constellations and understood their diagrams, so he was further named from his own knowledge. The Ekottarika Āgama says that within the Buddhadharma the monk Kapphiṇa was foremost in knowing the constellations, sun, and moon.

In terms of the teaching, analyzing and breaking apart the house of faculties and objects and dwelling with the Buddha in the house of ultimate truth is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Directly realizing faculties and objects and immediately dwelling with the Tathāgata in the house of ultimate truth is the meaning of the Shared Teaching. Distinguishing every house of faculties and objects throughout the ten Dharma realms and seeing the Buddha within them is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Seeing every house and every buddha within the house of a single faculty and object is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally dwells with the Tathāgata in the true mark. Extending a trace, he manifests only the various meanings of chambers and constellations.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplate the house of the five aggregates: analyzing it as empty is lodging with the transformation buddha; contemplating the house of the five aggregates as immediately provisional is lodging with the reward buddha; contemplating it as immediately the middle is lodging with the Dharma buddha [and so forth].

[At this point the second part of fascicle one ends in the received edition. The first part of fascicle two follows, still headed “Spoken by the Great Master Tiantai Zhizhe.”]

22. Gavāṃpati: Cow-Chewing and Delight in Dwelling in Heaven

“Gavāṃpati” is translated as Cow-Chewing. The Sutra of Immeasurable Life calls him Ox King, while the Ekottarika Āgama calls him Ox-Track. For five hundred past lives he had been an ox king. After oxen eat, they always chew with empty mouths. Because his residual karmic result had not yet been exhausted, he still constantly smacked his lips and chewed in this life, and people called him Cow-Chewing.

In the past there were five hundred geese, one of which regularly gathered flowers and fruit to offer to the goose king. Later, during a summer retreat when the Buddha accepted King Agnidatta's offering, five hundred monks had nothing to eat but horse-barley. Gavāṃpati alone remained in the Śirīṣa Garden in heaven, receiving offerings from the heavenly king. The Ekottarika Āgama says that the monk Ox-Track was foremost in enjoying residence in heaven and disliking the human world.

His delight in heaven accords with his own desire for pleasure and belongs to the worldly siddhānta. His ability to receive heavenly offerings results from the merit of formerly making offerings to the goose king and belongs to the individual siddhānta. His dwelling in heaven to prevent people's ridicule belongs to the counteractive siddhānta. The devas' not mocking him belongs to the siddhānta of the ultimate meaning [and so forth].

It is also said that worldly people see only outward form and do not know inner virtue; mocking an arhat brings demerit. To prevent people from creating demerit through ridicule, he always dwelled in heaven. The devas knew his virtue and did not mock his appearance, so he remained there.

After the Buddha entered cessation, Kāśyapa gathered one thousand great arhats and sent a junior monk to invite Gavāṃpati. Gavāṃpati asked where the Buddha and his preceptor were. The messenger answered that both had entered cessation. Gavāṃpati then said, “When the Buddha appeared in the world, I appeared in the world. While the Buddha abided in the world, I abided in the world. Now that the Buddha has entered cessation, I too enter cessation.” Four streams of water immediately flowed toward Mahākāśyapa, and a verse sounded from the water [and so forth]. Its meaning was: now that the great elephant has departed, the elephant calf should follow; since the World-Honored One and my preceptor have both entered cessation, why should I remain here? This also belongs to the ultimate meaning.

In terms of the teaching, dwelling in a heavenly garden manifests good, while chewing like an ox bodily manifests evil: this is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Attaining the path in a body that chews like an ox shows that evil is not truly evil, while chewing even when dwelling in a heavenly garden shows that good is not truly good: this is the meaning of the Shared Teaching. Manifesting good and evil within and beyond the realms is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Manifesting that good and evil are both the true mark is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in the four fearlessnesses and rests with the noble lord, like an ox king dwelling in the heaven of the ultimate meaning. Extending a trace, he manifests ox-chewing and delight in dwelling in heaven.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplate the principle of the middle path within mind-nature: its tread is stable, level, and correct, while its speed is swift as the wind. This is contemplation of the ox king.

23. Revata: Constellation, Provisional Combination, and Constantly Making a Sound

“Revata,” also rendered Revata, is translated as Constellation or Chamber Constellation and also as Provisional Combination. The Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions calls him Constantly Making a Sound. His parents prayed to the stars for a son, and after obtaining him named him after the constellation. Even after leaving home, he continued to use his original name.

For the meaning “provisional combination,” some cite an explanation from the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom. He once lodged in an empty pavilion and saw two ghosts fighting over a corpse. They demanded that he decide whose it was. Whether he answered according to principle or against it, he could not avoid being harmed, so he simply reported what he had actually seen. The larger ghost immediately tore off his hands and feet; the smaller ghost took hands and feet from the corpse and fitted them onto him. The two ghosts finished eating the corpse, wiped their mouths, and departed.

Revata was consequently distressed and did not know whose body he now had. Hence Provisional Combination. “Constantly Making a Sound” means that he remained in doubt: if this was his own original body, he had seen with his own eyes that its hands and feet were torn off; if it was another's body, why did it follow him when he walked or stayed? He asked everyone he met, “Have you seen my body?” Hence Constantly Making a Sound.

The Saṅgha thought that this person would be easy to deliver and told him, “Your body was originally another person's remains and never belonged to you.” Upon hearing this, he attained the path [and so forth]. The Ekottarika Āgama says that the monk Revata was foremost in seated meditation and concentration with a mind free of inversion and distraction.

In terms of the teaching, analyzing the five aggregates and destroying attachment to them as one's possession is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Directly realizing that the five aggregates have never been one's possession is the meaning of the Shared Teaching. Distinguishing that the five aggregates throughout the ten Dharma realms are none one's own possession is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Penetrating that the five aggregates are neither one's own possession nor another's and seeing the true mark through the five aggregates is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in the samādhi of the sun and constellations. Extending a trace, he manifests this name.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplate the mind recollecting the Buddha and see the numerous buddhas of the ten directions, as though looking up at the multitude of stars at night [and so forth].

24. Pilindavatsa: Residual Habit

“Pilindavatsa” is translated as Residual Habit. For five hundred past lives he had been a brahman, and the residual habit of haughtiness remained. When crossing the Ganges he scolded the river goddess, saying, “Little slave-girl, stop the current!” The goddess divided the river into two streams.

The river goddess complained before the Buddha, who instructed Pilindavatsa to apologize. Joining his palms, he said, “Little slave-girl, do not be angry.” The assembly laughed because even while repenting he was still insulting her. The Buddha said that this was only a habit from the past and that inwardly he had no haughtiness. The Ekottarika Āgama says that the monk Vatsa was foremost in enduring hard sitting beneath trees without avoiding wind and rain.

In terms of the teaching, extinguishing haughtiness and having no conceit is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Haughtiness being immediately no conceit is the meaning of the Shared Teaching. Distinguishing every high and low throughout the ten Dharma realms is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Possessing the eight masteries of self and every Buddhadharma is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in the eight masteries of the self of permanence, pleasure, self, and purity and also possesses the subtle Brahmā voice. Extending a trace, he manifests only a conceited mind and harsh speech.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplate coarse, violent speech and gentle speech as both finally returning to the ultimate meaning [and so forth].

25. Bakkula: Fine Appearance, Long Life, Freedom from Illness, and Secluded Dwelling

“Bakkula” is translated as Fine Appearance. It is also translated as Imposing Form, Great Plumpness, Soft Sack, Rough and Stout, or Selling Disposition. Because his appearance was upright and handsome, however, he is called Fine Appearance. He lived to one hundred and sixty years of age, was never ill, and did not die prematurely. He received the result of surviving five threats to his life.

His stepmother once put him into a hot griddle, into a cooking pot, and into water. He was swallowed by a fish and cut open with a knife, yet he did not die. Because in the past he had observed the precept against killing, for ninety-one kalpas his life was never cut short. Because he had once donated a single harītakī fruit to the Saṅgha, his body was always free of illness. He could maintain one precept and adorn it with the other four, resolutely never violating it. Even when encountering fire and water he did not abandon the precept. Others might receive the five precepts but frequently transgressed them [and so forth].

He delighted in quietude, regularly dwelled in secluded places, and disliked being among crowds. His eyes did not enjoy seeing black, yellow, and other colors; his ears did not enjoy hearing worldly sounds; his nose did not smell worldly fragrances or odors; his tongue never spoke even one or two unnecessary sentences for others; and his mind constantly abided in dhyāna-concentration without distraction. Even the stupa containing his relics after death delighted in seclusion and quiet.

King Aśoka venerated the stupas of the arhats. When he reached Bakkula's stupa, he spoke a verse meaning: although you personally cured yourself of ignorance, you brought little benefit to the world. He therefore offered only twenty cowrie shells. The Ekottarika Āgama says that the single coin and cowries he donated all flew from the stupa and landed at the king's feet. His ministers were astonished and only then understood that Bakkula possessed so few desires and so delighted in quiet that even his relic stupa retained this power. The Ekottarika Āgama also says that Bakkula was foremost in exceptionally long life without ever dying prematurely and in constant delight in secluded dwelling away from crowds.

In terms of the teaching, extinguishing commotion and entering the ultimate truth is the quiet of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Entering the ultimate truth amid commotion itself is the quiet of the Shared Teaching. Leaving the two extremes and entering the middle path is the quiet of the Distinct Teaching. Being amid the two extremes and immediately in the middle path is the quiet of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin, he originally abides in the great concentration of quiescent cessation. Long life represents permanence, freedom from illness represents pleasure, not dying prematurely represents self, and quiet represents purity. Abiding in the origin of these four virtues, he extends a trace manifesting the quietude of the six faculties.

In terms of contemplating the mind, the middle path of mind-nature is immediately empty, immediately provisional, and immediately the middle. This is contemplation of permanence, pleasure, self, and purity.

26. Mahākauṣṭhila: Great Knees, Long Claws, and the Four Eloquences

“Mahākauṣṭhila” is translated as Great Knees. He was Śāriputra's maternal uncle. In the past he always defeated his elder sister in debate, but after she became pregnant he could no longer win. He therefore knew that the fetus's wisdom was expressing itself through the mother. If it possessed such eloquence even then, how much more after birth? [And so forth.]

He immediately left home for southern India and studied eighteen great scriptures. People of the time mocked him: “These texts are difficult to master over many lifetimes. How could you finish them in one?” He lamented, “At home I lost to my sister; after leaving, I am slighted by others.” He therefore vowed to study without rest. He had no time even to cut his nails, and people called him the Long-Clawed Brahmacārin.

Returning home after completing his studies, he asked where his nephew was. People said that Śāriputra had become the Buddha's disciple. He immediately grew extremely proud, thinking that his nephew's fame had shaken the five regions of India when he was only eight. What art of the path could that ascetic possess, to lure away his sister's son? He went directly before the Buddha and thought for a long time, yet could find no single dharma on which to base an argument.

He said to the Buddha, “I accept no dharma whatsoever. To accept is to abide. When I say that I accept no dharma, I mean that I can refute every dharma so that not one can stand.” The Buddha asked, “Do you accept this view of yours?” He immediately fell into two defeats. If he accepted his own view, he contradicted his earlier claim to accept nothing. If he did not accept even his own view, he had no ground from which to defeat the Buddha. He could only lower his head, and at once attained the pure Dharma eye. Śāriputra stood nearby fanning the Buddha; hearing his uncle debate the Buddha, he instead realized arhatship.

The Ekottarika Āgama says that Kauṣṭhila was foremost in attaining the four eloquences and answering whenever challenged. Virūḍhaka, heavenly king of the south, regularly followed and served him.

In terms of the teaching, externally mastering the four Vedas and internally mastering the Tripiṭaka is the fourfold eloquence of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. “I have attained nothing, and therefore my eloquence is like this” is the eloquence of the Shared Teaching. Names and meanings pervading the ten Dharma realms is the eloquence of the Distinct Teaching. Relying on the true mark and pervading every kind of eloquence is the eloquence of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin, he originally abides in the secret of speech and the inconceivable teaching and transformation performed by the wheel of speech, possessing great concentration and great wisdom. Extending a trace, he manifests great knees.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplating mind as immediately empty is concentration, while contemplating it as immediately provisional is wisdom. One adorns one's own mind with concentration and wisdom [and so forth].

27. Nanda: Wholesome Joy

“Nanda,” also called Nanda the Cowherd, is translated as Wholesome Joy or Delighted Pleasure. King Śuddhodana compelled one hundred thousand Śākyans to leave home, and Nanda was among them. One teacher says that this is Upananda mentioned in the Vinaya.

In terms of the teaching, circumstantial joy together with no joy in principle is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Circumstantial joy being immediately joy in principle is the meaning of the Shared Teaching. The Ground of Joy is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. The Abode of Joy is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin, he originally abides in the true limit, neither joyful nor not joyful. Extending a trace, he is named Joy.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplative mind corresponds by resemblance with true principle, and so this is called the contemplation of joy.

28. Sundarananda: Handsome Appearance, Love for His Wife, and Leaving Home

“Sundara” is translated as Well-Loved or Handsome. The meaning of “Nanda” is as above, and his lineage is explained in the Aniruddha passage. He was born on the ninth day of the fourth month and stood only four finger-widths shorter than the Buddha. His bearing was erect and outstanding, unlike that of worldly people. When he entered an assembly, those who did not know him thought that the Buddha had arrived.

The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya says that in Magadha there was a naked outsider of exceptional intelligence whom the people called a wise man and a seer. He debated Śāriputra, was finally defeated in both reasoning and words, produced a wholesome mind, and wished to leave home within the Buddhadharma. Seeing Nanda's tall and handsome appearance, he exclaimed, “The wisdom of a short monk is already unfathomable. How much more must this imposing great man possess!” Nanda then delivered him into the homeless life.

Nanda's wife was named Sundarī and was exceptionally beautiful. Husband and wife were never apart when eating or resting. When the Buddha and Ānanda came to his house seeking alms, the couple were eating in an upper chamber. Nanda immediately rose to receive the Buddha. His wife admonished him, “You must return before I have finished eating.”

Nanda told the Buddha that he belonged to the lineage of wheel-turning kings and asked how he could personally perform so lowly a task, yet still filled the Buddha's bowl with food. The Buddha at once returned to Nyagrodha Grove and told Ānanda to have Nanda bring the food. Ānanda conveyed the Buddha's intent, and Nanda had no choice but to deliver the meal. The Buddha then ordered someone to shave his head. Nanda raised his fist and threatened the barber: “Do not bring a knife near the crown of the king of Jambudvīpa!” But under the Buddha's firm command he could not prevent it and had to be shaved.

The next day the Buddha and five hundred monks left to accept an invitation. Nanda asked to remain and guard the monastery, but inwardly intended to flee. The Buddha instructed him to close the doors and sweep the ground. When he closed the south door, the north door opened; when he swept this side clean, the other side became dirty. Fearing that the Buddha would return, he finally left the monastery and fled.

On the way home he met the Buddha and hid behind a tree. The tree rose into the air, leaving him nowhere to conceal himself. The Buddha saw him, called him back, and asked why he had left. Nanda replied that when he parted from his wife the previous day, she had said she would wait for him to return before finishing her meal. Missing his wife, he had fled. The Buddha then took him on a journey through heaven and hell [and so forth]. This Nanda is therefore distinguished by his wife's name.

In terms of the teaching, there is Dharma joy in the conventional truth and no joy in the ultimate truth: this is the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Conventional joy being immediately ultimate joy is the Shared Teaching. Opening conventional Dharma joy and middle-path Dharma joy from shared Dharma joy is the Distinct Teaching. Joy that is immediately shared and possesses every Dharma joy is the Perfect Teaching.

Origin and Trace and contemplating the mind can both be understood by analogy with the preceding Nanda [and so forth].

29. Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīputra: Fulfilled Vow, Son of Compassion, and Foremost in Teaching the Dharma

“Pūrṇa” is translated as Fulfilled Vow, “Maitra” as Compassion, and “yaṇī” indicates a woman. His father prayed to Brahmā for a son beside the Full River just when its waters were brimming. He also dreamed that a vessel of the seven treasures, filled with precious objects, entered the mother's womb. She became pregnant, the father's wish was fulfilled, and everything he sought accorded with his desire. Hence the name Fulfilled Vow.

His mother was named Maitrāyaṇī, translated as Compassionate Conduct and also as Knowledge. One section of the four Vedas was called Maitrāyaṇī. His mother could recite this section and therefore took it as her name. Yaṇī is a general designation for a woman just as na is a general designation for a man. Because he was born to the woman Compassion, he is called Son of Compassion.

The Ekottarika Āgama records him saying of himself: “My father is named Full, my mother Compassion; those cultivating the holy life call me Son of Full and Compassionate.” His name thus derives from causes and conditions on both his father's and mother's sides. He was thoroughly acquainted with scriptures both internal and external; there was nothing he did not know. Because his knowledge was complete, he was also named Full.

The Ekottarika Āgama says that the Son of Fulfilled Vow was foremost in skillfully explaining at length and distinguishing meanings. A later passage of this sutra also says that he was foremost among those who taught the Dharma. “Foremost” precisely reveals that his teaching of the Dharma was complete.

He wished to return to his own country to benefit beings. The Buddha told him that the people of that country had evil dispositions and asked how he would respond. He said that he would practice patient endurance: if someone insulted him, he would be grateful that the person had not struck him with a fist; if struck by a fist, grateful that he had not been beaten with a wooden staff; if beaten with a staff, grateful that he had not been wounded with a blade; if wounded with a blade, grateful that he could leave behind the poisonous vessel of the five aggregates. This is the completion of the practice of patience, and so he is named Full.

In the Sutra of the Simile of the Seven Carriages, the greatly wise Śāriputra praised him, saying that all who cultivated the holy life should wrap their robes around their heads and carry him upon their crowns, and that everyone who saw him obtained great benefit. This is the completion of praise, and so he is named Full.

In terms of the teaching, diligently analyzing all dharmas and completing what had to be done is fulfillment of the vow in the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Directly realizing that all is immediately empty and realizing within the Dharma of emptiness is fulfillment of the vow in the Shared Teaching. Complete possession of the Dharma eye is fulfillment of the vow in the Distinct Teaching. Abiding in the secret treasury is fulfillment of the vow in the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, his original vow was fulfilled long ago. Extending a trace, he manifests being foremost in teaching the Dharma and serves beings as a good spiritual friend.

In terms of contemplating the mind, this can be understood by relying on the contemplations in the Great Calming and Contemplation of good spiritual friends as persons, practices, principles, and so forth.

30. Subhūti: Born of Emptiness, Wholesome Karma, and Wholesome Fortune

“Subhūti” is translated as Born of Emptiness. When he was born, the granaries, bamboo baskets, chests, boxes, and vessels in his house all became empty. His family consulted a diviner, who said this was an auspicious sign. Because he was born in connection with emptiness, his style-name was Born of Emptiness. An empty omen manifested through the dependent result of the household vessels was used to name the body that was the direct result; because dependent and direct results were both auspicious, he was called Born of Emptiness.

He constantly cultivated the practice of emptiness, so he was also named Wholesome Karma. Those who made offerings to him could receive the result in this very life, so he was further named Wholesome Fortune. He regularly delighted in wandering and resting in quiet places such as secluded groves and stone caves. All his practices took emptiness as their basis. He constantly entered the concentration of emptiness, abided in the samādhi free of contention, delighted in teaching the Dharma of emptiness, and distinguished the meaning of emptiness in every exposition and discussion.

Everywhere he protected beings and did not allow others to create obstructions on his account. If others disliked his walking, he stopped; if they disliked his staying, he departed.

When the Buddha descended from Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, people throughout the country converged upon him like spokes at the hub of a wheel, contending to advance and bow at his feet. Subhūti instead sat upright in a stone chamber, recollecting the emptiness of all dharmas: form is not the Buddha, extending through consciousness is not the Buddha; the eye is not the Buddha, extending through the mind is not the Buddha. He thereby suddenly awakened to the path.

The Buddha told Utpalavarṇā Bhikṣuṇī, “You were not the first to venerate the Buddha. You venerated only the form body; Subhūti had already seen the Dharma body.”

In terms of the teaching, there is the arising of wisdom that extinguishes form to attain emptiness, and the arising of wisdom that directly realizes form as immediately empty. Empty wisdom arises from existent wisdom, conventional wisdom from empty wisdom, and middle wisdom from conventional wisdom. Born of Emptiness is existent wisdom; what is explained here is instead the arising of complete empty wisdom.

In terms of Origin, he originally abides in the Dharma body of the true mark. Extending a trace, he manifests birth upon seeing emptiness.

In terms of contemplating the mind, mind is not inside, outside, or between, nor does it inherently exist of itself. This is contemplating the Dharma body through mind.

31. Ānanda: Joy, Freedom from Defilement, Great Learning, and Upholding the Teaching

“Ānanda” is translated as Joy and also as Freedom from Defilement. King Śuddhodana had originally hoped that the crown prince would become a golden-wheel king, dominate the four directions, and glorify the clan. The crown prince suddenly abandoned his country and royal station, and the king was so distressed that he nearly ceased breathing. Māra came to deceive him, saying that the prince had died. Weeping, the king said that since the prediction of the seer Asita had proved false, none of the earlier auspicious signs had been fulfilled.

Before long a deity came with another report, saying that the crown prince had become a buddha. While the king still doubted, reliable news immediately arrived: heaven and earth had shaken greatly the previous night, and the crown prince had attained buddhahood. The king rejoiced greatly. At that same time King Śuklodana reported the birth of his own son. Everyone throughout the country rejoiced, so the child was named Joy. This was the name given by his parents.

Ānanda was handsome, and everyone rejoiced on seeing him. The Buddha therefore ordered him to wear a robe covering his shoulders. A woman brought her child to a well. On seeing Ānanda, she could not take her eyes from him and unknowingly tied the well-rope around the child's neck.

The Madhyama Āgama says that whether members of the fourfold assembly heard Ānanda teach the Dharma at length or briefly, none failed to rejoice. When Ānanda prepared to answer a question, he first cleared his throat softly, and the assembly rejoiced even on hearing this. Even if the fourfold assembly merely watched him in silence—watched him walk, stand, sit, or lie down; watched him direct and arrange things, advance and retreat, move and turn—they all rejoiced.

Ānanda was born on the eighth day of the fourth month, the day the Buddha attained the path, and served the Buddha for twenty-five years. According to this calculation, the Buddha was then fifty-five and Ānanda twenty-five. When the Buddha sought an attendant, five hundred people all asked to serve, as described above. The assembly urged Ānanda to accept; he complied, and all five hundred rejoiced greatly.

Maudgalyāyana stated three requests on Ānanda's behalf. First, that he not receive the Buddha's old, worn robes. Second, that he not receive leftover food obtained by the Buddha. The Buddha said that Ānanda made these two requests because he foresaw that people in later ages might criticize him. Third, for the benefit of his own practice, he requested permission to enter and leave freely when needed without being restricted to fixed times. The Buddha confirmed and granted the requests.

The Buddha said that Ānanda surpassed the attendants of past buddhas. The attendants of past buddhas understood only after a buddha had spoken. Now, before the Buddha even opened his mouth, Ānanda already understood the Tathāgata's intent and knew what was and was not needed. The Buddha therefore entrusted the Dharma to Ānanda, and the Tathāgata too rejoiced.

The four heavenly kings each offered the Buddha a bowl. The Buddha stacked the four bowls and pressed them into one, while four rims remained clearly visible. This bowl was extremely heavy, yet Ānanda joyfully carried it and never tired.

The seventh fascicle of the Madhyama Āgama says that Ānanda served the Buddha for twenty-five years and could recite all eighty thousand skandhakas that he heard. He forgot none of them and never needed to ask about a single sentence twice. This is joy produced by the power of recollection.

Ānanda followed the Buddha into heavenly palaces, the human world, and dragon palaces. When he saw heavenly women, human women, and dragon women, his mind was never defiled. Although residual delusions of thought had not yet been completely severed, he could face everything without defilement. There was also no deva, human, dragon, or spirit that did not delight in him.

After the Buddha entered cessation, Ānanda sat upon the lion throne. Kāśyapa and the assembly praised him: his face was like the pure full moon, his eyes like blue lotuses; all the waters of the ocean of the Buddhadharma had flowed into Ānanda's mind.

Ānanda decided to enter nirvāṇa while seated, but thought: if I remain on one shore, the Licchavis will resent me; if I go to the other shore, King Ajātaśatru will resent me. He therefore entered the swift-wind samādhi in the middle of the Ganges and divided his body into four portions: one for the devas, one for the dragons, one for Vaiśālī, and one for Ajātaśatru.

King Aśoka venerated Ānanda's stupa, offered ten million taels of gold, and praised him in verse: Ānanda could gather and uphold the Buddha's Dharma body and cause the true Dharma to abide long through the Dharma lamp. His power of recollection was vast enough to receive the ocean of the Buddha's wisdom, so the finest offering should be established. He remembered and upheld his great learning, subtle words flowed from his mouth, and he was praised by the World-Honored One and revered and loved by devas and humans.

The Ekottarika Āgama says that Ānanda was foremost in knowing the proper time, understanding affairs so that he encountered no doubt or difficulty wherever he went, remembering without forgetting, possessing broad and penetrating learning, and being capable of receiving and upholding the Buddhadharma.

In terms of the teaching, Ānanda Joy represents the Tripiṭaka Teaching; Ānanda the Worthy represents the Shared Teaching; Ānanda the Repository represents the Distinct Teaching; and Ānanda the Ocean represents the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in neither joy nor nonjoy. His Dharma body is like empty space and his wisdom like cloud and rain; he can both receive and uphold and encompass and contain. Extending a trace, he is named Joy.

In terms of contemplating the mind, contemplative mind corresponding by resemblance with immediate emptiness, immediate provisionality, and the immediate middle is the joy of contemplating the mind. The same applies through correspondence with true contemplation [and so forth].

32. Rāhula: Ten Causes and Conditions of Covering Obstruction

“Rāhula” is translated as Covering Obstruction. First, in a past life he once blocked a mouse-hole and also failed for six days to go see a brahman. Because of this cause and condition, he is named Covering Obstruction.

Second, the crown prince asked to leave home, but his father the king did not permit it. The prince pleaded repeatedly. The king said that he would allow him to leave home only if he had a son. The bodhisattva pointed at the consort's abdomen and said, “Six years from now, you will give birth to a boy.” Rāhula remained in the womb for six years, and so he is named Covering Obstruction.

Third, Paramārtha Tripiṭaka said that Rāhu was originally the name of an asura who could cover the sun and moon with his hand, so the translated meaning should be Obstructing the Moon. The Buddha said, “My Dharma is like the moon. This child obstructs me from leaving home at once. Life after life he obstructs me, and life after life I am able to relinquish him. Hence the name Covering Obstruction.”

Fourth, after the Buddha left home, Yaśodharā was pregnant. All the Śākyans became angry, questioned how she could be pregnant, and wished to punish and kill her. Her ill repute spread along every road. Gopā, the jeweled woman, bore witness for her, but could only lessen the suspicion and slander somewhat.

Yaśodharā then had a fire pit dug and made a great vow: “If I have done what is contrary to principle, may mother and child perish together. If this is truly the crown prince's child, may the gods bear witness for me!” Holding the child, she cast herself into the fire pit. The pit immediately became a pool, and a lotus supported mother and child. Only then did the king and countrymen cease to doubt. Because pregnancy produced suspicion and slander, he is named Covering Obstruction.

Fifth, after the Buddha returned to his country, Yaśodharā had Rāhula offer a ball of delight to the Buddha. Although Rāhula was very young, he walked directly through the assembly to the Buddha and handed him the ball. Yaśodharā thereby put an end to the slander. Because the slander arose from having a son, he is named Covering Obstruction.

Sixth, his grandfather King Śuddhodana rejoiced greatly, thinking that although he had lost a son, he had gained a grandson. If the grandson became a golden-wheel king, what cause for regret would remain? He looked forward to Rāhula's growing up and hoped that the numinous treasures of a wheel-turning king would appear. The Buddha, however, asked that Rāhula be allowed to leave home. The father king did not consent, and Yaśodharā took the child to a high tower. Maudgalyāyana flew through the air and carried him away. The Buddha delivered him into the homeless life and gave him to Śāriputra as a disciple. When Rāhula left home, the royal succession was also lost, and so he is named Covering Obstruction.

Seventh, while still a novice, Rāhula enjoyed telling lies. When kings, ministers, brahmans, and householders came seeking the Buddha, he always answered that the Buddha was absent, preventing immeasurable people from seeing him. This was obstructing others. The Buddha therefore reproached him for false speech.

Once, when the Buddha returned from a journey, he instructed Rāhula to wash his feet. Afterward the Buddha kicked the basin with his foot, turning it face down three times and face up three times. Finally he left it overturned on the ground and told Rāhula to pour water into it. Rāhula said that because the basin was overturned, it could not hold water. The Buddha said, “You are like an overturned basin. The water of the Buddhadharma cannot remain in your mind. From now on you should speak truthfully and never speak falsely.”

Eighth, Rāhula later practiced the path vigorously but still could not realize it, so he went to ask the Buddha. The Buddha asked whether he had ever explained the five aggregates to others. He answered no. The Buddha instructed him first to explain them to others. When he had done so and returned, the Buddha asked whether he had taught the twelve sense fields and eighteen elements. He proclaimed each of them to others in turn. Teaching the Dharma is the gate to attaining the path; if one wishes to attain the path, one should first teach the Dharma to others. After he had extensively taught the Dharma, he attained the path. Because he had previously failed to attain it, he is named Covering Obstruction.

Ninth, once he had attained the path, his delusions of views and craving were both exhausted, and birth in the three realms had ended. Because he could obstruct and sever views and craving and birth in the three realms, he was still named Covering Obstruction.

Tenth, once birth in the three realms was exhausted, worldly vow-karma could no longer draw him into rebirth, and so he is named Covering Obstruction. On the other hand, the Buddha commanded four great arhats not to enter cessation but to wait until the Buddhadharma had entirely disappeared. Rāhula has therefore remained until the present and has not yet entered nirvāṇa without remainder. This is also obstructing entry into the remainderless, and so he is named Covering Obstruction [and so forth].

In terms of the teaching, using the truth of the path attained through analyzing dharmas to obstruct and sever the four abiding afflictions is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Using the truth of the path attained through directly realizing dharmas to obstruct and sever the four abodes is the meaning of the Shared Teaching. Using the three sequential wisdoms to obstruct and sever the five abodes is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Using the three wisdoms in a single mind to obstruct and sever the five abodes is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

In terms of Origin and Trace, he originally abides in the middle path and blocks the two extremes. Eight kinds of obstruction are used to obstruct the extreme of nirvāṇa, one kind to obstruct the extreme of birth and death, and another neither obstructs birth and death nor nirvāṇa but obstructs abiding in nirvāṇa without remainder.

Contemplating the mind can be understood according to the preceding examples [and so forth].

33. Conclusion: Known and Recognized by the Assembly

The sixth division concludes the passage. Concerning “such ones, known and recognized by the assembly,” one interpretation holds that knowing is itself recognizing. Another says that hearing a name is knowing and seeing a form is recognizing. Yet another reverses them: seeing a form is knowing and seeing a person's mind is recognizing.

In terms of Origin and Trace, these elders in their original grounds serve beings as good spiritual friends of the full-character teaching; extending traces, they serve as good spiritual friends of the half-character teaching [and so forth].

Good spiritual friends in contemplative practice can be understood according to the explanation in the Great Calming and Contemplation.

1. The Lesser-Known Assembly: Noble Virtue Is Not Measured by Fame

The assembly of those widely known has now been explained. Next comes the assembly of those known to fewer people. The sutra says that another two thousand trainees and those beyond training were present together. Here it gives only their stages and number, without praising their virtues, and therefore calls them the assembly known to fewer people.

The state of noble ones is not something ordinary people can fathom, nor are higher and lower truly distinguished by whether many or few people know them. Beings simply have different capacities. Some admire what is lofty and distant and are therefore drawn in by eminent elders known throughout the assembly. Others conceal their names and virtues and humbly yield to others, and beings suited to them are drawn in by noble ones known to few. Different numbers are manifested in response to beings; one must not lose sight of their original virtues because their outward traces are many or few.

As for training and being beyond training, the Tripiṭaka teaching has eighteen kinds of trainees and nine kinds of persons beyond training. In one division under the Shared Teaching, all through the fifth ground are called trainees and the sixth ground is called beyond training; in another, all through the ninth ground are trainees and only the buddha ground is beyond training. In the Distinct and Perfect Teachings, training and being beyond training may be explained either by whether practice still requires exertion or no longer requires it, or by whether virtues are not yet complete or already complete.

An exchange transmitted in the Āgamas says that an outsider asked the Buddha whether an arhat still trains. The Buddha replied, “An arhat no longer performs evil dharmas and abides in wholesome dharmas. By training in and abiding in his state beyond training, he may also be called one who trains.” On this reading, a trainee may also be called beyond training: with respect to what trainees have already severed, they do not need to sever it again, and in that respect they are beyond training. This yields four alternatives. If the five preparatory stages, which are neither training nor beyond training, are added, there are five. Each of the four teachings may be treated by analogy: five propositions per teaching make twenty propositions.

In terms of Origin and Trace, these people are originally Dharma-body great beings who abide in the stages of training and beyond training within the full-word teaching. Because beings need to be guided by trainees and those beyond training within the half-word teaching, they manifest these identities and adorn the twin trees of nirvāṇa.

In terms of contemplating the mind, correct contemplation abides in the middle and does not condition either the empty or existent extreme. In the middle there is nothing further to learn, so it is called beyond training; the capacity to contemplate in this way is called training. To explain the number two thousand through contemplation, contemplate form and mind as each containing ten Dharma realms, each realm containing the ten suchnesses. When realms and suchnesses mutually contain one another, there are two thousand. The sutra gives the number manifested in Trace precisely to indicate the Dharma of Origin; thus Trace here is the trace within Origin and Trace.

2. The Assembly of Nuns: Two Leaders and Six Thousand Companions

Next the assembly of bhikṣuṇīs is listed. An older interpretation modeled it on the preceding passage and divided the nuns into two assemblies, those known to many and those known to few, but Zhiyi does not adopt this. The sutra contains no such wording, and the meaning does not support it. It simply names two leaders of the nuns. Why labor to impose labels such as great and small or many and few?

First comes Mahāprajāpatī. Prajāpatī is translated as Great Love of the Path; she is also called Gautamī, translated as Leader of the Assembly. “Nun” is said here to have been a general Indian designation for women.

In terms of Origin and Trace, she originally abides in the Dharma gate of the perfection of wisdom and manifests as the mother of a thousand buddhas, giving birth to guides who teach beings. In contemplating the mind, contemplation of the middle is expansive and therefore called great; compassion free of objectifying conditions is called love; and the principle of the middle is open and unobstructed and therefore called the path. Great represents one's own practice, love represents transforming others—out of love for beings one manifests birth, and out of compassion one enters the three modes of existence—while the path penetrates both one's own practice and the transformation of others.

The sutra says six thousand, the number of her companions. In terms of contemplation, contemplate the purification of the six faculties and the corresponding virtues of each. Although the eye has eight hundred virtues and the ear twelve hundred, the excess of one supplements the deficiency of another so that the total for the six faculties is six thousand. This indicates the Dharma gate of Origin and also expresses contemplative practice.

Next is “Yaśodharā, mother of Rāhula.” The sutra identifies the mother by her son Rāhula. Yaśodharā is translated as Flower-Color and, in another account, Renown; another view says that the name is untranslatable. Gentle, good, respectful, and restrained, her virtue equaled the crown prince's. As a householder she was a bodhisattva's wife and one known among devas and humans; after leaving home she led the assembly of nuns and occupied a stage beyond training. How could she be assigned to an assembly without renown?

The Sutra of Twelve Years' Travels lists three wives: first Gopā, second Yaśodharā, and third Luye, “Deer Field.” The Sutra of the Unprecedented and the Sutra of the Auspicious Response both say that Rāhula was Gopā's son, while the Nirvāṇa Sutra and the Lotus Sutra say that he was Yaśodharā's. How can the two accounts be reconciled? Perhaps the former scriptures name the senior mother who raised him, while the present passage names his birth mother. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that Gopikā was a jeweled woman who could not bear children. Gopikā is Gopā, translated as Luminous Woman. The inference of the present commentary is therefore that Rāhula was certainly Yaśodharā's son.

In terms of Origin and Trace, a wife should equal her husband in virtue and stage. How could an ordinary person of the open ground have become the crown prince's wife? She originally abides in quiescent concentration and subtle Dharma joy and manifests as the Buddha's wife during his household life. The Sutra of the Compassionate Flower transmits that before the Buddha Jewel Treasury she vowed to become his wife.

In contemplating the mind, the uncontaminated Dharma joy gained through contemplating emptiness is represented by Luye as wife; the Dharma joy of knowledge of the varieties of paths gained through contemplating the provisional is represented by Yaśodharā; and the Dharma joy gained through contemplating the middle is represented by Gopā. The names of the three wives thus respectively represent the Dharma joy of the contemplations of emptiness, the provisional, and the middle.

3. Teacher and Companions Transforming Beings: From Milk to Clarified Essence

Origin and Trace and contemplation of the mind have been explained separately above. The treatise now gives a general discussion to reveal the winding skill of bodhisattva expedient means and the subtlety of contemplative practice. The Śūraṅgama Samādhi can make every kind of manifestation, adapting to the capacities of beings without any expedient means beyond its scope. Here the discussion remains with events close at hand.

The Buddha manifested birth in a royal palace from a noble queen. Dharma-body bodhisattvas likewise assisted his teaching, each casting a form into another family. When the prince was born with a golden body adorned by thirty-two auspicious marks, the great beings were also born one by one: at some births treasure rained down in empty rooms, while others displayed talent through the interpretation of dreams.

The resplendent prince later relinquished country and throne, crossed the city wall, left home, and studied the path. The great beings likewise studied under teachers, mastered many arts, and became authorities among the outsiders. When the Buddha first turned the Dharma wheel and opened the gate of ambrosia, the conditions of those whom the great beings would guide were not yet mature. They therefore manifested the same refusal to accept the Buddha's conversion, met him as equals on a separate footing, and exalted their own paths as true. Those who could transform and those to be transformed still retained their former identities, like milk not yet changed.

When the conditions of those to be transformed matured, they were like white silk easily dyed or pond lotuses opening early. Ordinary people became noble ones, as milk turns into curds. These great beings honored the Buddha as teacher and became his leading disciples, some foremost in wisdom, others in supernormal power, eloquence, or samādhi. Together they assisted the Dharma king, guiding those not yet liberated and ripening further those already mature.

At the Vaipulya assemblies they heard the inconceivable virtues of bodhisattvas, felt ashamed of the lesser Dharma they had taken, and aspired to the Great Vehicle. In their shame at the lesser they lamented and reproached themselves, knowing that they had lost the Tathāgata's immeasurable knowledge and vision. In aspiring to the great, they did not know how they might attain the Buddha's unsurpassed wisdom. This was like curds turning into raw ghee.

Next they heard the Mahāyāna gate of prajñā, beginning with form and mind and ending in knowledge of all modes. It encompassed the lesser and the great, going out and coming in, taking and giving, shared and distinct, partial and perfect. At the Buddha's command the disciples received and explained prajñā for bodhisattvas, yet did not themselves hope to realize the great Dharma. Although they had not suddenly discarded the lesser fruit, their minds gradually opened and became at ease, as raw ghee turns into refined ghee.

Next they heard the Lotus Sutra. Their original kinship was brought together, the relation of father and sons determined, predictions conferred, and the Great Vehicle entrusted to the disciples; the expedient three vehicles were set aside and returned to the single Buddha vehicle. The four preceding flavors became the single flavor of clarified essence. The Buddha did not allow even one person to attain a lesser extinction alone; he would have every being extinguished through the Tathāgata's own extinction.

The Dharma king and his Dharma ministers appeared in the world for the one great matter and skillfully employed expedient means. First they used the half-word teaching to clear away the overgrowth of the twenty-five modes of existence and establish the four withered twin trees, benefiting ordinary beings. Next they used teachings combining half and full to break the two vehicles' isolated pursuit of their own good, establish the vast practice of bodhisattvas and the four flourishing twin trees, and benefit noble ones. Finally they used the permanent full-word teaching to break the successive attachment to the two extremes and establish the Buddha's secret treasury, neither withered nor flourishing, bringing benefit to completion.

The work of the commander and his forces was thus completed and the great vow fulfilled. Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana therefore completed their manifested teaching at the Lotus assembly. The Buddha's manifestation of relinquishing his lifespan for beings also meant that nirvāṇa was not far away. The sutra says, “My original vow has now been fulfilled; before long the Tathāgata will enter nirvāṇa.” The declaration of extinction begins here. The twenty thousand Sun-Moon-Lamp buddhas, Kāśyapa Buddha, and others likewise completed their ultimate teaching at a Lotus assembly.

Teacher and disciples now disclose their traces in this sutra: inwardly they secretly preserve the bodhisattva path and outwardly manifest as śrāvakas. The Buddha says that in reality he attained buddhahood immeasurable hundreds of millions of eons ago. From this one can infer that the great arhats originally descend from the ground of Dharma body, casting reflections downward in response to conditions so that traces appear upon ten thousand waters. They manifest as trainees or those beyond training, as men or women, as those who leave home or remain in household life. Through the power of the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, there is no form they cannot manifest. Such is their skill in expedient means. [And so forth.]

4. Returning the Teaching of Teacher and Disciples to a Single Thought

The shared teaching of teacher and disciples described above is the work of Dharma-body great beings. Unless contemplation of the mind is made an expedient means of practice, it gives practitioners no actual benefit. One is like a poor person counting another's treasures and gaining nothing, or a blind person holding a candle for someone else yet unable to see its light.

Mental factors are numerous. Here the treatise first takes ten wholesome mental factors, just as the Buddha had many disciples but the sutra cites only ten principal disciples. The ten are trust, vigor, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, joy, pliancy, equanimity, awareness, and precepts. They assist the mind king, enabling it to turn evil toward good, transform the ordinary into the noble, and accomplish every Dharma gate. All wholesome dharmas have these ten states as their basis, just as the ten disciples assisted the Buddha's teaching, together ripened beings, and established the Buddhadharma.

Trust corresponds to Aniruddha, foremost in the divine eye. The eye comes first among the five faculties, just as the east is placed first among the directions; trust likewise first brings one into the Buddhadharma among the mental factors. Vigor corresponds to Kāśyapa, foremost in ascetic practice: shaking off the dust of affliction through strenuous cultivation accords with vigor. Mindfulness corresponds to Upāli, foremost in maintaining the Vinaya, for strong recollection preserves the precepts without forgetting them. Concentration corresponds to Maudgalyāyana, foremost in supernormal powers, and wisdom to Śāriputra, foremost in wisdom; these two are readily understood.

Joy corresponds to Ānanda, foremost in learning. Much learning and discrimination of Dharma produce Dharma joy, and delight is precisely joy. Pliancy corresponds to Kātyāyana, foremost in doctrinal discussion: he investigates meaning to its depths, removes error, and discloses what is correct, just as pliancy leaves evil for good and relinquishes suffering for ease. Equanimity corresponds to Subhūti, foremost in understanding emptiness: abiding in the equality of emptiness accords with equanimity. Awareness corresponds to Pūrṇa, foremost in teaching Dharma: awareness is the basis of speech, and once the basis is established, eloquence is inexhaustible. Precepts correspond to Rāhula, foremost in maintaining the precepts; the meaning is readily understood.

The ten mental factors assist the mind king and can accomplish contemplative practice. When one enters wholesome Dharma deeply in a single thought, the Three Jewels are complete. The mind king represents the Buddha Jewel; the mental factors represent the Saṅgha Jewel; and in the true limit that is their object, neither mind king nor mental factors can be found, which is the Dharma Jewel. On entering the true limit, the mind king and mental factors have completed their function.

One may also take the ten universally operating mental factors that arise together with the mind king, enter both wholesome and unwholesome states, and pervade all mental activity. These ten are perception, desire, contact, wisdom, mindfulness, volition, liberation, recollection, concentration, and feeling. They must not be merged with the preceding group of ten wholesome mental factors.

Perception corresponds to Pūrṇa. Through perception he penetrates provisional names, understands every provisional designation, and is unhindered in eloquence. Desire corresponds to Kāśyapa, who has no worldly desire but aspires to the unconditioned. Contact corresponds to Kātyāyana: contact brings two things into mutual engagement, and Kātyāyana's skill in doctrinal discussion allows him to exhaust every exchange of challenge and reply. Wisdom corresponds to Śāriputra; the meaning is readily understood.

Mindfulness corresponds to Upāli, because recollection and preservation are supreme in keeping the Vinaya. Volition corresponds to Rāhula: volition belongs to the aggregate of formations, and Rāhula truly practices the precepts. Liberation corresponds to Subhūti: liberation means freedom from entanglement, and through understanding emptiness Subhūti is liberated amid existent dharmas. Recollection corresponds to Aniruddha: recollection activates the taking of an object, cultivates the divine eye, and enters the corresponding samādhi. Concentration corresponds to Maudgalyāyana; the meaning is readily understood. Feeling corresponds to Ānanda, whose broad learning receives and preserves without error.

Each of the ten disciples actually possesses the full multitude of virtues. A single excellence is named only to guide people devoted to a particular gate. Those who want wisdom take Śāriputra as teacher; those who want learning take Ānanda as teacher; the others follow by analogy. Together the ten assist the Dharma king, each responsible for one teaching function.

Contemplating the mind is likewise. Every mind contains the mind king and mental factors. To accomplish contemplation they mutually assist one another and bring about awakening. Some enter the path through perception, others through desire. According to what is appropriate, the mind king and mental factors together counter the afflicted states and turn even the dust of affliction into buddha-work.

Before one awakens through this contemplation, contemplative practice is like milk. When the uncontaminated arises, it is like milk becoming curds. Breaking the afflictions as numerous as dust and sand is like raw and refined ghee; breaking ignorance is like clarified essence. At the stage of clarified essence, the opposition of mind king and mental factors has completed its function. One no longer operates through a mind that acts and dharmas that are enumerated, and this is called practicing the perfection of wisdom.

The Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra teaches that to contemplate mind is to know that mind has no own-nature and dharmas do not abide in dharmas; one's own mind is empty, and merit and wrongdoing have no sovereign. This is correct contemplation in which neither a mind king nor fixed mental factors can be found. If the afflicted mental factors have not all been carried across, contemplative practice is not complete. Hence, borrowing the language of a vow, the text says that if beings have not been liberated, one will not attain perfect awakening. [And so forth.]

5. The Bodhisattva Assembly: Class, Great Number, and Stage

Second comes the bodhisattva assembly. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom asks: since bodhisattvas can be included among the fourfold assembly of monastics and householders, why list them separately? The answer is that some bodhisattvas belong to the fourfold assembly, but some members of the fourfold assembly are not bodhisattvas because they have not generated the resolve to attain buddhahood. Those who together generate the resolve and seek buddhahood are now listed separately as the bodhisattva assembly.

This passage has six parts: first, class; second, great number; third, stage; fourth, praise of virtue; fifth, names; and sixth, concluding phrase.

First, the class is that of bodhisattva mahāsattvas. Preserved in full, the expression would be bodhisattva mahāsattva; Master Kumārajīva considered the full form cumbersome and abbreviated two syllables. The present commentary explains bodhi as path, sattva as mind, and mahā as great. These people all seek the vast great path and also bring beings to maturity, and thus belong to the class of path-minds and great-path-minds.

There are many kinds of bodhisattvas, here summarized as partial, shared, distinct, and perfect. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom cites Kātyāyanīputra on fulfilling the six perfections within defined limits; these bodhisattvas seek to refine beings as coarse as blood into milk. The Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra speaks of bodhisattvas whose generation of resolve corresponds to omniscience; they seek to refine milk into curds.

The Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra also speaks of bodhisattvas who generate resolve, freely exercise supernormal powers, and purify buddha lands. The Vimalakīrti Sutra likewise speaks of bodhisattvas who attain inconceivable liberation, transform their bodies, mount lion thrones, and yet manifest submission to rebuke. These refine curds into raw and refined ghee. Elsewhere the Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra speaks of bodhisattvas who generate resolve, immediately sit beneath the tree of awakening, attain perfect awakening, turn the Dharma wheel, and liberate beings. This refines ghee into clarified essence.

The Lotus Sutra therefore says that when bodhisattvas hear this Dharma, their nets of doubt are all removed. It also says that bodhisattvas who have not heard the Lotus do not yet skillfully practice the bodhisattva path, while those who hear it do. The Nirvāṇa Sutra says that bodhisattvas who have not heard the Nirvāṇa still entertain hopes, while after hearing it their hopes entirely cease. Bodhisattvas are thus summarized in four kinds.

In terms of Origin and Trace, the original ground of these bodhisattvas is difficult to fathom. Some abide at equal awakening, others equal the Dharma king. When Sudhana entered the Dharma realm and saw Mañjuśrī, his forms were boundless and his Dharma gates profound, his original ground neighboring the buddhas. To assist Śākyamuni, they manifest traces as bodhisattvas. Through the power of the samādhi that universally manifests forms, they scatter reflections and lower appearances; through the inconceivable wheel of speech, they explain widely according to what is appropriate. This can be understood in meaning but cannot be fully expressed in words.

They therefore manifest traces guiding the teachings of the four flavors and finally return them to the one reality, like hammer and anvil forging every kind of unworked material until it becomes clarified essence. Once a period of teaching is complete, the activity of the traces ceases, but their original virtues were perfected long before. How could they only now be entering the Great Vehicle? Nor did they begin only at the site of quiescent extinction, like high mountains first struck by sunlight. Sudden and gradual alike are works of their manifested traces.

In contemplating the mind, contemplation of the middle simultaneously illuminates the two truths and is therefore called great; it penetrates to the fruit of awakening and is therefore called path; it breaks the afflictions of the five abodes and thereby accomplishes the meaning of beings. [And so forth.]

Second is the great number. The sutra says eighty thousand people. Other scriptures assemble far larger gatherings; why does this one have fewer? Perhaps it gives only a round great number, or perhaps it is like a king discussing a secret matter that cannot be planned with the entire realm. [And so forth.]

In contemplating the mind, contemplate one wholesome thought as containing ten Dharma realms. The ten realms mutually contain one another, forming one hundred realms and the thousand natures and characteristics. The ten wholesome acts multiplied by the thousand natures and characteristics yield ten thousand dharmas; contemplated further through the noble eightfold path, they become eighty thousand Dharma gates. [And so forth.]

Third is the stage. “All irreversible from unsurpassed complete awakening” explains their stage. Anuttara is translated as unsurpassed. The meaning of path may be understood through the subtlety of the object, and the meaning of stage through the subtlety of stages. Irreversibility is explained as irreversibility of stage, practice, and thought, and must also be distinguished through the four teachings.

Under the Tripiṭaka teaching, no longer being born in the three evil destinies is irreversibility of stage; not being born in a borderland, possessing complete faculties, and not receiving a female body is irreversibility of practice; and always remembering former lives is irreversibility of thought. Possessing all three is the stage of avaivartika.

Before the sixth mind in the Shared Teaching, bodhisattvas are like light down borne by the wind: their faculty of trust is not established and their stage can still regress. From the seventh mind onward, from the first through the sixth ground, they no longer regress into ordinary beings or the two vehicles; this is irreversibility of stage. Yet although their primary afflictions are exhausted, they cannot cultivate all practices universally, so practice may still regress. At the seventh ground practice becomes irreversible, but thoughts of the two vehicles may still arise and thus thought may regress. At the eighth ground, path and contemplation flow together and enter the stream of Dharma; this is irreversibility of thought. This is irreversibility within the ten grounds shared by the three vehicles.

One group of masters classified the ten abodes as irreversibility of realization, the ten practices as irreversibility of stage, the ten dedications as irreversibility of practice, and the ten grounds as irreversibility of thought. The present commentary says that this is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching and does not accord with the present sutra, so it is not adopted. The Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Diadem and Primary Karmic Acts says that at the first ground the three contemplations become present, every thought is quiescent, and one naturally enters the stream of Dharma. This too is the Distinct Teaching's irreversibility and is likewise not used to judge the present sutra.

The Flower Garland Sutra says that at the first abode of the Perfect Teaching one obtains one body and immeasurable bodies of the Tathāgata and possesses all three forms of irreversibility. This is the irreversibility of the Perfect Teaching and precisely the one real matter disclosed by the present sutra. The commentary therefore adopts this stage.

In terms of Origin and Trace, these bodhisattvas' original ground is quiescent extinction, not something confined even by the ten grounds, much less by the first abode. It is not merely the irreversibility of the first abode, much less the stages of the Distinct and Shared Teachings. Distinct and Shared stages may explain assemblies listed in other scriptures; the Perfect stage accords with the present one. If interpreters know only the manifested stage and not the original ground, their praise may miss its object and become the two slanders of adding and diminishing.

In contemplating the mind, the contemplations of emptiness, the provisional, and the middle are the three irreversibilities. The three contemplations in one mind are the three irreversibilities in one mind. [And so forth.]

6. Thirteen Statements of Virtue: Vertically through the Ten Grounds, Horizontally through the First Abode

An older interpretation begins the praise of virtue only with “all attained dhāraṇī,” yielding twelve statements divided into four meanings. The first three praise present virtues, the next three past practice, the next four inner substance, and the final two outward renown. Present virtue is further divided in two: the first statement praises one's own practice and the next two the transformation of others. The three concerning past practice praise, first, its basis—prajñā received from buddhas; second, the meritorious practice that supports wisdom; and third, praise by the buddhas.

Inner substance is also divided into three: the first statement praises the response body through compassion, the middle two praise the reward body through mind and wisdom, and the last praises the Dharma body. The two concerning outward name praise universal renown and the capacity to liberate beings. This division appears well ordered, but the present commentary says it cannot establish which teaching's bodhisattvas are being praised. If the Shared Teaching is intended, it has no three bodies and does not support entering buddha-wisdom or universal renown. If the Distinct Teaching is intended, its first ground already surpasses the two vehicles, so how could thoughts of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas arise again at the seventh? If the Perfect Teaching is intended, one should not say that those below the seventh ground lack the virtue of irreversibility. The commentary therefore does not adopt the older judgment.

Instead, it gives irreversibility two functions at once: looking back, it completes the explanation of stage; looking forward, it begins the praise of virtue. There are thus thirteen statements, which can be read vertically through the ten grounds and horizontally through the first abode.

The vertical reading follows.

First, irreversibility corresponds to the first, Joyful Ground. On the first ground bodhisattvas rejoice that they no longer fall into the two extremes of emptiness and existence, enter the middle path, and attain the three irreversibilities of stage, practice, and thought.

Second, “all attained dhāraṇī” corresponds to the second ground. The second is the Stainless Ground, also called Separating and Penetrating: separating blocks every evil, while penetrating upholds every good. This is the restraining and retaining meaning of dhāraṇī.

Third, “delighted in eloquence” corresponds to the third ground, the Luminous Ground. Inwardly wisdom is bright and outwardly teaching is eloquent. To know the wisdom, look at its expression in teaching; among the various modes of speaking, delighted speech is supreme.

Fourth, “turned the irreversible Dharma wheel” corresponds to the fourth, Blazing Ground. A flame breaks darkness and consumes a wick. In turning the Dharma wheel, severing one's own delusions is like consuming the wick, and dispelling another's delusion is like removing darkness.

Fifth, “made offerings to hundreds of thousands of buddhas” corresponds to the fifth, Difficult-to-Conquer Ground. Here profound meditative concentration is attained and supernormal power is difficult to surpass or equal, enabling one in a single thought to reach the ten directions and make offerings to the buddhas.

Sixth, “planted the roots of many virtues in the presence of the buddhas” corresponds to the sixth, Manifest Ground. Through concentration one can make offerings to buddhas; merit supports knowledge of all modes and makes it manifest. Wisdom is the root of virtue, like a seed planted in the earth.

Seventh, “were always praised by the buddhas” corresponds to the seventh, Far-Traveling Ground. Its provisional and real wisdoms and skillful means surpass earlier stages; its vast practice of benefit accords with the buddhas' minds and is therefore praised by them.

Eighth, “cultivated their bodies through compassion” corresponds to the eighth, Immovable Ground. Correct wisdom does not move and no longer leaves the three realms through karma, yet compassion impels the body to enter the five destinies, the mouth to teach Dharma, and the mind to establish expedient means. The Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma describes compassion as impelling all three kinds of action.

Ninth, “skillfully entered buddha-wisdom” corresponds to the ninth, Good Wisdom Ground. Wisdom enters deeply into the true limit and subtly penetrates the original source; name and meaning accord most closely here.

Tenth, “penetrated great wisdom” corresponds to the tenth, Dharma Cloud Ground. Dharma body is like the sky, concentration like a great cloud, and wisdom like great rain. Skill in entering the Buddhadharma is called wisdom; skill in using it is called knowledge. The two are cited reciprocally.

Eleventh, “reached the other shore” praises the inner virtue of the tenth ground. Reaching the other shores of the three truths—ultimate, conventional, and middle—speaks of the fruit while still at the causal stage and also indicates that completion is near.

Twelfth, “their names were universally heard” praises the outward virtue of the tenth ground. Because their inner virtue is deep and vast, their renown is widely heard; inward and outward correspond. If equal awakening is treated as a separate stage, “reached the other shore” and “their names were universally heard” may be assigned to it.

Thirteenth, “could liberate hundreds of thousands of beings.” Other grounds may liberate beings in one through nine Dharma realms, but are not yet called able to liberate. Because the tenth ground surpasses those before it, it is especially called able to liberate.

Every ground actually possesses a multitude of virtues. Here one virtue is assigned to each because people delight in distinctions, because the names of the ten grounds make the reading convenient, and because the vertical meaning is easy to understand. This is only one path for interpreting the scripture.

The horizontal reading speaks directly through the first abode of the Perfect Teaching, with all later stages understood by analogy. At the first abode, generating one resolve generates all virtues together, surpassing the two extremes, transforming the ordinary and transcending the noble, and entering the middle path. The mind is quiescent and every thought flows into the sea of omniscience; thus it is irreversible.

At the first abode one leaves behind obstructions such as grasping characteristics, lack of knowledge, and ignorance, and can retain and penetrate virtues such as prajñā, liberation, and Dharma body; thus one attains dhāraṇī. Even the corresponding understanding of the ten stages of faith can fill the three-thousandfold world with wondrous sounds. How much more does the genuine understanding of the first abode possess the secret virtue of speech and therefore delighted eloquence?

At the first abode one can divide one's body among a hundred worlds and become a buddha; in actual function the worlds reached are immeasurable and boundless. Because one can become a buddha, teach Dharma, and transform beings, one can turn the irreversible Dharma wheel. At the first abode one attains inconceivable supernormal power and can attend buddhas throughout the Dharma realm; hence one makes offerings to hundreds of thousands of buddhas.

At the first abode one attains the root that is the true mark and can therefore plant all virtues. One opens the Buddha's knowledge and vision, and one's own knowledge and vision share the buddhas' Dharma, so the buddhas praise one. One possesses compassion free of objectifying conditions, universally manifests forms, and responds throughout the Dharma realm; thus one cultivates the body through compassion.

At the first abode one enters the secret treasury and therefore skillfully enters buddha-wisdom; the three wisdoms in one mind are unobstructed and therefore penetrate great wisdom; both phenomena and principle are partially realized as ultimate and therefore reach the other shore; perfect virtues are genuine and match one's name and therefore one's name is universally heard throughout buddha worlds; and one can serve as refuge for the ten Dharma realms, establishing and protecting them, and therefore can liberate hundreds of thousands of beings.

The first abode possesses immeasurable, boundless, inconceivable virtues in addition to these; the sutra merely cites thirteen statements. From the second abode through equal awakening the same is true. The Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra uses the simile of the syllable gates: the first syllable A possesses the virtues of the remaining forty-one syllables, the final syllable Ḍha possesses the virtues of all the others, and every intervening syllable likewise does so. Syllables, language, and virtues are all equal.

Someone asks: this passage praises the virtue of severing delusion. A Tripiṭaka bodhisattva does not sever delusion and therefore need not be praised, but even śrāvakas receive praise. Why are those who manifest as Shared or Distinct bodhisattvas not praised?

The answer is that a general praise of manifested traces may indeed include them, but the present sutra directly reveals persons of the Perfect Teaching and does not especially praise expedient stages.

Someone then asks: how can every statement of virtue praise the first abode?

The answer is that all later stages likewise possess them; it is not only the first abode. The older teaching said that the eighth ground possesses all these virtues and no one doubted it. Now that the Perfect Teaching praises the first abode, what virtue could it fail to include? If even the first abode is so, how much more the later stages?

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra says that the gates of upper and lower branches should be understood through general and specific characteristics. Irreversibility is the general statement. It has ten manifestations: irreversibility in hearing Dharma is dhāraṇī; irreversibility in delighted speech is delighted eloquence; irreversibility in teaching is turning the irreversible Dharma wheel; irreversibility in relying on good spiritual friends is making offerings to hundreds of thousands of buddhas and planting roots of virtue; irreversibility in severing doubt is being praised by buddhas; irreversibility in entering affairs is cultivating the body through compassion; irreversibility in entering the true object of omniscience is skillfully entering buddha-wisdom; irreversibility based on the emptiness of persons and dharmas is penetrating great wisdom; irreversibility in entering the true object is reaching the other shore; and irreversibility in doing what should be done is liberating hundreds of thousands of beings.

Thus the first general statement is the upper branch and the specific statements that follow are the lower branches. The horizontal praise of the first abode accords with this meaning. The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra further says that the gate of embracing matters displays the pure ground in which bodhisattvas dwell, the expedient means on which they rely, their sphere, and what they should do. From this perspective there is also no obstacle to praising bodhisattva virtue vertically.

7. Contemplating the Thirteen Praises of Virtue

In interpreting the praise through contemplating the mind, irreversibility is as previously explained. As for dhāraṇī, contemplation of emptiness is the revolving dhāraṇī, contemplation of the provisional is the hundred-thousand-revolution dhāraṇī, and contemplation of the middle is the dhāraṇī of the expedient Dharma sound. Alternatively, when contemplation of emptiness views mind as having only a name, it is the dhāraṇī of hearing and retaining; when contemplation of the provisional views immeasurable minds, with every mind and mental factor a Dharma gate, it is the dhāraṇī of practice and retaining; when contemplation of the middle views mind as itself the true mark, it is the dhāraṇī of meaning and retaining.

When contemplation of the provisional views one mind as containing the dharmas of ten realms, this is unhindered eloquence in Dharma. When contemplation of the middle views all ten realms as entering the true mark, this is unhindered eloquence in meaning. When contemplation of emptiness views the ten realms as only names and language, this is unhindered eloquence in expression. To contemplate one mind as three minds and three minds as one, one realm as all realms and turning without obstruction, is unhindered eloquence in delighted speech.

Contemplation of emptiness turns the Dharma wheel of irreversibility of stage; contemplation of the provisional turns the wheel of irreversibility of practice; contemplation of the middle turns the wheel of irreversibility of thought. Making offerings to the Buddha is simply following the Buddha's words. To cultivate the three contemplations of mind in accord with the Buddha's teaching is to make offerings to the Buddha; to break the five abodes and attain liberation is to make offerings to the Dharma; the harmony of the principle of the three truths is to make offerings to the Saṅgha.

Alternatively, when the mind of many practices supports the mind of contemplative wisdom, this is offering to the Buddha; when the mind of contemplative wisdom opens its contemplated sphere, this is offering to the Dharma; when sphere and wisdom accord, this is offering to the Saṅgha. The mind of the true mark is the basis of the mind of contemplative wisdom, while contemplative wisdom is the basis of the mind of many practices. When the basis is attained, the planting of virtues becomes established, and this is called planting the roots of many virtues.

The mind of contemplative wisdom merges with its sphere, and the sphere confirms contemplative wisdom. Wisdom always accords with the object it illuminates; this is being praised by the Buddha. Contemplation of emptiness is infused by compassion conditioned by dharmas, contemplation of the provisional by compassion conditioned by beings, and contemplation of the middle by compassion free of objectifying conditions.

Contemplation of emptiness enters the buddha-wisdom of the Shared Teaching, contemplation of the provisional enters that of the Distinct Teaching, and contemplation of the middle enters that of the Perfect Teaching. Contemplation of emptiness reaches the other shore of omniscience, contemplation of the provisional reaches the other shore of knowledge of the varieties of paths, and contemplation of the middle reaches the other shore of knowledge of all modes.

Contemplation of emptiness hears the ultimate truth, contemplation of the provisional hears the conventional truth, and contemplation of the middle universally hears the first meaning of the middle path; the three contemplations in one mind also universally hear the three truths. Contemplation of emptiness liberates hundreds of thousands of beings bound by the afflictions of the four abodes, contemplation of the provisional liberates those bound by afflictions as numerous as dust and sand, and contemplation of the middle liberates those bound by ignorance. The three contemplations in one mind possess immeasurable virtues; praise cannot exhaust them, and only a brief account is given here.

8. Eighteen Bodhisattva Names: Explaining What Is Present, Preserving What Is Missing

Fifth is the list of names. Great beings possess great names, established in some cases from a Dharma gate, in others from virtues of practice, and in still others from an original vow. Although one name contains immeasurable meanings, the present text interprets eighteen bodhisattva names only through the scriptures and contemplating the mind.

Mañjuśrī is translated as Wondrous Virtue. The Nirvāṇa Sutra says that clearly seeing buddha-nature is like Wondrous Virtue and the other bodhisattvas. The Sutra of Conduct without Activity gives another form, Mañjuśirī, and the Sutra of Universal Transcendence gives Soft Head. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā says in meaning that although he teaches all dharmas, he does not give rise to a fixed characteristic of dharmas or to a characteristic of non-Dharma, and is therefore named Wondrous Virtue.

A vow transmitted in the Sutra of the Compassionate Flower says: “When I practice the bodhisattva path, may all beings I transform first attain complete awakening throughout the ten directions so that I see them all with my divine eye. May all in my land be bodhisattvas in their final birth, and may all have generated the resolve for the path through my exhortation. May my practice of the bodhisattva path have no limit.” Buddha Jewel Treasury praised his virtues as exceedingly profound and permitted him to take a wondrous pure land. He was therefore named Mañjuśrī and will attain buddhahood in the northern world Joy, with the name Tathāgata Joy-Treasury Jewel-Accumulation.

The present commentary says that he remains in the world even now and that beings who hear his name can extinguish the four grave offenses. He manifests a bodhisattva form and serves as a responsive reflection assisting Śākyamuni Buddha. In contemplating the mind, the principle of mind-nature possesses the secret three virtues of Dharma body, prajñā, and liberation, neither vertically successive nor horizontally arrayed, and is therefore called Wondrous Virtue.

Avalokiteśvara is given in the root commentary under the old transcription Poluojidishui. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā says in meaning that beings who see this bodhisattva become certain to attain awakening, while those who invoke his name escape their sufferings, and he is therefore named Perceiver of Sounds. A vow in the Sutra of the Compassionate Flower says: “If beings suffer and invoke and recollect my name, and my divine ear and eye see and hear them, yet they do not escape their suffering, I will not attain perfect awakening.” Buddha Jewel Treasury said, “You contemplate all beings and generate great compassion. I now name you Avalokiteśvara.” The later text of the sutra will itself explain this name. [And so forth.]

In contemplating the mind, the three wisdoms are called perception, the three truths are called world, and the three contemplations are the language that expresses them. Because the three truths are the basis, they are called sound.

At this point the first half of fascicle two of the Fahua Wenju ends. What follows is the second half of fascicle two, still attributed to Tiantai Master Zhiyi.

Mahāsthāmaprāpta. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā says in meaning, “Where I set down my foot, the three-thousandfold world and the palaces of Māra tremble, and therefore I am called Attainer of Great Power.” The Sutra of the Compassionate Flower says in meaning that he vowed his world would not differ from Avalokiteśvara's, and because he chose a great-thousandfold world, Buddha Jewel Treasury named him Mahāsthāmaprāpta.

In contemplating the mind, the three calms are like a foot. Placed upon the ground of the three truths, they shake the ten Dharma realms, overturning every dwelling place of the afflictions of views and attachment. [And so forth.]

Akṣayamati, Never Resting. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā uses an exceedingly long span of time to display his ceaselessness. Regard as one day and night a number of eons equal to the sands of the Ganges; thirty such days make a month and twelve months a year. Only after hundreds of thousands of billions of billions of such eons does one encounter a buddha. After encountering in this way a number of buddhas equal to the sands of the Ganges, practicing the pure conduct and accumulating virtue in the presence of each, one finally receives a prediction. Because the mind never rests, he is called Never Resting.

In contemplating the mind, one contemplates emptiness without abiding in emptiness, emerges into the provisional without abiding in the provisional, enters the middle without abiding in the middle, and simultaneously illuminates the two truths. This is called Never Resting.

Ratnapāṇi, Jewel Palm. The Sutra of Universal Transcendence says in meaning that he dons the supreme armor of virtue and cannot be obstructed or defeated before attaining buddhahood. He teaches the Great Vehicle and does not aspire to the two vehicles even in dreams. He always teaches others with a genuine mind and a wisdom-mind penetrating all things, without the slightest avarice concerning treasures, and is therefore called Jewel Palm.

In contemplating the mind, the inconceivable three truths are the jewel and the three contemplations in one mind are the palm. With this contemplative palm one holds the jewel of the three truths, benefiting oneself and others, and is therefore called Jewel Palm.

Bhaiṣajyarāja, Medicine King. A vow in the Sutra of the Compassionate Flower says: “When the one thousand and four buddhas of the Worthy Eon first attain the path, may I make offerings to them all; after they enter extinction, may I raise stūpas for them all. When beings suffer at the eon's end, may I protect and rescue them all. When warfare and epidemics arise, may I become a great physician-king, and afterward attain buddhahood.” Buddha Jewel Treasury said, “I now name you Fire-Pure Medicine King. Later, when you become a buddha, you will be Tathāgata Louzhi.” The explanation through contemplating the mind is abbreviated. [And so forth.]

The present commentary explicitly records here that explanations of the following seven bodhisattvas are missing.

Bhadrapāla is translated as Good Guardian and also as Worthy Guardian. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā says in meaning that beings who hear his name become certain to attain unsurpassed complete awakening, and he is therefore called Good Guardian.

In contemplating the mind, correct contemplation of the middle is foremost among all wholesome dharmas and is therefore called Good Guardian.

Maitreya is translated as the Compassionate One. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā says in meaning that beings who see this bodhisattva attain the samādhi of loving-kindness and he is therefore named Maitreya. The Sutra of the Wise and Foolish transmits that a king saw an elephant trainer taming an elephant, generated a mind of loving-kindness, and from this received the name Maitreya. The Sutra of the Compassionate Flower transmits his vow to protect beings during eons of warfare and fire.

In contemplating the mind, correct contemplation of the middle is great loving-kindness without objectifying distinctions. The power of this wholesome root of loving-kindness brings every mental factor into the great kindness of shared substance and separates it from what is unwholesome; hence the name Maitreya. Another account says that Maitreya is the family name and Ajita the personal name, translated as Unconquered. A later passage of the sutra will explain this. [And so forth.]

The present commentary again explicitly records that the following explanation of the bodhisattva Ratnakūṭa, Jewel Accumulation, is missing.

Nāyaka, Guide. The Sutra of the Questions of Brahmā says in meaning that a bodhisattva generates great compassion for beings who have fallen into mistaken paths, leads them into the correct path, and seeks no recompense, and is therefore called Guide.

In contemplating the mind, the wondrous wisdom of the three contemplations guides every practice, prevents it from falling into the two extremes of emptiness and existence, and brings all practices into correct contemplation. The names not yet explained await later supplementation. [And so forth.]

Sixth, the sutra closes with “such bodhisattvas as these.” This is the concluding phrase of the bodhisattva assembly.

9. The Diverse Assembly: Five Destinies, Two Realms, and Eight Groups

Third comes the diverse assembly. An older interpretation called it the assembly of ordinary beings, but noble ones are included. Another called it the lay assembly, but some members have left home to cultivate the path. Another called it the assembly of devas and humans, but dragons and spirits are also present. None of the three names is comprehensive, so it is called the diverse assembly.

“Diverse” includes five destinies, two realms, and eight groups. Vaipulya scriptures also list beings in hell, and the Sutra of the Intermediate State contains scenes in which formless-realm beings are taught. Such appearances respond to different capacities. One assembly cannot be made the fixed rule for every assembly, nor can the order of the assembled groups be made the only possible order.

An older interpretation said that humans are masters of the land and courteously allow such visiting assemblies as devas and dragons to be listed first. But the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings and the present sutra belong to the same seat of teaching and explicitly list kings, ministers, subjects, and women without any account of hosts yielding to guests. The compilers arranged the assembly according to the course of the text, perhaps with some further intent that the present commentary does not claim to know in detail.

The present passage has eight groups: Indra is named first, then the four heavenly kings; dragons precede birds; and spirits appear more than once. It is precisely because of such an arrangement that this is called the diverse assembly. One must not force upon it a fixed hierarchy of identities.

It is also called diverse because it contains those who have attained the path and those who have not, with bodies of karmic result and outward clothing intermingled. In those who attain the path of the two vehicles, uncontaminated wisdom is still mixed with unsevered ignorance. In those who attain the bodhisattva path, skillful expedient means mix with the capacities of many kinds of beings. In those who attain the Buddha path, one dharma contains all dharmas and is also called diverse. Such is the meaning of diversity. It cannot be judged solely by ordinary appearance, lay identity, the five destinies, or devas and humans. This is the interpretation in terms of the teaching. [And so forth.]

10. Desire-Realm Devas: Indra, the Three Luminaries, and the Four Kings

Śakra Devānām Indra is also named Indra or, in another transcription, Zhantiluo, translated as Capable of Acting because he serves as lord of Trāyastriṃśa. Trāyastriṃśa is translated as Thirty-Three: on each of the four sides of Mount Sumeru are eight cities, and with the central city Sudarśana they make thirty-three. Sumeru is translated as Secure and Bright; made of four jewels, it is 3,360,000 li high and wide. Because Śakra is lord of the desire-realm devas, he is listed first.

The eight names transmitted in fascicle forty of the Saṃyukta Āgama are explained through questions and answers as follows.

A bhikṣu asked the Buddha why he was named Śakra Devānām Indra. The Buddha answered that when he was human he could give prompt gifts and was capable of acting as a leader, and was therefore named Śakra Devānām Indra.

Why was he named Purandara? Because as a human he repeatedly gave.

Why was he named Maghavā? Because this had been his name when human.

Why was he named Vāsava? Because as a human he once gave clothing.

Why was he named Kauśika? Because this was his family name when human.

Why was he named Śacīpati? Śacī is his wife and pati means husband: the name means husband of Śacī.

Why was he named Thousand-Eyed? Because as a human he was intelligent and in a single sitting could ponder a thousand meanings, examining and weighing each.

Why was he named Indra? Because he is lord of the thirty-two other devas. Fascicle three of the Sutra of the Jeweled Necklace also says that the heavenly emperor is named Kauśika.

In terms of the teaching, the Āgamas contain an account in which Śakra is a nonreturner. At prajñā assemblies, all who come from the ten directions to question prajñā are called Śakra Devānām Indra. The Distinct and Perfect Teachings further say that Śakra attained the Śūraṅgama Samādhi; their inward realizations differ in level, and after 2,024 eons of the Worthy Eon he will become a buddha named World-Honored One Unattached. [And so forth.]

In terms of Origin and Trace, the ten abodes, ten practices, and ten dedications together make thirty stages; the ten grounds are thirty-one, equal awakening thirty-two, and wondrous awakening the lord. Dwelling together in the heaven of first meaning, all drink the ambrosia of the true mark: this is his Origin. Manifesting residence on the summit of Mount Sumeru is his Trace.

In contemplating the mind, practice the ten wholesome acts oneself, exhort others to practice them, and rejoice in others' practice: these make thirty wholesome acts. Each of the thirty is empty, provisional, and the middle, producing thirty-three gates of contemplation.

The three deva sons beginning with Named Moon are Śakra's inner ministers, like civil officials in the human world. Another account takes them as the three luminary devas of moon, star, and sun. Named Moon is the deva son Auspicious Jewel Moon, manifested by Mahāsthāmaprāpta; Universal Fragrance is the deva son Bright Star, manifested by Ākāśagarbha; Jewel Light is the deva son Jewel-Intention Sun, manifested by Avalokiteśvara. This is the interpretation in terms of Origin and Trace.

In contemplating the mind, the three contemplations are the two wisdoms, while the three wisdoms are the three luminaries. The three wisdoms arise from the three truths; the truths are like heaven and wisdom like heaven's sons. [And so forth.]

The four great heavenly kings are Śakra's outer ministers, like military commanders guarding a realm. They live on the four jeweled mountains halfway up Mount Sumeru, whose breadth is 240,000 li.

Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east is translated as Upholder of the Land and also Pacifier of the People. He lives on the golden mountain and commands gandharvas and pūtanas.

Virūḍhaka in the south is translated as Increase and also Freedom from Harm. He lives on the lapis mountain and commands pretas and kumbhāṇḍas.

Virūpākṣa in the west is translated as Unpleasant Retribution and also Evil-Eyed or Mixed-Speech. He lives on the silver mountain and commands poisonous dragons and piśācas.

Vaiśravaṇa in the north is translated as Various Hearing and also Much Hearing. He lives on the crystal mountain and commands rākṣasas and yakṣas.

Each king governs two kinds of spirits and prevents them from harming people, and they are therefore called protectors of the world.

In terms of Origin and Trace, the four kings are originally the four kings Permanence, Bliss, Self, and Purity. They protect the Buddhadharma and prevent outsiders from stripping its branches and leaves or cutting and damaging it. The king Permanence guards the eastern twin trees of permanence and impermanence; the king Bliss guards the southern twin trees of bliss and nonbliss; the king Self guards the western twin trees of self and nonself; and the king Purity guards the northern twin trees of purity and impurity. Branches and trunk symbolize permanence, flowers symbolize self, fruit symbolizes bliss, and abundant foliage symbolizes purity. The four kings protect flower and fruit so that they can constantly benefit all beings; in Trace they become the four heavenly kings who protect the world.

In contemplating the mind, wisdom contemplating the four truths is the four kings. Under each truth it removes the two forms of attachment and views, thereby guarding the eight forms of attachment and views and preventing them from doing harm.

Above Trāyastriṃśa is Yāma Heaven, translated as Good Time and called Wondrous Good in the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, 3,360,000 li above Trāyastriṃśa. Above Yāma is Tuṣita Heaven, translated as Wondrous Contentment, separated by the same distance. The sutra does not list Tuṣita, but merely abbreviates: if the slower capacities of lower heavens and the pleasure-attached higher heavens know to assemble, how could the Tuṣita devas, neither attached to pleasure nor slow, fail to come?

Nirmāṇarati is the fifth desire-realm heaven and Para-nirmita-vaśavartin the sixth. The former transforms the five desires for itself; the latter enjoys the five desires transformed by others. [And so forth.] Some take the latter great sovereign heaven to mean the highest heaven of the form realm, but the present commentary says that the order of the assembly should not leap suddenly to the summit of the form realm.

In terms of Origin and Trace, these two deva assemblies originally abide in meditative concentrations such as sovereign concentration and concentration of the great sovereign king and manifest as the two heavens. In contemplating the mind, entering emptiness is sovereign contemplation and entering the middle is great-sovereign contemplation. [And so forth.]

11. Form-Realm Devas

Next come the form-realm devas. Sahā is translated as endurance. The present commentary says that beings in this land abide in the ten evils and are unwilling to leave them; the land is named from its inhabitants and is therefore called Endurance. The Sutra of the Compassionate Flower says in meaning that it is named Sahā because beings endure greed, anger, delusion, and the other afflictions. Sahā is also called diverse because beings of nine destinies dwell together here. [And so forth.]

Brahmā is translated as freedom from desire. Having left the bonds of the lower desire realm and risen into the form realm, one is called free from desire, also lofty and pure. Śikhin is translated as Topknot; in foreign lands fire is also called śikhin. This heavenly king formerly cultivated the concentration of firelight, broke desire-realm delusions, and received his name from the virtues attained.

The sutra first names the Brahmā king and separately names Śikhin, making them appear to be two persons. According to the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, Śikhin is the Brahmā king himself. The present commentary therefore says that the scripture may first give the royal office and then disclose the king's name, and perhaps still refers to one person. The Brahmā king dwells between the first and second dhyānas. Inwardly he has initial and sustained attention and outwardly speech. One capable of leading the assembly is a king; one who cultivates only dhyāna is a Brahmā subject; one who additionally cultivates the four immeasurable minds of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity is a king. The first dhyāna has the Heaven of the Brahmā Assembly, Heaven of Brahmā's Ministers, and Great Brahmā Heaven. Naming the king includes the other devas.

The luminous heavens belong to the second dhyāna. The second dhyāna has the heavens Lesser Light, Immeasurable Light, and Light-Sound; the third has Lesser Purity, Immeasurable Purity, and Universal Purity; the fourth has Dense Body, also called Unobstructed, Immeasurable Dense Body, also called Receiving Merit, Dense Fruit, also called Vast Fruit, and Unconscious Dense Body, also called Unconscious.

There are also the five heavens of nonreturners: Not Troubled, Not Hot, Good Vision, Good Manifestation, and Ultimate Form. Ultimate Form is also named Great Sovereign, Maheśvara. The sutra abbreviates rather than listing all of them and includes these deva assemblies under the word “and others.” The interpretations in terms of the teaching, Origin and Trace, and contemplating the mind may be understood by analogy with the foregoing.

12. The Eight Dragons

Next the eight dragons are listed.

Nanda is translated as Joy and the upa of Upananda as Good. The two dragon brothers constantly protected Magadha, caused rain to fall in season, and kept the country free of famine. King Bimbisāra held an annual assembly for them, and the people rejoiced when they heard of it; hence their names. These are the dragons subdued by Maudgalyāyana, who lived in the sea.

In terms of Origin and Trace, they originally abide on the Joyful Ground and manifest residence in the sea. In contemplating the mind, the three contemplations are the middle path and can give rise to Dharma joy.

Sāgara is named from his dwelling in the sea and is the dragon king mentioned in the Flower Garland Sutra. An older interpretation instead said that he was named after a country. He originally abides in the great ocean of the perfection of wisdom and manifests residence in the blue sea.

Vāsuki is translated as Many-Headed and also Jewel-Renowned and lives in the water. He originally abides in the samādhi that universally manifests forms and manifests many heads. In contemplating the mind, entering contemplation of the provisional differentiates immeasurable Dharma gates. [And so forth.]

Takṣaka is translated as Manifesting Poison and also Many-Tongued or Double-Tongued. He originally abides in the Dharma gate of unhindered eloquence in delighted speech and manifests many tongues.

Anavatapta is named from his pool and translated as Without Heat. Lake Anavatapta lies on the summit of the Snow Mountains and is also called Lake Anavatapta; it contains a hall with five pillars where the dragon king constantly dwells. Other dragons of Jambudvīpa suffer three afflictions.

First, hot winds and burning sands fall upon their bodies, scorching skin, flesh, bones, and marrow and causing suffering. Second, a malignant wind suddenly arises, destroys their palaces, scatters their jewels and clothing, and exposes their bodies. Third, while the dragons are at play, garuḍas break into their palaces and seize and eat newly born dragon children, filling them with fear and torment.

Lake Anavatapta has none of these three afflictions. If a garuḍa even forms the intention to go there, it dies before arriving, and hence the lake is called free of the affliction of heat. In terms of Origin and Trace, the dragon originally abides in the cool permanence, bliss, self, and purity and manifests residence in the cool lake. In contemplating the mind, the wondrous wisdom of the three contemplations purifies the devouring afflictions of the five abodes and frees practitioners from the burning sands of fragmentary and transformational birth and death. [And so forth.]

Manasvin is translated as Great Body and also Great Mind or Great Strength. When the asuras displaced the seawater and tried to flood Sudarśana City, this dragon king wrapped his body around Mount Sumeru and held back the water. He originally abides in the Dharma gate of the boundless body and manifests an enormous body. In contemplating the mind, correct contemplation of the middle is vast in substance. [And so forth.]

Utpalaka is the dark-blue lotus pool. The dragon lives there and is named from it. He originally abides in the Lotus Samādhi and manifests residence in this pool. In contemplating the mind, the three contemplations are the causes cultivated, and causes are like lotus flowers.

The Sutra of Correct Mindfulness says that dragons guard the borders of the devas. When asuras raise armies, they first fight the dragons, from which one knows that dragons are governed by the devas.

13. The Four Kiṃnaras and Four Gandharvas

Next the four kiṃnaras are listed. Also named kindaras, their name is translated as Doubtful Spirits. They resemble humans but bear one horn upon the head and are therefore called human-yet-not-human. They are Śakra's musicians of Dharma and live on the Ten-Jewel Mountain. Because their bodies have an unusual mark, they make music for the devas.

When the Buddha teaches Dharma, the devas pluck strings and sing, while Pañcaśikha also praises the Dharma in verse. An older interpretation said that the Dharma Kiṃnara performs the four truths, the Wondrous Kiṃnara the twelve links of dependent arising, the Great Kiṃnara the six perfections, and the Upholding Kiṃnara all three together. The present commentary instead interprets the four kiṃnaras as performing the Dharma gates of the four teachings.

In terms of Origin and Trace, they originally abide in an inconceivable sphere. Without leaving the concentration of cessation, they sit in meditation with palms joined and praise buddhas in thousands upon thousands of verses. In Trace they lodge in string and wind instruments and sing the Buddha's ten powers. In contemplating the mind, contemplate every sound as immediately empty, provisional, and the middle. To accord with the three truths in this way is to praise the Buddha.

The four gandharvas are translated as Scent-Smellers because they feed on fragrance. They are also called scent-aggregates because their bodies emit fragrance. They are Śakra's musicians of secular music.

The four names are explained one by one. Music Gandharva performs tumbling, handstands, and other feats; Musical-Sound Gandharva keeps rhythm with drums and makes music with strings and pipes; Beautiful Gandharva is superior in tumbling feats; and Beautiful-Sound Gandharva is superior in string and wind music.

14. The Four Asuras

Asura is translated as Without Wine. Beings of the four continents gathered flowers and tried to brew wine in the great ocean, but through the karmic power of fish and dragons the seawater's taste did not change. The asuras angrily and jealously vowed to renounce wine and were therefore named spirits without wine. The name is also translated as Not Upright. Master Dao'an translated it as Honest and Trustworthy, meaning straightforward and true, but asuras are deceitful and crooked, so their conduct does not match this name.

There are two kinds of asuras. Those included among spirits dwell along the shore of the great ocean; those included among animals dwell on its floor.

Bali is translated as Bound. Some say he is bound in five places, some that the name refers to five evils, and others that something tied around his neck cannot be removed. He is thus named Bound, also One Who Has Bonds because Śakra once bound him. In terms of Origin and Trace, he can originally bind Māra and outsiders with five bonds, while in Trace he manifests the appearance of being bound. The Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma calls him Supreme Contemplation. The present commentary says that the wisdom of the three contemplations binds the delusions of the five abodes and brings them into the true limit.

Kharaskandha is translated as Broad Shoulders and also Evil Aggregate; he is the asura capable of churning the sea. The Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma calls him Jewel Brocade. He originally abides in provisional and real wisdom and compassionately bears beings upon broad shoulders; in Trace he manifests broad shoulder blades. In contemplating the mind, the three contemplations can churn and cover the great sea of birth and death formed by the afflictions of the five abodes.

Vemacitrin is translated as Pure Mind and also Various Doubts. The sound of the churning seawater is called Vemacitrin. He is Śacī's father.

The Sutra on the Oceanlike Samādhi of Contemplating the Buddha transmits that when beings of the Light-Sound Heaven first descended to this world, the earth caused desire to arise in them. Someone entered the sea to bathe; impure generative fluid fell into the mud and became an egg. After eight thousand years a woman emerged with one head short of a thousand and twenty-four hands. While she played in the water, its essence entered her body; after another eight thousand years she gave birth to a male with twenty-four heads and one hand short of a thousand. He was named Vemacitrin from the sound of the churning sea.

He asked the gandharvas for a daughter and later Śacī was born. Śakra's karmic power caused her father to live in a seven-jeweled palace, and Śakra married Śacī. She later spoke against her father to Śakra, and the father and daughter took opposing sides in war. Vemacitrin stirred the seawater with his feet and attacked Sudarśana City with his hands. Protected by Śakra's prajñā spell, the city could not be harmed. The Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma calls this asura Dwelling at Ease.

In terms of Origin and Trace, form and mind are originally pure, while in Trace he establishes the name Pure Mind. In contemplating the mind, correct contemplation of the middle is pure mind.

Rāhu is translated as Holding Obstruction, the asura king who obstructs and seizes the sun and moon; he is not Rāhula, the Buddha's son. He belongs to the animal destiny, stands eighty-four thousand yojanas tall, has a mouth one thousand yojanas wide, and is adorned with jewels.

He watches the celestial maidens and gardens. When people of the four continents honor their parents and make offerings to renunciants, the devas possess power and blades descend from the sky; when people do not, the devas hide inside their palaces. The sun shines into Rāhu's eyes and prevents him from seeing, so he raises his palm to cover it. People therefore call an eclipse inauspicious and generate various wrong explanations. The same occurs when he covers the moon. At times he makes a great sound, and people say that a celestial beast is roaring and that the king will fall into disorder, generating still other wrong explanations.

When he threatens the sun and moon, he doubles the size of his body and exhales breath that obscures them and removes their light. The sun and moon complain to the Buddha, who tells Rāhu not to swallow them. Every joint in Rāhu's body trembles and white sweat pours out, and he immediately releases them. Through the combined conditions of the sun and moon's power, beings' merit, the Buddha's power, and other causes, he cannot harm them.

In a former life Rāhu was an intelligent brahman who delighted in generosity. With four thousand carts he once carried food into the wilderness and distributed it to people. When evil people set fire to a Buddhist stūpa, he used four thousand carts to carry water, extinguish the fire, and rescue the stūpa. Delighted, he vowed to obtain the greatest body in the desire realm. Because he lacked correct trust, delighted in disputes and warfare, and yet loved giving, he was born in the City of Light as the asura king Rāhu. The Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma calls him Inhaling Breath. The explanations in terms of Origin and Trace and contemplating the mind are abbreviated. [And so forth.]

15. The Four Garuḍas

Next the four garuḍas are listed. Garuḍa is translated as Golden-Winged. Their wings are golden; they live in great trees on the four continents, and the distance between their two wings is 3,360,000 li.

Someone says that the Zhuangzi calls this great bird the Peng, that flocks of birds follow beneath its wings when it flies, and that it may also be called a phoenix. Zhiyi's own view is that a phoenix does not tread on living grass, eats bamboo fruit, and roosts in sweetgum trees, whereas the garuḍa eats dragons. How could they be of the same kind?

Great Majestic Virtue surpasses its kind in power and can awe the dragons; the Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma calls it Greatly Complete. Great Body has a body larger than those of its kind. Great Fullness always satisfies its desire by eating dragons. Fulfillment bears a wish-fulfilling jewel upon its neck; the Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma calls it Immovable.

Garuḍas possess supernormal power. Males transform into deva sons and females into deva maidens; they transform their dwellings into jeweled palaces and have food of a hundred flavors, yet by karmic retribution they must still eat dragons. A womb-born garuḍa can eat womb-born dragons but not the other three kinds; an egg-born garuḍa can eat two kinds, a moisture-born one three, and a transformation-born one all four kinds of dragons—womb-born, egg-born, moisture-born, and transformation-born.

The Sutra on the Oceanlike Samādhi of Contemplating the Buddha transmits that the properly named Garuḍa eats one dragon king and five hundred small dragons each day in the east, and does the same in the south, west, and north. It cycles through the four directions for a lifespan of eight thousand years. When death approaches and its power is lost, it tries to eat a baby dragon, but the mother utters a strange cry and prevents it. Enraged, the garuḍa plunges from Adamantine Mountain through the sea and the earth wheel but cannot pass the wind wheel. The wind flings it back through the same opening and up to Adamantine Mountain. It travels back and forth seven times and finally dies on the mountain's summit.

Its flesh splits open and bursts into flame, almost burning up the jeweled mountain. The dragon king Nanda sends rain to extinguish the fire. After the body decays, its heart again rushes toward the wind wheel, travels back and forth seven times in the same way, and finally falls upon the mountain and becomes a wish-fulfilling jewel. A dragon who obtains it can become a king; a human king may also call forth this jewel through his merit.

16. The Human Assembly: Ajātaśatru

Vaidehī is the mother; her name is translated as Contemplation. Bimbisāra is the father; his name is translated as Likeness to the Real.

Ajātaśatru is translated as Enemy before Birth and is also called Poliuzhi, translated as Fingerless. To protect him, people in the palace avoided the ominous name and called him Good Vision. Good Vision is the name of his Origin; Fingerless is an epithet of his Trace.

The Nirvāṇa Sutra says that ajāta means unborn and śatru means enemy. According to the first meaning, when buddha-nature is unborn, the enemy of affliction is born; because the enemy of affliction is born, one cannot see buddha-nature. If affliction is not born, one can see buddha-nature.

According to a second meaning, ajāta means unborn and śatru signifies the eight worldly dharmas. Because he is not defiled by gain, loss, disgrace, fame, praise, blame, suffering, and pleasure, he is called Ajātaśatru. This is the meaning of Origin.

The Sutra of Universal Transcendence transmits that Ajātaśatru followed Mañjuśrī in repentance and attained the patience of gentle conformity. At death he entered Piṇḍola Hell, but left as soon as he entered, was born in a buddha land above, and attained patience with nonarising. When Maitreya appears, he will return to this world as the bodhisattva Immovable; later he will attain buddhahood as Tathāgata Pure Realm.

If even his manifested Trace is like this, his Origin is still less measurable. When the Lotus Sutra was taught, he entered the pure assembly in advance. At the Nirvāṇa Sutra assembly, he again manifested as a guide for those who have committed the contrary offenses. Similarly, Kāśyapa receives a prediction in the Lotus Sutra yet in the Nirvāṇa Sutra manifests as unfit to receive the entrustment. One must not become confused by Trace and doubt Origin.

In contemplating the mind, craving is like the mother and ignorance like the father. To kill craving and ignorance is called contrary. This contrary act instead accords with the Buddha path: one practices what ordinary people call a nonpath yet penetrates the Buddha path.

17. Why So Few Humans, and Why No Hells or Formless Realm?

Someone asks: the Buddha teaches among humans, so why are so few humans listed?

The answer is that only the wording is abbreviated; the actual human assembly was not small. The sutra also mentions minor kings, wheel-turning sage kings, and others. The Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings lists four kinds of wheel-turning kings and also kings, ministers, subjects, men, and women. The assembly was in fact vast.

Someone further asks: devas, humans, dragons, and spirits can all see the Buddha and hear Dharma. Why are the destiny of hell beings and the formless realm not listed?

The answer is that the destinies rise or sink according to maintaining or breaking precepts, while seeing the Buddha and hearing Dharma depends on whether the Buddha vehicle one cultivated was strong or weak. Precepts are maintained coarsely or subtly and therefore produce higher or lower results. The vehicle one maintains may be lesser or great, and therefore seeing the Buddha may belong to provisional or real teaching. Here precepts and vehicle are each summarized in three grades; opening one statement from the Nirvāṇa Sutra into four alternatives clarifies the meaning: first, precepts and vehicle both urgent; second, precepts lax and vehicle urgent; third, precepts urgent and vehicle lax; and fourth, precepts and vehicle both lax.

In a broad sense, every wholesome dharma and every contemplative wisdom may be called both precept and vehicle. The five vehicles of humans, devas, and others have this general meaning, as do precepts shared with the path and precepts shared with concentration. Here they are distinguished in a specific sense.

Precepts are the three refuges, five precepts, ten wholesome acts, eight fasting precepts, monastic discipline, and up through precepts shared with concentration. They protect body and speech, block the fruits of evil destinies, and give good human or heavenly results.

Vehicle is understanding born from hearing scriptures and the use of contemplative wisdom to investigate the four truths, twelve links of dependent arising, six perfections, and Dharma gates of arising and ceasing, nonarising and nonceasing, and so forth. Wisdom breaks afflictions and carries beings out of the three realms, and is therefore called vehicle. The Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra says in meaning that wholesome acts with characteristics cannot shake the world or bring one beyond it, while wholesome acts without characteristics can both shake it and bring one beyond. This precisely expresses the distinction.

First, precepts and vehicle both urgent.

If one urgently maintains lower-grade precepts, the result is birth as a human. If one also urgently cultivates the lesser vehicle, one sees the Buddha and hears Dharma in a human body during the Tripiṭaka teaching. If one urgently cultivates the middle vehicle, one sees the Buddha and hears Dharma in a human body within the Great Vehicle of the Shared Teaching and the other Great Vehicle scriptures that carry expedient means. If one urgently cultivates the higher vehicle, one sees the Buddha and hears Dharma in a human body at Perfect Teaching assemblies such as the Flower Garland and Lotus, and within the Perfect portions of other teachings, and joins the assembly that hears the teaching.

If one urgently maintains middle-grade precepts, the result is birth among desire-realm devas. By urgently cultivating the lesser vehicle, one sees the Buddha and hears Dharma in a desire-realm deva body during the Tripiṭaka teaching; cultivation of the middle and higher vehicles follows the preceding analogy.

If one urgently maintains higher-grade precepts and also cultivates meditative concentration, the result is birth among form-realm or formless-realm devas. By urgently cultivating the lesser vehicle, one sees the Buddha and hears Dharma in a form-realm or formless-realm deva body within the Tripiṭaka teaching; cultivation of the middle and higher vehicles likewise follows the preceding analogy. This completes the first alternative.

Second, precepts lax and vehicle urgent.

When lower-, middle-, and higher-grade precepts are all practiced laxly, the resulting birth is among the three evil destinies of hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals. If one urgently cultivates the lesser vehicle, one sees the Buddha and hears Dharma in a body from the three evil destinies within the Tripiṭaka teaching; cultivation of the middle and higher vehicles follows the same analogy. This completes the second alternative.

Third, precepts urgent and vehicle lax.

When precepts of all three grades are practiced urgently, one is born among desire-realm humans or devas or among form-realm or formless-realm devas. But when all three vehicles are cultivated laxly, even if a buddha appears in the world and teaches the three vehicles, one remains attached to pleasurable retribution, absorbed in the five desires, and cannot see the Buddha or hear Dharma. The three hundred million households of Śrāvastī whose inhabitants did not see the Buddha or hear Dharma, and devas throughout the three realms absorbed in pleasure, belong to this kind. This completes the third alternative.

Fourth, precepts and vehicle both lax.

When precepts and vehicle are both practiced laxly, the result is birth in the three evil destinies, where one cannot see the Buddha or hear Dharma. This completes the fourth alternative.

The present sutra does not list an assembly of hell beings because their precepts were lax, their painful retribution is deep and obstructive, and their higher vehicle was also cultivated laxly, so they could not see the Buddha or hear Dharma at the Lotus assembly. If other scriptures contain assemblies of hell beings, it is because those beings urgently cultivated another vehicle corresponding to those Dharma gates.

The present sutra does not list formless-realm devas because they urgently maintained higher-grade precepts and therefore received heavenly bodies, yet became attached to the flavor of meditative concentration; they cultivated the higher vehicle laxly and could not see the Buddha or hear Dharma at the Lotus assembly. If other scriptures list formless-realm devas, those devas urgently cultivated another vehicle.

Once this is understood, examining devas, dragons, and the eight classes one by one reveals the past causes and conditions of whether their precepts and vehicle were urgent or lax and why some came to the assembly while others did not. A fuller explanation may be found in the Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sutra. If one further recognizes how provisional traces guide into the real meaning, Origin and Trace become clearer; if one uses the same principle to examine one's own contemplative practice, the causes and results of the three times can also be clearly discerned.

The sutra says that every member of the assembly bowed at the Buddha's feet. This sentence concludes that the entire assembly had gathered.

1. The Five Divisions of the Specific Introduction

The sutra passage beginning “At that time, the World-Honored One” and continuing to the end of the Introduction chapter is called the specific introduction. It has five divisions: first, the gathering of the assembly; second, the manifestation of portents; third, the arising of doubt; fourth, the posing of a question; and fifth, the answering of the question.

Guangzhai reverses these five divisions and makes each arise from the preceding one. Because the assembly gathers, portents appear; the sequence continues until, because someone asks, someone answers. In reverse, the answer comes from the question, and step by step the portents derive from the gathered assembly. This merely explains, forward and backward, the conditions under which the divisions occur, linking them like hooks and chains. It still does not clarify what the introduction is meant to reveal about the main teaching. If even the first of the fourfold interpretations is not made clear, still less do the other three—interpretation in terms of the teaching, interpretation in terms of origin and trace, and interpretation through contemplating the mind—disclose their purport.

The five divisions are now treated as an introduction to the four onenesses of the main teaching. The gathered assembly narrates the oneness of persons; the portents narrate the oneness of principle; doubt narrates the oneness of practice; and question and answer narrate the oneness of teaching. This is the interpretation through causes and conditions. In terms of the teaching, the main teaching introduced here is not the Tripiṭaka, Shared, or Distinct Teaching, but the Perfect Teaching. In terms of origin and trace, this introduction can also introduce the four onenesses of the Origin revealed in the Lifespan chapter. The meaning can be understood by analogy and is not written out. Contemplating the mind may likewise be understood. [The remainder is omitted.]

The gathering of the assembly is further divided into two parts: first the assembly's deportment, and then its offerings. The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra calls this passage “the accomplishment of abiding in accordance with the Dharma in deportment.”

2. Four Kinds of Assembly Present within a Single Gathering

An older explanation takes the “fourfold assembly” as two renunciant groups and two householder groups. This is too narrow to reveal comprehensively how those present function within the Dharma assembly. The present explanation instead opens each single kind of assembly into four functional groups: the initiating assembly, the responsive assembly, the supporting assembly, and the connection-forming assembly.

First is the initiating assembly. Its members possess skillful expedient strategy and the wisdom that discerns the right time. They know beings' capacities and the moment at which the gathering should be set in motion. They can strike and stir the Dharma assembly, initiate questions and answers, and accomplish benefit for beings. They are like a great elephant that first pushes down a tree so that the young elephants can eat their fill. Anyone who sets the assembly in motion, initiates the portents, or initiates the later doubts and replies belongs to the initiating assembly.

Second is the responsive assembly. Its members planted roots of goodness in the past. Today the conditions come together and the time of ripening arrives, like an abscess about to break. Without leaving their seats, they hear the Dharma and attain the path. They are therefore called the responsive assembly.

Third is the supporting assembly. Its members are buddhas from the distant past and Dharma-body bodhisattvas. They conceal their perfectly consummate stages of virtue and come to assist the Dharma king. Like stars encircling the moon, they undertake nothing for their own sake yet bring immense benefit to the gathering. They are therefore called the supporting assembly.

Fourth is the connection-forming assembly. Its members lack the capacity to guide the people or strike the gathering into motion, and their virtue is not yet sufficient to inspire reverence or adorn the place of teaching. Because the roots of goodness they planted in the past are shallow, they are like vessels that are overturned, leaking, or filled with impurities: the three wisdoms of hearing, reflection, and cultivation cannot arise. Although they see the Buddha and hear the Dharma in this life, they still cannot receive the benefits of the four siddhāntas. Yet they can plant the conditions for future liberation and are therefore called the connection-forming assembly.

The assembly of bhikṣus contains all four kinds, and the bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, and upāsikās each contain the same four, making sixteen assemblies. When the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence was in the world, for example, the sixteen princes repeated the Lotus Sutra and served as the initiating assembly. Those who heard and immediately attained the path were the responsive assembly. Those who heard but were not liberated, encountered the Buddha-Dharma life after life, and even today remain at the śrāvaka stage were the connection-forming assembly of that time. If the four classes were each present among all four assemblies under that buddha, how could they be absent today, when Śākyamuni has realized the same path? These are the sixteen assemblies of the Perfect Teaching. The same structure under the other three teachings may be understood by analogy.

The interpretation in terms of origin and trace can also be understood by analogy.

In contemplating the mind, one investigates the object and cultivates contemplation. At the stage of verbal identity and the stage of contemplative practice, one becomes the connection-forming assembly. On entering the stage of resemblance, one becomes the responsive assembly. On entering the stage of partial realization, one becomes both the initiating and supporting assemblies. [The remainder is omitted.]

3. Circumambulation and the Four Forms of Offering

The sutra says that the assembly circumambulated the Buddha. When a buddha first appeared in the world, people did not yet know the deportment appropriate to honoring the Dharma. Devas from the Pure Abodes descended to the human realm and assumed human form. They approached the Buddha, walked clockwise around him, bowed, withdrew to sit, and listened to the Dharma. Human beings took the devas' reverence for the Buddha as their model. This is the interpretation through causes and conditions.

Circumambulation is the deportment of walking around. It also shows that the capacities of beings at all four gateways have been activated and together see the perfect principle. When the perfect principle is contrasted with partial gateways, four corresponding meanings can be opened; this is the interpretation in terms of the teaching. The Buddha's body is adorned with marks and excellences on every side, and the assembly circles him in all four directions, gazing upon him and increasing the samādhi of recollecting the Buddha; this is the interpretation through contemplating the mind. Seeing the Dharma body by contemplating the Buddha's physical body is the interpretation in terms of origin and trace.

In the general sense, every action of body, speech, and mind is an offering. Distinguished separately, humble restraint and devout prostration are reverence; single-minded concentration is honoring; verbally extolling virtue is praise; and giving the material supports on which one depends is offering. The wording of the present sutra is brief. The full scene should be understood through the extensive account in the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings: celestial kitchens, fragrances, and bowls are offerings; the bodhisattva Great Adornment and eighty thousand great beings joining their palms are reverence; single-minded gazing is honoring; and reciting seven-character verses together is praise.

Although the present passage explains the assembly of the Lotus Sutra, it cites the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings because that assembly did not disperse after hearing the earlier teaching. Remaining at the same seats, they continued to hear the Lotus Sutra. The offerings made through the three modes of karma by the same assembly before and after could therefore not have differed. There is no doctrinal fault in using the earlier scripture's extensive passage to explain the present scripture's brief wording.

4. The Six Portents in This Land and Their Three Pairs

The passage beginning “He taught the great-vehicle scripture for the bodhisattvas” and continuing through “they raised seven-jeweled stūpas over the Buddha's relics” is the introduction through manifested signs.

Master Yao identifies seven portents: six distinguished in this land and all those of other lands gathered into one. Guangzhai instead distinguishes six in this land and six in other lands. Within this land's six, teaching sets the Dharma wheel in motion and liberates people, while entry into samādhi is still and contemplates principle; movement and stillness form a pair. Four kinds of flowers descend from above, while the earth below trembles in six ways; above and below form a pair. The assembly rejoices inwardly, while the Tathāgata emits light outwardly; inward and outward form a pair.

The present commentary holds that Guangzhai's divisions may be followed if one seeks only the boundaries of the sutra text, and the conventional meanings of the names are easy to understand. Neither master, however, reveals what the portents represent and foretell. The six are now arranged as the three pairs of wisdom and meditative concentration, cause and fruit, and stimulus and response. Teaching points from one dharma to many and represents wisdom. Samādhi takes the locus of meaning as its object and represents concentration. Celestial flowers disclose four causal stages; the movement of the earth discloses six stages with respect to the fruit. The activation of great-vehicle capacities is stimulus; the perfect radiance from the white curl illuminating those capacities is response.

All six events are called portent-signs. The sutra later says that today's signs are like the portents of past buddhas, showing that a portent is itself a sign. Ordinary people call a hidden foretelling of what will follow a portent and an extraordinary departure from the usual a sign. What does the sign foretell? The wondrous principle is abstruse, distant, profound, and very difficult to express. Ordinary feeling cannot immediately honor it. An extraordinary sign therefore first startles and changes the habitual mind. Once ordinary feeling has changed, reverence and eager longing arise. The extraordinary explains the sign, and foretelling explains the portent.

In brief, the portent of teaching represents the wondrousness of teaching and the wondrousness of wisdom. The portent of samādhi represents the wondrousness of practice. The raining flowers represent the wondrousness of stages. The moving earth represents the wondrousness of objects and the wondrousness of vehicles. The assembly's joy represents the wondrousness of retinues and benefits. The emitted light represents the wondrousness of stimulus and response and of supernormal powers. Stimulus and response were explained earlier and are merely indicated again here. The six events together are therefore called the introduction through manifested signs.

5. The Seven Kinds of Greatness in the Great Vehicle

The sutra says that the Buddha taught a great-vehicle scripture for the bodhisattvas. The Sutra on Wholesome Precepts lists seven kinds of greatness.

First is greatness of Dharma, meaning the vaipulya among the twelve divisions of scripture. Second is greatness of mind, meaning the resolve that seeks awakening. Third is greatness of understanding, meaning comprehension of the bodhisattva treasury. Fourth is greatness of purity, meaning the mind purified after seeing the path. [The remainder is omitted.] Fifth is greatness of adornment, meaning the two adornments of merit and wisdom. Sixth is greatness of time, meaning the cultivation of many practices through three asaṃkhyeya eons. Seventh is greatness of completion, meaning adornment of one's body with the marks and excellences and attainment of awakening.

The first six greatnesses are the great cause, and the seventh is the great fruit. Because the great cause and great fruit are joined, it is called a great-vehicle scripture. This sutra passage can also be gathered through the ten wondrous meanings, as may be understood by analogy.

6. Why the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings Serves as the Introduction

Master Sheng says that the empty principle of signlessness is the basis of the great vehicle. Beings have long clung to the three vehicles and could not believe and accept an abrupt declaration that there are no three vehicles. Signlessness is therefore taught first as an introduction to the Lotus Sutra. Master Guan's meaning is the same.

One may object: if so, the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras and the Vimalakīrti Sutra also teach signlessness and should likewise introduce the Lotus. Why does only the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings do so? The other side replies that the five periods succeed one another, so a later teaching can arise from the one before it. One may object again: if only sequential arising matters, the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings and all other scriptures merely follow one another in the ordinary way and have no special relation to the specific introduction of the Lotus.

Master Ji says that the empty principle has no form and is therefore called immeasurable. His explanation of its introductory function is the same as the preceding one and meets the same objection. Master Yin says that the goodness of signlessness has the meaning of accomplishing buddhahood and is therefore called immeasurable. He further says that the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings did not originally discuss whether the three vehicles exist, that the Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra is not the scripture intended by the Lotus, and that the scripture actually intended never reached the Qin realm.

The present commentary answers that in the third year of the Yuanjia era under the Liu-Song dynasty, the bhikṣu Huibiao met the monk Tanmoyeshe at Chaoting Monastery in Nanhai Commandery, received the text of the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings from him, and carried it back to Mount Wudang. It began to circulate in the third year of Yongming under the Qi. Since the scripture had already reached China, how could one send it back to India and claim that it never arrived?

Guangzhai says that the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings teaches all wholesome dharmas returning together and accomplishing buddhahood, whereas the Lotus Sutra directly teaches that there are neither two vehicles nor three and refutes taking the three and the one as different. The earlier scripture can thus introduce the latter. The present commentary asks: if all wholesome dharmas return together, why do the two and three vehicles not return? If the two and three also return, introduction and main teaching do not differ. If the main teaching is meant to refute the two and three, why does it not refute all wholesome dharmas? Refuting the two and three leaves no two and no three. If all wholesome dharmas are likewise refuted, the introduction has no basis on which to stand. If one says only that the two scriptures present different aspects and thus have different purports, no genuine distinction has been established, their divergence has not been revealed, and the function of introduction remains unexplained.

Liu Qiu's commentary says that signlessness is the basis and that the meanings contained in one signless dharma are beyond reckoning. The present commentary objects that if it contains immeasurable meanings, it already possesses marks. How can it still be called signless?

Examining the explanations of the various masters, each takes only one partial meaning. To say that goodness bearing marks has the meaning of accomplishing buddhahood belongs to the Tripiṭaka Teaching. To say that signless goodness has that meaning belongs to the Shared Teaching. To say that one dharma contains meanings beyond reckoning belongs to the Distinct Teaching. These are meanings clarified by other scriptures, not meanings serving as an introduction to the Lotus Sutra.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra lists seventeen names for this great-vehicle scripture, all alternate names of the Lotus; Immeasurable Meanings is one of them. The commentary now extends the treatise's meaning: the Buddha directly pronounces this name and then enters the samādhi bearing it, and the teaching can therefore introduce the Lotus. The Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, Golden Light Sutra, and Nirvāṇa Sutra all announce a scripture's name in their introductions without ceasing to be introductions. In the present sutra, Mañjuśrī describes past buddhas as first teaching the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings and then announces that an ancient buddha was about to teach the great-vehicle scripture named Lotus of the Wondrous Dharma. This too pronounces the name within an introduction and accords with the meaning of the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra.

7. The One Dharma Opens the Immeasurable, and the Immeasurable Return to the One

The Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings further explains its title: immeasurable meanings arise from one dharma, and that one dharma is signlessness. “Signlessness” means that there is no mark of birth and death. “Not making a mark” means that no mark of nirvāṇa is established either. Because even the mark of nirvāṇa is absent, signlessness is not made into another mark; the middle way is taken as the true mark.

From this true mark arise immeasurable dharmas, briefly exemplified as two dharmas, three paths, and four fruits. The two dharmas are sudden and gradual. Sudden means all dharmas within the sudden teaching of the Flower Ornament Sutra; gradual means all dharmas within the Tripiṭaka, Vaipulya, and Perfection of Wisdom teachings. The three paths are the three vehicles of śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva. The four fruits are arhat, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattva, and buddha. All these dharmas are called immeasurable.

The true mark is where meaning abides. Because immeasurable dharmas arise from the same locus of meaning, reentry into that locus can introduce their later gathering. A counting master first lays down one counting rod and deploys the remaining rods from it. When the reckoning is complete, he removes the others and returns to one rod. Only because there was a laying out can there later be a removal; the earlier laying out introduces the later removal. Dividing one into many and then gathering the many back into one is the same: opening the dharmas introduces gathering the dharmas. This explanation neither conflicts with the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings and the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra nor fails to accord with the Lotus Sutra. [The remainder is omitted.]

8. The Scriptures Before and After Both Clarify Permanence

The verses praising the Buddha in the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings show the Dharma body passing beyond every negation and moving without obstruction, while also appearing as a sixteen-foot body radiant with purple-gold light. The Sutra of Contemplation of Samantabhadra speaks of the abiding places of the four perfections of permanence, bliss, self, and purity. Since the preceding and following scriptures both teach permanence, how could the Lotus Sutra between them instead teach impermanence in its Lifespan chapter?

Someone objects: if permanence is already taught in the introduction, what remains for the main teaching? The present commentary asks in return: in the Nirvāṇa Sutra, Cunda's discourse serves as the introduction and already opens the central purport of permanence. What, then, remains for its main teaching?

The objector next invokes the Vimalakīrti Sutra: its introduction speaks of adamant, the unconditioned, and not falling within enumerated dharmas, while its main discourse does not primarily teach permanence; the Lotus should be the same. The present commentary again replies with the Nirvāṇa: because Cunda teaches permanence in the introduction, should the main discourse of the Nirvāṇa Sutra instead teach impermanence? If the present introduction teaches permanence and the main discourse continues to clarify permanence, what is doubtful?

9. “A Dharma for Instructing Bodhisattvas” and “Kept in Mind by the Buddhas”

“A Dharma for instructing bodhisattvas” means that the Buddha instructs bodhisattvas through the locus of immeasurable meanings; this locus is the truth-principle. A later passage says in meaning that the Buddha wishes all beings universally to obtain this path, and another says that whenever the Buddha encounters beings, he teaches them all by means of the buddha path. This is the purport of instructing bodhisattvas.

“Kept in mind by the buddhas” means that the locus of immeasurable meanings is personally realized by the Buddha and is therefore guarded and kept in mind by the Tathāgata. A later passage says that the Buddha himself abides in the great vehicle and wishes to disclose it to beings, but because their faculties are dull, he long remains silent, protects this essential point, and does not hasten to teach it. This is the meaning of keeping it in mind.

10. Why Enter Samādhi after Teaching?

The sutra says that after teaching the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, the Buddha entered the samādhi of the locus of immeasurable meanings. Wisdom and meditative concentration mutually accomplish one another. Without concentration wisdom cannot be accomplished, so he must enter samādhi; without wisdom concentration cannot be accomplished, so he first teaches. Wisdom at that very moment is concentration, and concentration at that very moment is wisdom. Although the written sequence speaks of before and after, entry and emergence, there is no obstruction in the actual meaning.

Someone asks: if the Buddha had not yet taught the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, it would be understandable for him first to enter this samādhi. Having completed the scripture, why does he enter concentration again?

The answer is that if he first entered the samādhi of the locus of immeasurable meanings and then taught the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, the purport would of course be easy to understand. Here he enters this concentration after completing the scripture precisely to introduce the Lotus. If immeasurable dharmas had not first been opened, there would be nothing later to gather. The opening concentration therefore introduces the later gathering concentration and is consequently called a portent.

If one insists on imagining a temporal sequence, then after entering the samādhi of the locus of immeasurable meanings the Buddha should enter a separate Lotus samādhi. Had the scripture explicitly said this, the assembly would already have known that the Lotus Sutra was about to be taught. Why would it still be necessary for Maitreya to question earnestly and Mañjuśrī to answer with deliberation rather than immediately? We can therefore know all the more clearly that this entry into samādhi introduces the following scripture.

11. Body and Mind Unmoving

The sutra says that the Buddha's body and mind did not move because the body and mind that enter accorded with the locus of immeasurable meanings serving as their object. The body's source is limpid like space, and the mind's principle is ultimately, constantly still. The body, hands, and feet of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence rested in tranquil immobility, and his mind was serene and never distracted. His body was like adamant and could not be moved; his mind was like space and made no discriminations. The samādhi of the locus of immeasurable meanings sustained the Buddha's body and mind, and they therefore remained unmoving.

This concentration is called immeasurable because it is still yet constantly illuminates, knows the dharmas of the world, and brings forth immeasurable dharmas from the one. In its introductory function, bodily dharmas ordinarily operate through movement but now do not move; mental dharmas ordinarily produce many discriminations but now do not discriminate. This extraordinary state reveals what will follow, making the function of introduction clear.

12. Why Are Teaching and Samādhi Also Portents?

Someone asks: a portent should be extraordinary, but teaching and entering samādhi are ordinary deportments of a buddha. How can they be called portents?

The answer is that although this teaching has ended, the assembly does not disperse. It remains orderly and settled, as though awaiting something. The preceding teaching has gathered the people so they may wait for what they will hear next. This differs from an ordinary occasion on which the gathering disperses when a teaching ends; why could it not be called a portent? Although the Buddha enters the concentration that opens immeasurable dharmas, his intent is to introduce the concentration that gathers the dharmas, unlike an ordinary entry into samādhi. Why could this not be a portent? Moreover, when Mañjuśrī later describes the six portents of ancient buddhas, teaching and samādhi are among them. If these two events were not portents for past buddhas, how could they prove that today's events are portents? Past and present are the same in this respect and cannot be denied merely according to ordinary feeling.

13. Four Kinds of Celestial Flowers

The sutra says that four kinds of flowers rained from the sky. An older explanation calls them small white, great white, small red, and great red flowers. The Lotus Sutra of the Correct Dharma translates them as Intention Flower, Great Intention Flower, Puxiang Flower, and Great Puxiang Flower. Fascicle ninety-nine of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that the finest celestial flower is called māndārava; fascicle seventy-nine further says that the lands in which eight hundred bhikṣus attain buddhahood constantly rain five-colored māndārava flowers.

The older explanation takes the small and great white flowers to represent the two householder assemblies, and the small and great red flowers to represent the two renunciant assemblies, foretelling that they have practiced causes since the past but have not yet realized the fruit. The present commentary regards this as both narrow and inappropriate. The four assemblies of householders and renunciants do not encompass even the sixteen functional assemblies within the Tripiṭaka Teaching, much less the forty-eight assemblies made from sixteen in each of three teachings. The interpretation is therefore narrow.

Flowers covertly foretell causal practice. The fourfold assembly has cultivated causes since the past; why wait for celestial flowers to foretell a cause already present? If the flowers foretold the fruit, fruit rather than flowers should rain from the sky. The interpretation is therefore inappropriate.

The raining of four flowers instead shows that causes cultivated by the assembly in the past are not yet buddha-causes. Causes in the Tripiṭaka Teaching belong to the two vehicles; causes in the Shared Teaching are shared by three vehicles; causes in the Distinct Teaching are bodhisattva-causes. None is yet the buddha-cause meant here. The celestial flowers raining today foretell that the assembly will obtain the buddha-cause.

The buddha-cause is the cause of the four wheels. The small white flower represents the Copper Wheel, the stage of the nature of practiced seeds, opening the Buddha's knowledge and vision. The great white flower represents the Silver Wheel, the ten practices at the stage of the nature of intrinsic seeds, showing the Buddha's knowledge and vision. The small red flower represents the Ka Wheel, the ten dedications at the stage of the nature of path-seeds, awakening to the Buddha's knowledge and vision. The great red flower represents the Lapis-Lazuli Wheel, the ten grounds at the stage of the nature of noble seeds, entering the Buddha's knowledge and vision. All four wheels are causal stages and arise from the middle way, so the flowers descend from heaven. A flower represents a causal stage, and because a cause tends toward its fruit, the flowers scatter above the Buddha.

Who can stimulate and receive this foretelling? The assembly present at that time. The sutra therefore says that the flowers also scattered over all the people. Later, as Mañjuśrī resolves the doubt, there are four statements beginning with blowing the great Dharma conch. The main teaching later speaks of opening, showing, awakening to, and entering the Buddha's knowledge and vision. The parable of the great cart says that those riding it travel in the four directions. These passages carry one another forward, section by section, and all reveal meanings of stages. We can therefore know that the flowers represent causal stages.

Someone asks: the four wheels originally name stages in the Distinct Teaching. How can they explain stages in the Perfect Teaching?

The answer is that even if the names were shared while the meaning belonged to the perfect, there would be no error. How much less is there an error when the names are borrowed from the Distinct Teaching while the meaning they represent remains that of the Perfect Teaching?

The questioner asks again: the Distinct Teaching speaks of worthy and noble stages. Does the Perfect Teaching also have them?

The answer is that this was already explained in the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra. If all four flowers descend from heaven to show that the four assemblies will accomplish the same causal practice, the explanation goes beyond the Tripiṭaka Teaching but not beyond the Shared Teaching. If all four assemblies are said to share the bodhisattva-cause, it goes beyond the Shared Teaching but not beyond the Distinct. Neither explanation reaches the buddha-cause and therefore neither expresses the purport of the Lotus Sutra. Its meaning is as explained above.

14. The Six Ways the Great Earth Trembles

The sutra says that six kinds of movement occurred throughout the Buddha's world. An older explanation holds that these movements foretell the destruction of the three vehicles' six fixed attachments to cause and fruit. This breaks only the six attachments of the three vehicles in the Tripiṭaka Teaching and does not reach the six attachments of the three vehicles in the Shared Teaching. With respect to the Dharma realized in the Shared Teaching, the causes and fruits of the three kinds of practitioner are the same; with respect to the persons who realize them, their causes and fruits differ. Both attachment to sameness and attachment to difference must be broken, but the older explanation does not address them.

The Distinct Teaching does not use the designation “three vehicles” and so does not have these six attachments of three vehicles; the older explanation does not reach it either. In the Distinct Teaching, however, the three dharmas at the causal stage remain vertically and horizontally separate, and the three dharmas at the stage of the fruit likewise remain vertically and horizontally separate. These separations must still be broken.

The six ways the earth trembles now represent six successive destructions of ignorance in the Perfect Teaching. Ignorance is firm, thick, and vast and has never before been damaged. Because it is about to be destroyed, the moving earth foretells it. When ignorance turns, it immediately becomes illumination, so six kinds of movement occur throughout the Buddha's world. The six represent the successive stages of abodes, practices, dedications, grounds, equal awakening, and wondrous awakening.

The Sutra on the Pure Practices of an Upāsaka says that when a bodhisattva is born, the earth moves to show that this birth has ended and there will be no further affliction. The afflictions of all beings who should attain the path are also about to cease, and the earth therefore moves. This accords with the meaning here.

In the interpretation in terms of origin and trace, Mañjuśrī's later resolution of doubt quotes the reply associated with a past buddha and covertly reveals this level, allowing Origin to be known through Trace. It is not merely that other buddhas displayed such portents in the past; Śākyamuni's own Origin also manifested the same signs. This did not happen only once today. [The remainder is omitted.]

In contemplative practice, the moving earth represents the shaking of the six faculties. The solidity of earth resembles the faculties' transmitted “water-attachment,” which has never entered the path of the great vehicle. To shake what is difficult to move shows that faculties not yet purified are being transformed and purified.

The east rises and the west sinks. The east is blue and governs the liver, which governs the eyes; the west is white and governs the lungs, which govern the nose. This shows that when virtues of the eye faculty arise, corresponding afflictions of the nose cease; when virtues of the nose arise, corresponding afflictions of the eye cease. Rising and sinking in the other directions likewise show virtues arising and afflictions ceasing in the other faculties.

The six movements are moving, rising, surging, shaking, roaring, and awakening. Each has three degrees: moving, universally moving, and equally universally moving. Movement in one place is “moving”; movement throughout the four continents is “universally moving”; movement throughout the entire great-thousand world is “equally universally moving.” Rising, surging, shaking, roaring, and awakening each likewise have these three degrees, making eighteen movements and representing the purification of the eighteen constituents. [The remainder is omitted.]

15. The Assembly Rejoices

Next comes the portent of the assembly's joy. Seeing celestial flowers descend and the earth tremble, the people know that the ambrosia of Dharma is about to fall and are filled with delighted exultation. This shows that the capacities able to receive the great Dharma are about to arise and stimulate the Buddha's supreme response.

Someone asks: joy and anger are ordinary human emotions. How can joy be a portent?

The answer is that celestial flowers delight the eye, while the moving earth shakes the mind. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sutra says that when the earth moves, it can also move beings' minds. Flowers and moving earth are external portents; the assembly's joy is an internal portent. This is not ordinary happiness. Although the people have felt joy before, their minds have never been moved in this way. They can now contemplate the Buddha single-mindedly. How could this not be a portent?

If joy activates only the mind belonging to aggregates and realms, it has the meaning of humans and devas. If it activates the uncontaminated mind of the ultimate truth, it has the meaning of the Tripiṭaka and Shared Teachings. If it activates the mind that is immediately provisional, it has the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Only when it activates the mind of the true mark does it have the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

16. Light Emitted from the White Curl

Next comes the portent of the Buddha emitting light. It shows that he will establish teachings in accord with beings' conditions, destroy delusion, and remove doubt.

The white curl possesses many virtues. The Sutra on the Oceanlike Samādhi of Contemplating the Buddha says that at the Buddha's birth it could be drawn out to five feet; during his ascetic practice it was one zhang and four feet long; and when he attained buddhahood it was one zhang and five feet long. Its center and surface were empty, like a tube of white lapis lazuli, pure inside and out. From the first generation of resolve, through every practice and outward feature in between, to entry into nirvāṇa, all virtues appeared within the white curl.

The curl lies between the brows and signifies the permanence of the middle way. Its softness signifies bliss; its ability to coil and extend freely signifies self; its whiteness signifies purity; its emission of light that destroys darkness signifies wisdom arising from the middle way; and its illumination of this land and other lands signifies awakening oneself and awakening others.

The two vehicles can penetrate the ultimate and conventional truths but do not know the middle way, like two brows without a white curl. Although the Distinct Teaching knows the three truths, it cannot contain all dharmas within the curl. Only when everything in the Dharma realm, from the first generation of resolve to final nirvāṇa, can appear within it does the curl signify the Perfect Teaching.

17. Different Places from Which Light Is Emitted and Reenters

Different scriptures describe light issuing from different places. The Large Perfection of Wisdom Sutra says that every place from the thousand-spoked wheels beneath the feet to the topknot emits sixty thousand koṭis of rays; the details are as taught there. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sutra describes light issuing from the face, while the present sutra describes it issuing from the white curl. These differences simply accord with the conditions of beings.

Scriptures also differ in where the light reenters. The Sutra of King Aśoka says that reentry through the back means the Buddha will predict matters of the past, while reentry through the front means he will predict matters of the future. No scriptural description of reentry for predicting present events is found. According to a personal conjecture, reentry through the side should signify prediction of present events.

Reentry through the feet signifies prediction for hell beings; through the ankles, animals; through the toes, hungry ghosts; through the knees, humans; through the left palm, an iron-wheel king; through the right palm, a gold-wheel king and devas; through the navel, śrāvakas; through the mouth, pratyekabuddhas; through the white curl, bodhisattvas; and through the fleshy crown, buddhas.

The present Lotus Sutra says only that light issued from the white curl and does not state where it reentered, an instance of abbreviated wording. It can also be explained this way: emitted light illuminates present events, while its reentry reveals the future. The present sutra is chiefly showing that buddhas in this and other lands follow the same path, so emitted light is primary. Understanding that the path of the buddhas is the same means that beings can all open, be shown, awaken to, and enter the Buddha's knowledge and vision, and therefore naturally receive predictions. Emission is the main meaning; reentry is secondary and is consequently omitted.

Light emitted by a sixteen-foot buddha has the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Light emitted together by a sublime body and a sixteen-foot body has the meaning of the Shared Teaching. Light emitted only by the sublime body has the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. Light emitted by the sixteen-foot Buddha who at that very moment is the Vairocana Dharma body has the meaning of the Perfect Teaching.

18. The East and Eighteen Thousand Worlds

An older explanation extends this land's six portents through the light reaching the Akaniṣṭha Heaven. Examining the sutra, the passage beginning with the light illuminating eighteen thousand buddha lands in the east already belongs to the six portents in other lands. How the boundary is drawn remains a matter for the interpreter's careful judgment.

Another older explanation says that the Buddha's light actually illuminated the ten directions but mentions the east because it represents the causal and resultant stages of the one vehicle standing above all other causes and fruits. Ten thousand is a complete number and represents the perfection of the fruit; eight thousand is incomplete and represents causes and fruits not yet complete. But if mentioning the east alone exhausts the represented meaning, what would illumination of the remaining nine directions represent?

The present commentary says that the east is the beginning of all directions and represents the ten abodes as the beginning of the stages. When the Trace Gate is taught, bodhisattvas with physical bodies clearly see principle, enter the ten abodes, and open the Buddha's knowledge and vision. Mentioning the beginning lets one know the middle and end; the sutra therefore says that there was nowhere the light did not reach. The other directions and other stages are the same.

When the Origin Gate is taught, the gathering of buddhas from the four directions shows that Dharma-body bodhisattvas increase the path they have realized and diminish the remaining births not yet exhausted. All four classes of stages increase.

In contemplating the mind, eighteen thousand is explained as follows: the hundred Dharma realms each possess ten natures and characteristics, making one thousand; multiplying the eighteen constituents by this thousand makes eighteen thousand. These objects have not yet been disclosed by buddha-wisdom and are now about to be disclosed, so the number represents them. The sutra further says that the light shone upward from Avīci Hell to the summit of existence, already including six Dharma realms. It also reveals buddhas, bodhisattvas, bhikṣus, and others, completing the ten realms. This is why the sutra says that there was nowhere it did not reach.

If this passage is divided under this land, it is this land's sixth portent. If divided under other lands, it is the general sign of what is seen there.

19. The Three Pairs among the Six Portents in Other Lands

Next come the six portents seen when the light illuminates other lands. First, beings of the six destinies are seen; second, the buddhas presently there are seen. Ordinary beings below and noble ones above form a pair. Third, the buddhas are heard teaching; fourth, the fourfold assembly of bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, and upāsikās are seen practicing and attaining the path. The Dharma taught and the people receiving it form a pair. Fifth, bodhisattvas are seen cultivating many bodhisattva practices; sixth, buddhas are seen entering parinirvāṇa. The beginning of practice and the end of transformative teaching form a pair.

Where there are beings capable of transformation, there are buddhas able to transform them. Where there are buddhas, there is the Dharma they teach. Where there is teaching, there are disciples. Disciples' practice is the beginning of practice, and its beginning necessarily leads toward final completion.

This land's six portents generally foretell that beings will attain self-awakening; the six in other lands generally foretell that beings will awaken others. The two sets of six together show that buddhas in this and other lands follow the same path.

20. Other Lands Are Already the Same; This Land Will Become the Same

The passage from seeing all beings of the six destinies in other lands through seeing bodhisattvas practice the bodhisattva path shows that those lands are already the same as this one. The passage from again seeing the buddhas through seeing seven-jeweled stūpas raised over their relics after extinction shows that this land will in the future become the same as those lands. This is the brief explanation.

In the extensive explanation, seeing beings of the six destinies in other lands shows that their buddhas appear in the world for beings amid the five turbidities. The Buddha of this land does the same, and the intent with which buddhas appear is identical in both.

Hearing the scriptures and Dharma taught by those buddhas shows that they first opened teachings from the one signless dharma. Though the teaching is not inherently sudden, it becomes sudden in response to capacities, matching the intent with which this land's Buddha first taught the Flower Ornament Sutra.

Seeing bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, and upāsikās practice and attain the path shows that after the sudden teaching, the buddhas of those lands taught what was not inherently gradual as gradual in response to capacities. This matches the intent with which this land's Buddha next taught the Tripiṭaka Teaching.

Seeing bodhisattvas practice the bodhisattva path through manifold causes and conditions, understandings through faith, and outward features shows that after the Tripiṭaka Teaching, those buddhas continued with Vaipulya, Perfection of Wisdom, and other scriptures. This matches the sequence of transformation in this land after the Tripiṭaka Teaching.

Seeing the buddhas of other lands enter parinirvāṇa and seven-jeweled stūpas raised over their relics shows that after the Perfection of Wisdom, they opened the provisional to reveal the real, gathered immeasurable dharmas into the one dharma, announced their extinction, ended their responsive transformations, and caused stūpas to be raised over the relics. In the light, the whole lifetime of their transformative teaching—from its beginning to its conclusion—stands vividly before the eye.

We should therefore know that the Buddha of this land opened immeasurable dharmas from one. Though they were not inherently sudden, he made them sudden in response to capacities; though not inherently gradual, he made them gradual in response to capacities. Once these transformations are complete, he will necessarily gather the immeasurable into one, open the provisional to reveal the real, end the responsive transformation, and return to reality, becoming wholly the same as the buddhas of other lands.

21. Manifold Causes and Conditions, Understandings through Faith, and Outward Features

“Manifold causes and conditions” means that wholesome practices cultivated in the past are causes and the teaching received today is the condition. Distinguished further, the shared and unshared prajñā taught after the Tripiṭaka Teaching serve as causes, while precepts, concentration, wisdom, and other practices assisting the buddha path serve as conditions. Śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas therefore each have manifold causes and conditions.

Those cultivating shared and unshared prajñā each have manifold causes and conditions and manifold outward features. Shared and unshared prajñā each possess four gateways, and every gateway has immeasurable features. Five hundred bhikṣus, for example, each explained a different cause of the body, and each explanation had its meaning. The four gateways of unshared prajñā are likewise. Causes, conditions, and outward features thus differ in immeasurably many ways, all showing that other lands and this land are the same.

Other lands reveal this land's manifold causes and conditions, understandings through faith, and outward features, and finally gather them into the same one cause, one condition, one mark, and one appearance. We should therefore know that this land will become completely the same as those lands.

1. Why Maitreya Becomes Doubtful

The scripture passage beginning “At that time Maitreya had this thought” and continuing through “whom should I now ask?” is the introduction through doubt. It has two parts: first, the doubts in Maitreya’s mind; and second, the doubts in the minds of the assembly.

Maitreya has three thoughts. First, he thinks about the six portents manifested by the Buddha; second, he thinks about whom he should ask; and third, he thinks of Mañjuśrī. Once he has thought of Mañjuśrī, the second thought—“whom should I ask?”—is removed. Only the first thought remains, and therefore in the end there is just one doubt.

In the expression “spiritual transformation,” “spiritual” belongs to the inner and “transformation” to the outer. “Spiritual” can be called the innate mind, the wisdom naturally possessed within; “transformation” is an alteration occurring outside, the outward manifestation of the six portents. The Śūraṃgama Samādhi Sūtra says: “The Buddha abides in the nondual Dharma and can exercise supernormal powers; the Dharma power of the Dharma King surpasses and covers all.” Maitreya cannot fathom the outward transformations and does not know the wisdom within, and so his thoughts continue to this point.

For example, an ordinary person does not understand technical arts, a distracted person does not understand meditation, a common being does not understand a noble one, a lesser noble does not understand Śāriputra, Śāriputra does not understand a bodhisattva, a bodhisattva does not understand one in the place of succession, and a bodhisattva in the place of succession does not understand the supremely honored Buddha. The sequence is carried to its furthest point, and still there is something not known.

Moreover, Maitreya has encountered buddhas and planted roots of goodness for a very long time. How could he lack even an approximate understanding? One should know that he conceals his own clarity, manifests obscurity, and provisionally says that he does not know.

The assembly has two thoughts: first, they think about the six portents; and second, they think about whom they should ask. If the later verse is used to look back upon this passage, the assembly too can be said to have three thoughts. The verse says: “The fourfold assembly joyfully looks up at you, Mañjuśrī, and also at me, Maitreya.” If they had no third thought of Mañjuśrī, why would they look up at him? The prose does not state it explicitly here because it first advances Maitreya, the bodhisattva in the place of succession, to the leading position in asking the question.

An earlier explanation says that Maitreya possesses three qualifications: he is a bodhisattva in the place of succession, he has three thoughts, and he is able to ask. Because he possesses these three meanings, one thought is left unlisted on the assembly’s side.

Someone asks: Mañjuśrī and Maitreya are close to one another in virtue and stage. Why does one ask and the other answer?

The answer is that the capacities of living beings sometimes rest with the questioner and sometimes with the respondent. Although the stages of the two bodhisattvas are equal, each fittingly assumes a different host or guest function in this exchange. Sages accord with capacities; if no one asks, there is no occasion to answer.

The matter can also be viewed through the expedient and real aspects of a Dharma gate: the bodhisattva in the place of succession who manifests the expedient should ask, and Mañjuśrī, who abides on the real side, should answer. It can further be viewed through how recent or remote their manifestations of teaching are: the one whose manifestation is nearer asks, and the one whose manifestation is ancient answers. It can also be viewed through the convenient meanings of their names: Maitreya’s name means loving-kindness, and because loving-kindness is mindful of beings, he should ask; Mañjuśrī’s name means Wondrous Virtue, and because virtue can resolve doubt, he should answer. These are the four ways of interpreting the scriptural text.

2. The Fascicle-Boundary Titles

At this point the transmitted text contains fascicle-boundary titles: “Fahua Wenju, Fascicle Two, Part Two” concludes here; it is followed by “Fahua Wenju, Fascicle Three, Part One” and the repeated attribution “spoken by Tiantai Master Zhiyi.”

3. Why the Question Appears Both in Prose and in Verse

The passage beginning “At that time Maitreya wished to resolve his own doubt” and continuing through the end of the verse is the introduction through questioning. It has two parts, prose and verse. In the prose, the compiler of the scripture relates that Maitreya himself has doubts and also observes doubts in others, and therefore asks. The scripture explicitly states that his question concerns both this land and other lands.

Since there is prose, why is there also verse? Nāgārjuna’s Vibhāṣā gives four reasons. First, one accords with the customs of a country: India has the expressions “scattered flowers” and “threaded flowers,” just as writing here has an opening preface and a concluding inscription. Second, one accords with people’s differing preferences: some delight in discursive explanation and some in patterned lines. Third, one accords with differing ways of gaining understanding: some understand through prose and some through verse. Fourth, one accords with sharp and dull faculties: those of sharp faculties awaken after one hearing, while those of dull faculties need the matter stated again.

In addition, verse shows the Buddha’s solemn earnestness in repeating the teaching and accommodates the fact that members of the gathering arrive earlier or later, enabling those who came late to hear. There are thus six reasons in all.

The verse has sixty-two lines and two parts: the first fifty-four restate the preceding question, and the final eight ask Mañjuśrī to answer. The fifty-four lines of questioning divide again: the first four ask about this land, and the remaining fifty ask about other lands.

4. Asking About This Land: Apparent Loss but No Actual Loss

The prose asks generally about the six portents in this land, but compared with the prose the verse adds fragrant wind and purified ground while not explicitly mentioning the Buddha’s teaching or entry into samādhi. If one looks only at the words, there seems to be both an addition and a loss; if one seeks the meaning they represent, there is neither.

Teaching the Dharma belongs to the nature of wisdom, while entering samādhi belongs to the innate mind. Only through inward concentration and wisdom can the earth move and light be emitted outwardly. By mentioning the outward effect, one can know the inward root. Thus there is an apparent omission, but nothing has actually been lost.

Failing to see this level, someone says that because Maitreya did not ask about teaching and samādhi, they should not be counted as portents. We now ask in return: if Maitreya did not ask at all, why would Mañjuśrī later answer? One may press further: where exactly does the question occur? The answer is that the general question in the prose is itself the question. If one still insists on finding a distinct explicit question in the verse, the two words “the Guide” are sufficient. Both teaching and entering samādhi can guide living beings. Calling the Buddha the Guide therefore asks about both, and the verse question is not diminished.

5. Asking About This Land: Apparent Gain but No Actual Gain

Someone further says: “The wind blows from a sandalwood grove and is therefore fragrant, while the ground is additionally adorned and purified.” On this basis, they take the verse to add two things.

We now say that neither is an addition. Wind has no fixed fragrance by nature, yet here it is fragrant; its extraordinariness is precisely what makes it a portent. How could the supremely wondrous celestial flowers possess color but no fragrance? The imagery shows a cause moving toward its result: the flowers’ fragrance travels on the wind, and once the flowers collect on the ground, the ground becomes adorned and pure, just as a result is purified when its cause advances toward it. The Golden Light Sūtra says: “He gathered merit and used it to adorn the Buddha’s body.” Fragrant wind and purified ground thus bring the meaning represented by the four kinds of celestial flowers to completion. The wording appears increased, but the meaning is not.

6. Asking About the Six Portents in Other Lands

The fifty lines beginning with “the light between his brows” restate the question about the six portents in other lands.

An earlier explanation holds that the verse asks neither about the fourfold assemblies of the three vehicles nor about the Buddha’s entry into nirvāṇa. Its reasoning is this: the teaching now about to be preached will abolish the three vehicles, so why would the question suddenly mention them? The Buddha’s distant lifespan will be explained only later, so why first ask about his extinction? Because either would be doctrinally inconvenient, Maitreya did not ask.

Master Zhiyi laments that this does not know how to interpret the text, but suppresses scripture to accommodate one’s own ideas. According to the verse itself, it asks completely about the six portents in other lands, divided into six parts. First, three lines ask about beings in the six destinations. Second, four lines ask about seeing the buddhas of those lands and hearing them teach. Third, three lines ask about the fourfold assemblies there. Fourth, one and a half lines conclude what precedes and open what follows. Fifth, thirty-one and a half lines ask about the practices cultivated by bodhisattvas in those lands. Sixth, seven lines ask about the worship of relics after a buddha’s extinction; this is precisely the question about the Buddha’s nirvāṇa.

The initial three lines ask about the six destinations. This verse confirms that the preceding statement about light illuminating the east generally intends the seeing of other lands; it restates that earlier general question. Living beings in the six destinations are the persons who go toward the destinations; birth and death are the places toward which they go; wholesome and unwholesome karmic conditions are the causes of their going; and pleasing or ugly retribution is the result obtained after they arrive.

7. Seeing Buddhas Teach and the Three Vehicles in Other Lands

The second section, four lines beginning “again he beheld buddhas,” asks about seeing the buddha lands there. The scripture directly says that buddhas were seen teaching and extensively explains the form of their teaching: the buddhas teach the sudden teaching in response to those of great capacity. “Holy lords, lions” corresponds to the Vairocana body manifested in this land; “proclaiming the scriptures, subtle and foremost” corresponds to first illuminating the high mountains and teaching the Avataṃsaka in this land; “instructing the bodhisattvas” corresponds to this land’s assemblies at seven places and elsewhere, where no śrāvakas are present; and “illuminating the Buddha-Dharma and awakening living beings” corresponds to living beings in this land entering tathāgata-wisdom when they first see the Buddha’s body.

The next three lines, beginning “if a person encounters suffering,” form the third section and ask about the fourfold assemblies in those lands. After the sudden teaching, they make the Tripiṭaka Teaching explicit.

“If a person encounters suffering” opens the śrāvaka vehicle. This verse states the Four Truths completely, and its wording is inherently clear. [The remainder is omitted.] If a person encounters suffering yet performs evil karma, the suffering cannot be exhausted; this is the lowest kind of being. If a person encounters suffering and performs wholesome karma, the suffering still cannot be exhausted; such people merely reject inferior desires and seek superior desires, like Nanda keeping the precepts for the sake of desire. If a person encounters suffering but seeks liberation in non-Buddhist teachings, they merely increase wrong views and nourish faults, and suffering again cannot be exhausted. If a person encounters suffering, becomes disenchanted with its causal accumulation and the result dependent upon that cause, and thereby moves the Buddha to teach nirvāṇa, only that person can reach the limit of all suffering. This vehicle is opened in other lands as well.

The one line beginning “if a person has merit” opens the middle vehicle, the pratyekabuddha vehicle. If the merit from worshiping buddhas is slight, one experiences only distress when suffering comes; if that merit is great, one still has merit even while undergoing suffering. It is therefore said that śrāvakas plant merit for three lifetimes and pratyekabuddhas for a hundred eons. Relative to a śrāvaka, a pratyekabuddha is called a person with merit. “Resolved to seek the superior Dharma” means that the śrāvaka practices from disenchantment with suffering, whereas the pratyekabuddha practices in quest of the path and deeply seeks the superior principle of dependent origination. This is the opening of the middle vehicle in other lands.

The passage beginning “if there are children of the Buddha” opens the great vehicle of the six perfections. Genuine compassion can continue the Buddha’s seed, so they are called children of the Buddha; they cultivate the six perfections and are therefore said to practice in manifold ways; they resolve to seek the path and are therefore said to seek unsurpassed wisdom; and the six obscurations are absent from the six perfections, as illness is absent from medicine, so this is called a pure path, although it is not yet ultimately pure.

One may also say that a śrāvaka takes the Truth of Suffering as the gate of contemplation, a pratyekabuddha takes the Truth of Origination as the gate, and a bodhisattva of the six perfections takes the Truth of the Path as the gate. Hence it is called a pure path.

The line and a half beginning “Mañjuśrī, abiding here” conclude what precedes and open what follows. “What I have seen and heard is like this” concludes the preceding passage, while “there are many more such things” opens what follows.

8. The General Question About Bodhisattva Practice and Sequential Giving

The thirty-one and a half lines beginning “I see in those lands” ask about the various practices of bodhisattvas in other lands. They have three sections: the first line asks generally; the next fifteen ask in sequence; and the last fifteen and a half ask in a mixed order, without a fixed sequence. The general question is readily understood.

The fifteen lines beginning “some practice giving” ask about the six perfections in sequence: the first six concern giving, the next two precepts, the third section of one line patience, the fourth of one line diligence, the fifth of two lines meditation, and the sixth of three lines prajñā.

The six lines on giving have three meanings: the first four ask about giving wealth, the next line about giving the body, and the final line about giving one’s life. Jewels and servants can be given by people whether rich and noble or poor and lowly; a four-horse jeweled carriage can be given only by one who possesses both wealth and bold generosity. A wife and children belong to the external body, while one’s own flesh belongs to the internal body; relinquishing the head and eyes is giving one’s life.

Giving the Dharma is not separately stated here because its meaning is reserved for the later perfection of prajñā. Alternatively, if body, life, and wealth are dedicated to the further shore of birth and death and attain indestructible permanence, this itself is giving the Dharma, and no separate item need be established.

9. Sequential Precepts, Patience, and Diligence

The two lines beginning “Mañjuśrī, I see kings” ask about precepts. Precepts are explained through monks because householders find giving easy and keeping precepts difficult, whereas renunciants find giving difficult and keeping precepts easy. Renunciant monks are therefore used to illustrate precepts. The Sūtra of the Five Kings is cited here. [The remainder is omitted.]

The one line beginning “or one sees bodhisattvas” asks about patience. There are three kinds. Dwelling in deep forests and mountain valleys and patiently refraining from anger when encountering evil people or beasts is patience with beings; restraining body and mind and keeping one’s resolve is patience in ascetic practice; single-mindedly seeking the Buddha path is patience with the ultimate truth.

The phrases can also be correlated individually: “becoming a monk” is patience in ascetic practice; “dwelling alone in stillness” is patience with beings; and “delighting in reciting scriptures” is patience with the ultimate truth. Both arrangements are preserved.

The one line beginning “again one sees bodhisattvas vigorously advancing” asks about diligence. Deep mountains are inherently fearful and cannot be inhabited by those who are weak and timid; the vigorously diligent can dwell there as though nothing else existed. They reflect upon and cultivate ultimate reality without pause from thought to thought, advancing diligently toward the Buddha path.

10. Sequential Meditation

The two lines beginning “again one sees those free from desire” ask about meditation. The first asks about cultivating foundational meditation, and the second about cultivating supreme supramundane meditation; in a general account, foundational cultivation can occur at every level.

“Free from desire” may be explained as follows. To leave desire and obtain the five superknowledges is the concentration of the Shared Teaching; foundational meditation also originally requires leaving desire; the liberations use impurity contemplation and other methods to leave desire; the Distinct Teaching additionally leaves the desires of the two vehicles; and the middle way also requires leaving attachment to dharmas that accord with the path. [The remainder is omitted.]

“Deeply cultivating meditation” may be explained as follows. When only the first grade of the first dhyāna arises, the concentration is not yet deep; it becomes progressively deep only as it advances through all nine grades. The liberations, nine successive absorptions, eight spheres of mastery, and ten universal spheres likewise deepen level by level. Such concentration can transform freely and thereby activate various superknowledges.

Ordinary beings possess only five superknowledges, while the two vehicles possess all six. Bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching reserve the undefiled superknowledge for the Buddha’s share; although they partially attain it themselves, they are still said to have only five. The Perfect Teaching possesses all six from the beginning through the end.

The one line beginning “resting in meditation, they praise the Buddha with myriad verses” explains the supreme supramundane meditation. This is meditation in the Distinct and Perfect Teachings: stillness and activity do not obstruct one another, and without leaving the absorption of cessation one can manifest every kind of deportment, like an asura’s lute that sounds naturally without being struck. Without taking an object or forming a discriminating thought, one manifests in response whenever living beings provide the stimulus. One can therefore rest in meditation while praising the buddhas.

11. Sequential Prajñā

The three lines beginning “again one sees those of deep wisdom” ask about prajñā and divide into one’s own practice and the transformation of others.

The first line concerns one’s own practice. “Wisdom is deep” means that wisdom penetrates to the root of meaning; “resolve is firm” means that one’s vows are vast. Wisdom and vows are the two adornments, and therefore one can question the buddhas and retain everything one hears.

The two lines beginning “again one sees children of the Buddha complete in concentration and wisdom” concern transforming others. Wisdom predominates in the not-yet-arrived concentration, meditation predominates in the formless concentrations, and the two are equal in the four dhyānas. Again, wisdom predominates in the liberations, meditation in the nine successive absorptions, and the two are equal in the ten universal spheres. Again, meditation predominates in the two vehicles, wisdom in bodhisattvas, and a buddha’s meditation and wisdom are equal. Again, concentration predominates in contemplation of emptiness, wisdom in contemplation of conventional existence, and the two are equal in contemplation of the middle.

“Innumerable analogies” means manifold skillful means: innumerable kinds of analogy are used throughout the teachings to help disclose the ultimate truth.

“Subduing Māra’s armies” means that contemplation of emptiness subdues the four māras, contemplation of conventional existence progressively subdues the eight māras, and contemplation of the middle perfectly subdues the eight māras, the ten māras, and all māras. “Beating the Dharma drum” means that one attains perfect awakening at the first abode of initial resolve, manifests buddhahood throughout a hundred buddha worlds, and fully sets the Brahmā-wheel Dharma drum resounding.

12. Why Ask Again About the Six Perfections in No Fixed Sequence?

The fifteen and a half lines beginning “again one sees bodhisattvas still and silent” no longer follow a fixed order, but ask according to the forms that were seen.

Someone asks: since the preceding six perfections already embrace the myriad practices, why ask again? Is this not excessively complicated?

The answer is that the preceding sequential questions present one path of gradual self-cultivation, while the later non-sequential questions present a path not fixed in any one route. Since the scripture speaks of the manifold forms of bodhisattvas, how could just two routes be considered excessive? These two rounds of the six perfections—sequential and non-sequential—correspond precisely to other lands first opening the Tripiṭaka Teaching and later teaching the twelve divisions of the Vaipulya scriptures, distinguishing the manifold forms of the six perfections in complete correspondence with this land.

The mixed non-sequential questions have seven intentions: first meditation, second diligence, third precepts, fourth patience, fifth meditation again, sixth giving, and seventh prajñā.

13. Non-Sequential Meditation, Diligence, Precepts, and Patience

The first two lines ask about meditation and divide into two kinds. The first asks about entering equanimous meditation as one’s own practice: the bodhisattva remains still and silent and does not delight even in the reverence of devas and nāgas. The second asks about entering compassionate meditation to transform others: the bodhisattva enters concentration, emits light, and benefits living beings. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra and Questions of Brahmā Sūtra extensively describe the various benefits produced by such entry into concentration and emission of light. [The remainder is omitted.]

Next, the one line beginning “again one sees children of the Buddha who never sleep” asks about diligence. This is the pratyutpanna buddha-recollection and related Dharma gates.

Next, the one line beginning “again one sees those complete in precepts” asks about precepts. “Their deportment has no defect” is the first, the precept of no defect; “pure as a jewel” is the tenth, the ultimate precept. The intervening precepts can be understood in sequence. The ten precepts are explained in the Profound Meaning.

The line and a half beginning “again one sees children of the Buddha abiding in the power of patience” asks about patience, namely the two forms of patience with beings and patience with dharmas.

14. Non-Sequential Meditation and Giving

The two lines beginning “again one sees bodhisattvas apart from frivolous laughter” ask about meditation once more. “Apart from frivolous laughter” removes the hindrance of restlessness and remorse; separation from “deluded companions” removes the hindrance of ill will; “drawing near to the wise” removes the hindrance of doubt; “single-mindedly removing distraction” removes the hindrance of sensual desire; and “collecting attention in the mountain forest” removes the hindrance of sloth and torpor.

The five lines from “or one sees bodhisattvas” through the passage on “food” ask about giving and have two parts. The first four lines teach gifts of the four requisites; the scripture also lists pure gardens, flowers and fruits, flowing springs, and bathing pools. The final line, “such forms of giving,” concludes the manifold and wondrous gifts, which bodhisattvas offer joyfully and without weariness and dedicate to the unsurpassed path.

15. Three Rounds of Prajñā and Five Possible Readings

The three lines beginning “some bodhisattvas teach” ask about prajñā.

The first is prajñā that establishes speech about what cannot be spoken: bodhisattvas teach the Dharma of quiescent extinction and instruct innumerable beings in manifold ways. The second is prajñā that continues to contemplate what cannot be made into subject and object: bodhisattvas contemplate the nature of all dharmas as having no dual characteristic and being like open space. The third is where the path of language is cut off and the activity of mind ceases: children of the Buddha adhere to nothing and seek the unsurpassed path with this wondrous wisdom. Prajñā is thus discussed in terms of speaking what cannot be spoken and contemplating what cannot be objectified.

These three lines admit five possible readings.

First, the three rounds of prajñā may complete the six perfections within the Vaipulya teaching previously seen in those other lands. Second, they may separately correspond to the Large Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra taught in those lands after the Vaipulya teaching, with its emphasis on prajñā, quiescent extinction and nonduality, purity and nonattachment, just as in this land. Third, teaching the Dharma of quiescent extinction may be read as a Vaipulya meaning and contemplating the nature of dharmas as like open space as a Prajñā meaning: contemplation is raised in relation to each dharma, the characteristics of dharmas are seen as nondual, and the meaning converges with the Large Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra.

Fourth, if the passage is read as also seeing the Lotus in those lands, the line “seeking the unsurpassed path with this wondrous wisdom” expresses it. Yet Maitreya sees only people cultivating wondrous wisdom; he does not see the teaching assembly where the wondrous wisdom of the Lotus is preached. If he had seen even the assembly, he would already know that the teaching in those lands was the same as in this one, so why would he still doubt? The whole gathering doubts precisely because only the practitioners, not the assembly, are seen.

Fifth, one may say that the three rounds of prajñā are the same as the Prajñā teaching in this land, but what will be taught after Prajñā in those lands is unknown, and this gives rise to the doubtful question. The final two meanings may be adopted according to how one reads the text. The preceding prose is constricted and gives only six intentions in general; the verse is expansive, and the meaning therefore becomes clearly manifest. [The remainder is omitted.]

16. Raising Stūpas After the Buddha’s Extinction

The seven lines beginning “Mañjuśrī, there are also bodhisattvas” explain raising stūpas for relics after a buddha’s extinction. They restate the preceding vision of buddhas in other lands appearing amid the five turbidities and opening gradual and sudden teachings from the single signless Dharma, thereby producing two dharmas, three paths, and manifold kinds and forms of practice, as seen above.

Now Maitreya also sees buddhas in other lands enter parinirvāṇa and children of the Buddha admire their virtue and build grave-stūpas. This represents immeasurable Dharma gates returning to one Dharma and one Dharma again opening as the immeasurable. The preceding portents already represented the immeasurable returning to the one, which is precisely entry into nirvāṇa. How could fear of obstructing the later teaching of the Lifespan lead one to deny that raising stūpas is also a buddha-work? Such a reading is truly lamentable.

The seven lines have six sections. First, one line generally states that stūpas are raised after a buddha’s extinction. Second, the line beginning “again one sees children of the Buddha construct” gives the number of stūpas. Third, the line beginning “the jeweled stūpas are lofty and wondrous” gives their dimensions. Fourth, the line beginning “each stūpa shrine” describes their features. Fifth, the line beginning “devas, nāgas, and spirits” describes the various offerings. Sixth, the two lines beginning “Mañjuśrī” conclude the passage.

“Stūpa” is translated here as “square grave,” like the burial mounds of this land; the Great Consecration Sūtra translates it as “tomb.” Its halls resemble the ancestral sanctuaries of this land: lofty terraces rise steeply, their stairs ascend high, they receive the dew above and reach directly into the clouds. They long mark out a purified land and turn people’s hearts toward the supreme sages. The king of trees is the Pārijātaka. The principal purpose is to worship the relics, while the stūpas also adorn the buddha land. [The remainder is omitted.]

17. Three Lines Stating the Request

The eight lines beginning “the Buddha emits a single ray” ask Mañjuśrī to answer and have two parts: the first three lines present the doubtful events and state the request, while the latter five explain the implied objections to answering.

The first three lines have three further sections. The first line presents what is seen in this land. The white-curl light is the root of all that is seen and is therefore mentioned first; the remaining events are collectively called “manifold.” The second line, beginning “the buddhas,” presents what is seen in other lands. The buddhas are the root, and this one item generally includes the other five portents. The third line, beginning “we,” formally asks Mañjuśrī to answer.

18. Four Implied Objections

The last five lines have two parts: the first four formally explain the implied objections to answering, and the last line concludes the request.

An implied objection means that Mañjuśrī constructs a difficulty in his mind and temporarily declines to answer at once. He has three intentions. First, this portent is exceedingly rare and cannot be judged hastily or lightly. Second, amid an ocean-like assembly of wise ones, he should humble himself and defer to others. Third, by firmly stepping back at first, he causes the assembly’s thirst to deepen; he therefore tacitly declines through an objection.

Maitreya openly states why the objection should be answered, likewise in three points. First, the greater the portent, the greater the doubt. If it is not explained, anxious doubt remains in the heart and obstructs hearing the true discourse. Second, although the assembly is vast, the capacity to resolve the doubt rests with Mañjuśrī. Third, the entire assembly looks up at Mañjuśrī, showing that their attention is sincere and their request profound. Maitreya therefore explicitly presents his reasons and asks Mañjuśrī to answer immediately.

The first implied objection arises from the direct request. Maitreya asks: “Child of the Buddha, Mañjuśrī, please resolve the assembly’s doubts.” On the basis of this line, Mañjuśrī constructs the first objection: You say that the assembly is doubtful, but the assembly has never voiced any doubt. If they truly doubted, they should ask for themselves. Since they have not asked, what am I to resolve?

Maitreya answers in the first verse: “The fourfold assembly joyfully looks up, gazing at you and at me.” They look at me so that I will ask on their behalf; they look at you so that you will answer.

Mañjuśrī then constructs the second objection: since the whole assembly shares this doubt, it is not easily answered. They should wait for the Buddha to emerge from samādhi and let the Buddha resolve it.

Maitreya answers in the second verse: while the doubt remains, anxious uncertainty in the heart prevents peace, so an answer should be given in time. Moreover, who knows when the Tathāgata will emerge from samādhi? Hence the verse says: “Child of the Buddha, answer now; resolve the doubt and make the assembly rejoice.”

Mañjuśrī then constructs the third objection: You and I both remain at a stage of learning. If we are to fathom the Buddha’s intent, we can only deliberate together; it is not reasonable to require me alone to answer.

Maitreya answers in the third verse: I myself am only reflecting subtly in my mind, hesitating between two possibilities—is the Buddha going to teach the wondrous Dharma he attained, or bestow predictions? The verse therefore asks: “Is the wondrous Dharma the Buddha attained at the place of awakening what he now wishes to teach, or is he going to bestow predictions?”

Mañjuśrī then constructs the fourth objection: if matters are as you say, you have already explained your own doubt. Why trouble me to answer?

Maitreya answers in the fourth verse: how could I use my own still-hesitant mind to judge such a great matter? Hence he says: “The Buddha has displayed many buddha lands; this cannot be a minor condition.”

Mañjuśrī’s implied objections are now exhausted, and his deference ends. A final verse again concludes by asking him to answer.

Guangzhai received these four implied objections from Master Ci, who in turn received them from Master Zhao north of the Yangzi. They are an ingenious construction made outside the wording of the scripture by earlier worthy masters, and the present commentary adopts them as such.

I. The Answer Has Four Levels

The portion from Mañjuśrī's address to Maitreya through the verses at the end of the Introduction chapter is called the answer section of the specific introduction. It contains both prose and verse. The prose has four answers. First, the passage beginning when Mañjuśrī “spoke to Maitreya” is the answer through reflection and estimation. Second, the passage beginning “Good sons, in the past I” is the brief answer through what was formerly seen. Third, the passage beginning “Good sons, in the inconceivably distant past” is the extensive answer through what was formerly seen. Fourth, the passage beginning “The portents now seen do not differ from those of the past” is the answer through clear judgment.

When someone at a lower stage estimates the intent of a sage at a higher stage, they must first make an approximate assessment, comparing an event of the past with an event of the present. They cannot begin with a sudden and explicit judgment. Mañjuśrī therefore starts with only a close approximation and then briefly cites something he personally saw in the past. Because a brief citation is still not comprehensive, he next recounts former events at length, using the many examples of past buddhas to establish what the present Buddha is about to do. Only afterward does he make a clear judgment.

The reflective answer responds to Maitreya's doubt about the portents in this land. The brief account of what was formerly seen responds to his doubt about the portents in other lands. The extensive account responds to both sides, this land and other lands. The final clear judgment likewise decides the matter for both lands.

II. Reflection: Why Deliberate before Judging?

The reflective answer has two parts: first it marks out the division, and then it explains reflection and estimation. “Reflect” emphasizes thinking, while “estimate” emphasizes measuring. The present is measured by the past, and the past is measured by the present. Yet Mañjuśrī is himself an ancient buddha. Could he truly not know? He is simply manifesting the appearance of deliberation in the identity he displays here.

Guangzhai classifies the first and last of the five statements as direct teachings and says that they respectively present cause and effect in brief and at length. He classifies the three statements in between as similes. On his reading, “wishing to teach the great Dharma” briefly opens the three vehicles and reveals the one, and also briefly reveals distant buddhahood through buddhahood attained in the near past. “Expounding the meaning of the great Dharma” opens the three and reveals the one at length, and also extensively reveals the distant through the near. “Raining the great Dharma rain” is a simile for those of the two vehicles receiving predictions and being able to become buddhas. Their causes and effects had formerly been taken as fixed, and they were thought unable to become buddhas, like something parched for lack of water; now that all can become buddhas, they resemble something moistened by rain. Blowing the Dharma conch symbolizes changing the designation of the three vehicles. Beating the solemn drum to warn the troops symbolizes breaking ignorance.

Master Zhiyi says that this allocation of the direct teachings cannot be accepted. Why? The circumstances that occasion questions in the Trace and Origin Gates are not the same. The occasion for the Trace Gate has already appeared, so Maitreya doubts and Mañjuśrī explains it for him. The occasion for the Origin Gate has not yet appeared. What could Maitreya doubt at this point, and what could Mañjuśrī resolve? If doubt about revealing distant buddhahood through buddhahood attained in the near past had already been answered here, why would Maitreya doubt again when the earth later splits and bodhisattvas emerge from beneath it? If he still had to ask again, both passages would contain groundless questions and groundless explanations. If the later explanation were superfluous, the earlier one would be equally mistaken. This would seriously obstruct the sequence of questions and answers throughout the sutra, so the interpretation is not used.

Here Maitreya asks only about the portents of this and other lands within the Trace Gate. Mañjuśrī's reflective answer likewise concerns only the Trace Gate and has nothing to do with the Origin Gate disclosed in “The Lifespan of the Tathāgata.” “Wishing to teach the great Dharma” answers the portent of teaching. “Raining the great Dharma rain” answers the portent of raining flowers. “Blowing the great Dharma conch” answers the portent of joy arising in the assembly. “Beating the great Dharma drum” answers the portent of the earth's movement. “Expounding the meaning of the great Dharma” answers the portent of the Buddha's emission of light.

“Wishing to teach the great Dharma” means that Mañjuśrī reflects as follows: after buddhas of the past taught the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, they opened the expedient and revealed the real, gathering immeasurable Dharma gates into the One Vehicle. Since the present Buddha has also taught the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, he too should open the expedient and reveal the real, bringing the immeasurable back to the one. This one is the great Dharma.

“Raining the great Dharma rain” means that Mañjuśrī reflects as follows: after buddhas of the past rained the four kinds of celestial flower, living beings universally entered the ten abodes, ten practices, ten dedications, and ten grounds—the complete causes of buddhahood. After the present Buddha rains flowers, living beings should likewise accomplish the causes of buddhahood and enter the ten abodes, ten practices, ten dedications, and ten grounds. Hence it is called raining the great Dharma rain.

“Blowing the great Dharma conch” means that Mañjuśrī reflects as follows: when the fourfold assemblies of the past saw the portents, they rejoiced at what they had never experienced before. Their obstructions were removed, their capacities to receive the Dharma were activated, and transformations occurred in person, teaching, practice, and principle. The present assembly's joy should likewise remove obstructions and activate its capacity to receive the Dharma, transforming person, teaching, practice, and principle. Because the change is profound, it is called blowing the great Dharma conch.

“Beating the great Dharma drum” means that Mañjuśrī reflects as follows: after the earth moved in the past, there were six rounds of breaking the thief of ignorance. After the present Buddha makes the earth move, there should likewise be six rounds of breaking delusions of ignorance. Because the teaching-sound he sends forth is supremely subtle, it is called beating the great Dharma drum.

“Expounding the meaning of the great Dharma” means that Mañjuśrī reflects as follows: after buddhas of the past emitted light from the white curl between their brows, they taught the Lotus Sutra and made clear that the Buddha path practiced in their lands and in this land was the same. After the present Buddha emits light, he should likewise explain at length that the paths practiced by the five buddhas are the same. Because the Dharma taught is the Buddha path, this is called expounding the meaning of the great Dharma.

All five statements use events of the past to judge events of the present and events of the present to compare with those of the past. Matching words to meanings, it may appear that only the portent of entering samādhi is missing. Yet the rain of flowers, movement of the earth, emission of light, and other portents can all occur because the Buddha has entered samādhi. Entering samādhi is therefore included in meaning, and no further doubt need arise. The answer is called brief only because this one item is not separately listed in the words.

III. The Great Dharma Is General; Rain, Conch, Drum, and Meaning Are Particular

Another level of explanation is also possible: the first statement is general and the following four are particular. The general is the great Dharma. The particulars are raining, blowing the conch, beating the drum, and expounding. They respectively unfold opening, revealing, awakening to, and entering. The sky itself, for example, cannot be called small or large, red or white, although flowers descending from the sky differ in size and in red or white color.

Ultimate truth itself likewise cannot be equated with opening, revealing, awakening to, and entering. Yet when living beings see this principle, they can realize opening, revealing, awakening to, and entering. It is like a seed moistened by rain, whose sprout breaks through the husk. When the great Dharma rain is heard today, the seed of Dharma-nature is moistened, the husk of ignorance is broken, and the Buddha's knowledge and vision are opened in the ten abodes.

Again, hearing the sound of a conch lets one know that a designation will change. Compare what is attained today with what was attained before: one had previously attained the ten abodes, and now, hearing the Buddha-Dharma again from within the ten abodes, one turns and enters the ten practices. This is revealing the Buddha's knowledge and vision.

Again, hearing a drum lets one know that troops are being warned and urged forward. Compare what is attained today with what was attained before: one was previously in the ten practices, and now, hearing the Dharma from within the ten practices, one is spurred onward and turns to enter the ten dedications. This is awakening to the Buddha's knowledge and vision.

“Expounding” means spreading broadly in the horizontal direction and penetrating deeply in the vertical direction. Only this is expounding Dharma meaning. Compare what is attained today with what was attained before: one was previously in the ten dedications, and now advances from the ten dedications into the ten grounds. This is entering the Buddha's knowledge and vision. One thereby reaches the very source and exhausts the farthest boundary, complete in both depth and breadth.

Mañjuśrī reflects that opening, revealing, awakening to, and entering followed the six portents of the past. Measuring the present by them, the same should follow today's portents. This completes the horizontal and vertical explanations of the reflective answer.

IV. The Brief Account of What Was Formerly Seen: Answering the Question about Other Lands through Light

The passage beginning when Mañjuśrī says, “In the past I,” is the second answer, the brief account of what was formerly seen. He first reflected and estimated through his own wisdom. Now he briefly cites something he personally saw, making the answer somewhat clearer than the preceding level. This passage responds to the question about other lands.

Of the six portents in this land, the five other than emitted light cannot reach throughout other lands. Only the single portent of light illuminates everywhere to the east. The brief account therefore answers specifically through what the emitted light discloses. From this we know that it answers the question about other lands.

What is seen today is like what was seen in the past, and what was seen in the past was just like what is seen today. The Buddha manifests portents so that all living beings can hear and know. “Hear” and “know” may be divided into the wisdoms of hearing and reflection, or into practice through faith and practice through the Dharma. Gathering immeasurable Dharma gates into the One Vehicle; transforming the people, teachings, practices, and principles of the three vehicles; breaking delusions of ignorance in six rounds; revealing that the paths practiced by all buddhas are the same; and enabling living beings to open, reveal, awaken to, and enter the Buddha's knowledge and vision—these are why it is called a Dharma difficult for all worlds to believe.

V. The Extensive Account: The Time, Name, and Teaching of the First Buddha

The passage beginning “In the inconceivably distant past” is the third answer, the extensive account of what was formerly seen. It is clearer than the brief account and answers doubts concerning both this and other lands. Maitreya asks after seeing, horizontally through the Buddha's light, the lands of the east. Mañjuśrī answers by vertically recounting what he saw in the past. Horizontal vision across space and vertical vision through time mutually disclose that the paths practiced by all buddhas are the same.

The extensive account has three levels. First it cites the sameness of one buddha, then that of twenty thousand buddhas, and finally that of the last buddha. The first buddha is explained through three items: first the time, second the buddha's name, and third how he taught the Dharma.

The scripture says that there was a buddha named Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance. A buddha's common epithets can be the same as those of the present Buddha, but the individual names are plainly different. Why are they nonetheless called the same? Although the names differ, the meanings they represent are the same. The sun signifies wisdom and the moon concentration; concentration and wisdom are the virtues of one's own practice, while lamp radiance signifies the virtue of transforming others. The present Buddha's name Śākyamuni—Able and Humane—likewise includes concentration and wisdom, accomplishing oneself and benefiting others. Sun, moon, and lamp may also be matched to three kinds of wisdom, which the present Buddha likewise possesses. Names vary with causes and conditions, but their meaning does not differ; hence the name is said to be the same.

The passage beginning “He expounded the right Dharma” explains the third item, sameness in teaching. The former buddha first taught the sudden Dharma and afterward unfolded the gradual Dharma. The present Buddha likewise teaches the sudden before the gradual, and in this respect they are the same. “He expounded the right Dharma, good at the beginning, good in the middle, and good at the end” refers to the sudden teaching. The language of seven excellences can apply generally to both the great and lesser vehicles. According to the meaning of this passage, however, these are the seven excellences of the great vehicle.

First, goodness at the beginning, middle, and end respectively refers to the sudden teaching's introduction, main teaching, and transmission; this is excellence in time. Second, “its meaning was deep and far-reaching” means that the principle of the sudden teaching is ultimate and definitive, so that the two vehicles cannot fathom its boundary or depth; this is excellence in meaning. Third, “its words were skillful and subtle” means that the Buddha spoke in eight kinds of beautiful voice directly accordant with truth, bringing delight to bodhisattvas; this is excellence in language. Fourth, “pure and unmixed” means it was not shared with the two vehicles; this is the excellence of being unique. Fifth, “complete” means that it fully explained the Dharma of complete expression both within and beyond the realm; this is the excellence of completeness. Sixth, “pure white” means it lacked the flaws and defilements of the two extremes; this is the excellence of pliancy. A master's explanation instead calls it excellence in practice, and both readings are preserved. Seventh, “the mark of brahma conduct” means that “brahma” represents the unconditional loving-kindness of the sudden teaching; this is the excellence of loving-kindness.

Interpreters do not entirely agree on goodness at the beginning, middle, and end. For the moment, the present explanation follows one line of meaning. According to the lesser vehicle, moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom may be classified as the three goodnesses. According to the great vehicle, the initial aspiration, the mind in the intermediate course, and the final mind may be so classified. The Golden Light Sutra also says that the Tathāgata of the former mind is inconceivable, the Tathāgata of the middle mind has every kind of adornment, and the Tathāgata of the latter mind cannot be destroyed. This too expresses the meaning of three goodnesses.

Mañjuśrī cites the seven excellences of the sudden teaching spoken by a buddha of the past to show that they were the same as the seven excellences of the sudden Dharma taught by the present Buddha and as the initial sudden teaching of the buddhas seen in other lands within the light. Why use this passage in the answer? Maitreya had horizontally seen, through the Buddha's light, the buddhas in other lands as holy lords and lions expounding scriptures that were wondrous and foremost. Mañjuśrī now cites the past vertically, directly answering that question.

After the sudden Dharma, the ancient buddha unfolded the gradual. For those seeking to become śrāvakas he taught the corresponding Dharma of the Four Truths, answering Maitreya's earlier question about people who undergo suffering and to whom the Buddha therefore teaches nirvāṇa. For those seeking to become pratyekabuddhas he taught the corresponding Dharma of the twelve links of dependent origination, answering the question about people who possess merit and aspire to a superior Dharma. For bodhisattvas he taught the corresponding six perfections, answering the question about children of the Buddha who cultivate many kinds of practice. All three cite the ancient buddha's unfolding of the gradual Dharma, showing his sameness with the present Buddha and the buddhas of other lands.

“Enabling living beings to attain unsurpassed complete awakening and accomplish all-mode wisdom” explains that after the ancient buddha unfolded the sudden and gradual Dharmas, he again revealed the real, bringing what he taught from beginning to end to ultimate completion. It also answers Maitreya's doubts on seeing buddhas in other lands enter nirvāṇa and jeweled stūpas raised after their nirvāṇa. The passage through the six perfections says that the present Buddha is already the same as buddhas of the past. The passage from accomplishing unsurpassed awakening and all-mode wisdom onward says that the present Buddha will also be the same as the buddhas of the past in the future. 〔And so forth: the remainder is abbreviated.〕

VI. The Twenty Thousand Buddhas and the Last Buddha

The account next cites twenty thousand buddhas and says that their names and teachings were all the same. The first single buddha is described in full as the same in both sudden and gradual teaching. For the intervening twenty thousand, only sameness in the sudden teaching is mentioned, and therefore only goodness at the beginning, middle, and end is stated. For the last buddha, only sameness in unfolding the gradual is mentioned. Why arrange the account this way? The three passages mutually indicate one another, so that what comes before and after can supply what each omits. No buddhas before the twenty thousand are cited because these twenty thousand had the same name and teaching, making them the most convenient group to recount according to the meaning.

The surname Poluoduo is translated as “Swift”; ancient translations also give “Sharp Faculties” and “Full Speech.” All three translations are recorded.

The passage beginning “That last buddha” is the third level, citing the sameness of one buddha. It has three divisions. First, something Mañjuśrī formerly saw in the distant past is the same as something belonging to the present Buddha's more recent past. Second, something formerly seen is the same as the portents now before the assembly. Third, something formerly seen is the same as what will happen after the present Buddha emerges from samādhi.

“Formerly” refers to what was experienced in the distant past, while “already” refers to what has passed more recently. Both are over, and both describe something that has occurred; here the distant is called “formerly,” while the more recent past is called “already.” The six portents before the assembly are called “now,” and what follows the Buddha's emergence from samādhi is called “will be.”

First, the passage beginning with the last buddha's eight princes presents the correspondence between the “formerly” and the “already.” The former buddha had eight sons, while the present Buddha has only one. Although the numbers are not equal, both were born in a land inhabited together by ordinary and noble beings. Because such a land still contains the delusions of views and thought, both buddhas manifest having sons. Their having sons is the same, while one and eight represent different things in response to different conditions: the birth of one son generally represents the one pure path, while the birth of eight sons represents the Eightfold Path. The numbers differ but their meanings correspond. Here only the shared fact of having sons is taken.

Someone further asks: after the former buddha's sons left home, they aroused the Mahāyāna mind, whereas the present Buddha's son Rāhula abides in the fruition of the lesser vehicle. How can these be the same? The former buddha's course of transformation has already been completed, and the origin of his eight sons has already been disclosed, so the scripture says that they aroused the Mahāyāna mind. The origin of the present Buddha's work has not yet been disclosed, and Rāhula is still described as an arhat. Once the following text reveals his bodhisattva ground of origin, their meaning will be the same.

VII. The Correspondence between the “Formerly” and the “Now”: Six Portents and Five Divisions

The passage beginning with Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance Buddha's teaching of a Mahāyāna scripture is the second division, the correspondence between the “formerly” and the “now.” All six portents in the former buddha's own land were the same as those of the present, in the sequence given in the scripture. The scripture summarizes the six portents in the former buddha's other lands by saying that they were “just like the buddha lands seen today.” We therefore know that the six portents in those other lands were likewise the same as today's.

Within the specific introduction concerning the former buddha, the manifestation of portents and the arising of doubt are explicitly described as the same, but the gathering of the assembly, question, and answer are not. Inferring from the meaning, however, one can still know that all three existed. Since it says that the Buddha taught the Dharma, an assembly must have gathered. Since it says the assembly doubted, someone should have asked a question. If someone asked, someone must have answered. The two divisions explicitly listed thus allow the other three to be known as well, so all five divisions are the same.

Moreover, if Mañjuśrī had recounted the question and answer of the past in full, there would have been no need to spend so many words answering today. He does not state the former answer and does not list the former question. Their meaning can naturally be understood.

VIII. The Correspondence between the “Formerly” and What “Will Be”: Six Items Matched One by One

The passage beginning with the appearance of the bodhisattva Wondrous Light is the third division, the correspondence between the “formerly” and what “will be.” It has six items. First, Wondrous Light is the person addressed; this is correspondence in the person occasioning the teaching. Second, the Dharma that Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance Buddha teaches after emerging from samādhi corresponds in name. Third, the sixty minor eons correspond in duration. Fourth, after teaching the scripture he announces his extinction to Brahmā gods, māras, śramaṇas, and brahmans; this is correspondence in the announcement of extinction. Fifth, the bodhisattva Virtue Treasury receives a prediction; this is correspondence in prediction. Sixth, after the buddha enters extinction at midnight, Wondrous Light propagates the scripture; this is correspondence in transmission of the scripture after extinction.

First consider correspondence in the person addressed. The buddha of the past emerges from concentration and teaches the scripture on account of the bodhisattva Wondrous Light. The present Buddha emerges from concentration and teaches it to the śrāvaka Śāriputra. Since their identities differ, how can this be called the same?

Master Yao says: “Here ‘on account of’ means entrustment. The Buddha entrusts the scripture of the One Vehicle to someone able to transmit and preserve it; the phrase does not refer only to the person directly addressed during the main teaching. Why must the person directly addressed by the former buddha have been Wondrous Light? In the same way, although the present Buddha directly teaches Śāriputra, Śāriputra is not necessarily the person most able to propagate and transmit it. In terms of entrustment and propagation, no one in the past surpassed Wondrous Light and no one today surpasses Mañjuśrī. The present Buddha did not especially praise Mañjuśrī, so why must the former buddha have especially praised Wondrous Light? Mañjuśrī cites the former buddha's praise of Wondrous Light precisely to show that Wondrous Light could receive the entrustment.”

Another old interpretation identifies Medicine King as the person who occasions the present Buddha's teaching. This affords some comparison, but when the past is used to establish the present, the two sides are not very similar. Yet another interpretation says that Mañjuśrī's resolution of the doubt enables the Buddha to emerge from samādhi and teach the scripture. This correspondence is also unsuitable.

Master Zhiyi says that these readings should not be accepted. The scripture plainly says that Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance Buddha gave the main teaching on account of Wondrous Light, yet this is explained as transmission by Wondrous Light, while Medicine King is taken as a separate example. This openly resists the Buddha's words; how can it count as explaining the scripture? The former buddha teaches on account of Wondrous Light, and the present Buddha on account of Śāriputra. They correspond precisely as the persons directly addressed.

The former buddha's eight princes took Wondrous Light as their teacher. Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance Buddha addressed Wondrous Light when he emerged from samādhi and then entrusted the scripture to him. The present Buddha's son Rāhula likewise took Śāriputra as his teacher. The Buddha addresses Śāriputra when he emerges from samādhi and entrusts the scripture to him after completing the teaching of the Trace Gate. What more direct correspondence could surpass this parity between past and present? Why abandon Śāriputra, who stands close at hand, and reach far ahead to Medicine King?

Someone objects: “Wondrous Light is a bodhisattva, while Śāriputra is a śrāvaka. How can they be the same?”

The answer is that the event of the past has already been fully revealed, so Wondrous Light is called a bodhisattva. The present event has not yet been disclosed, so Śāriputra is provisionally called a śrāvaka. Once his ground of origin is revealed, one will know that Śāriputra is a great bodhisattva. How, then, could they not correspond? Wondrous Light manifested a descended identity in the past, so how could one determine that he never manifested as a śrāvaka? This is Mañjuśrī's skillful narration, allowing expedient identities to be concealed in one place and revealed in another.

Second is correspondence in the name of the teaching. In the Buddha's light, Maitreya sees buddhas in other lands first teach the sudden Dharma and then the gradual. After the gradual teaching, he sees bodhisattvas perform many kinds of practice. After these various practices, he does not see an assembly in the light in which the Lotus is taught; he sees only a buddha's nirvāṇa. Mañjuśrī now answers that he formerly saw a buddha first teach the sudden Dharma, then unfold the gradual, and then, after many kinds of practice, teach the Lotus and enter nirvāṇa as soon as the Lotus had been taught. This clearly and decisively answers the question about other lands.

Third is correspondence in duration. The former buddha teaches for sixty minor eons, although the assembly experiences the interval as the short time of a single meal. At another assembly fifty minor eons pass, though the gathering experiences them as half a day. Each set of numbers remains distinct; their meaning is the same only in the way a long time can be felt as short.

Fourth is correspondence in the announcement of extinction. After teaching the Lotus, the former buddha announces that he will enter nirvāṇa; Kāśyapa Buddha likewise did so. 〔And so forth: the remainder is abbreviated.〕 In “Beholding the Jeweled Stūpa,” the present Buddha also says that the Tathāgata will enter nirvāṇa before long. The work of transforming living beings has been completed, so the announcement of extinction in the two cases corresponds.

Fifth is correspondence in prediction. The former buddha bestows a prediction on the bodhisattva Virtue Treasury, whereas the present scripture bestows predictions on śrāvakas. How can these be the same? The event of the past is already complete, so Mañjuśrī directly says that a bodhisattva receives a prediction. In reality, it likewise gathers the three vehicles into the One Vehicle and enables śrāvakas to receive predictions. If Mañjuśrī had begun by saying that the former buddha predicted buddhahood for śrāvakas, what would remain for the present Buddha to disclose after emerging from samādhi? Mañjuśrī narrates skillfully and therefore does not expose the śrāvakas' manifested identities in advance. If he says only that a bodhisattva receives a prediction, an event common in other scriptures, those attached to the teachings they already hold will not yet be startled. 〔And so forth: the remainder is abbreviated.〕

IX. Transmission after Extinction and Maitreya's Question

Sixth is correspondence in transmission after extinction, which has five items. First is the time, after the Buddha's extinction. Second is the person who propagates the scripture, Wondrous Light. Third is the duration, eighty minor eons. Fourth is the assembly transformed, including the eight princes and eight hundred disciples. Fifth is the identification of persons past and present: Seeker of Fame is Maitreya, and Wondrous Light is Mañjuśrī Wondrous Virtue.

The people transformed form two groups. First, the eight princes had completed their practice long before and became buddhas in the distant past. Second, among the eight hundred disciples, Seeker of Fame cultivated for a long time but has only now reached the place of succession.

Why cite the eight princes and eight hundred disciples? At the nearer level, this resolves a doubt; at a deeper level, it covertly opens the meaning of the distant lifespan. The doubt to be resolved is that someone might consider Maitreya, a bodhisattva in the place of succession, to have the higher rank, and Mañjuśrī, who is not in that place, the lower. The lesser person should not answer and the greater should not ask. Yet Maitreya was formerly among the eight hundred disciples. According to his identity at that time, it was entirely fitting for him to question Wondrous Light. Wondrous Light had directly received the buddha's address and had earlier been Maitreya's teacher, so there is no fault in his answering.

Covertly opening the lifespan means that the youngest of the eight princes later became Dīpaṃkara Buddha, also called Fixed Light. Wondrous Light, meanwhile, became a patriarch nine generations before Śākyamuni Buddha. A Dharma descendant of later generations has now become a buddha, while former teachers and patriarchs return to manifest as his disciples. The identities of teacher and disciple plainly have no fixed sequence. This begins to intimate birth that is not real birth and extinction that is not real extinction.

Someone asks: Maitreya encountered many buddhas in the past and had already heard the Lotus Sutra. Why does he now doubt and ask?

The answer is that the capacities of the present assembly and the needs of transformation require him to ask and thereby knock open the Dharma meaning that follows.

X. Clear Judgment and the Forty-Five Lines of Verse

The fourth answer begins with “The portents now seen” and is called the answer through clear judgment. Since the six portents of today are the same as those of the past, the preceding reflection and estimation can be confirmed as correct. What was cited in the brief and extensive accounts is likewise confirmed.

“He will teach a Mahāyāna scripture” decides the meaning of the preceding portent of teaching. “Named the Lotus Blossom of the Wondrous Dharma” decides the meaning of the preceding portent of raining flowers. “A Dharma for teaching bodhisattvas” decides the meaning of the assembly's preceding joy. “Kept in mind by the buddhas” decides the meaning of the preceding earth movement. These statements also generally include entering samādhi, because all the portents occur within concentration.

One interpretation establishes correspondence between the “formerly” and the “already,” and between the “formerly” and what “will be,” but does not establish correspondence between the “formerly” and the “now.” Yet the scripture expressly says that the portents now seen do not differ from the original portents of the past. This is speaking precisely of today. How can the six portents be called something already past? According to this passage, they must be classified as “now,” so the explanation must establish three correspondences: formerly with already, now, and what will be.

There are forty-five lines of verse. They do not recite again the reflective answer or the brief account of what was formerly seen. Within the extensive account, they repeat only its first and last divisions, not the intervening twenty thousand buddhas.

The first two lines recite sameness in the time, name, teaching, and other aspects of the extensive account. The second major section, beginning “Before the Buddha left home,” has thirty-nine lines and repeats the last buddha's three correspondences. A further four lines repeat the answer through clear judgment. The thirty-nine lines likewise form three sections: one line repeats correspondence between the “formerly” and the “already”; fifteen and a half lines repeat correspondence between the “formerly” and the “now”; and twenty-two and a half lines repeat correspondence between the “formerly” and what “will be.” Two plus thirty-nine plus four makes forty-five. Within the thirty-nine, one plus fifteen and a half plus twenty-two and a half likewise agrees exactly.

The fifteen and a half lines on correspondence between the “formerly” and the “now” have two sections. First, fourteen lines recite the six portents in this and other lands. Second, the one and a half lines beginning with the appearance of the fourfold assembly recite its doubt. The first fourteen lines are again divided in two. Four lines first recite the six portents in this land, adding to the prose the spontaneous sounding of a celestial drum. The celestial drum indicates that no one needs to ask: the Buddha will teach on his own. “Manifesting many rare events” then summarizes all the portents. Ten lines next recite the six portents in other lands. The prose merely says that they were just like the buddha lands seen now and is very brief; the verse gives the extensive account here.

The ten lines on other lands have five items. First, three lines recite the corresponding sight of living beings in the six destinations. Second, the line and two phrases beginning “Again he saw the tathāgatas” recite seeing buddhas. Third, the two phrases beginning “The World-Honored One amid the great assembly” recite hearing the buddhas teach the sudden Dharma with its seven excellences. Fourth, the three lines beginning “In each buddha land, the śrāvaka assembly” recite seeing the three vehicles of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas—that is, the former buddha's corresponding unfolding of the gradual Dharma. Fifth, the two lines beginning “Again he saw bodhisattvas” recite seeing bodhisattvas practice through many causes and conditions—that is, the corresponding unfolding of the Vaipulya and Prajñā teachings.

XI. Spontaneously Accomplishing the Path, the Three Bodies, and the Three Vehicles in the Verse

The first item of three lines is clear from the scripture. The second item, the line and a half about seeing buddhas, requires an explanation of “spontaneously accomplishing the Buddha path.” On the preparatory path, one must still apply effort and deliberately cultivate. Once the true path arises, one can spontaneously and naturally accord with principle. This meaning can be understood through each of the four teachings. 〔And so forth: the remainder is abbreviated.〕

Someone asks: if one can proceed spontaneously after realizing the true stage, why is it still necessary for buddhas to teach the Dharma?

The answer is that a boat already traveling with the current will reach its destination even faster if it encounters a following wind and its oars are also used. The following wind symbolizes seeing a buddha and hearing the Dharma; the oars symbolize one's own cultivation. Again, a noble one at the first fruit may naturally pass through seven rounds of birth and death. If that person encounters a buddha appearing in the world and adds further cultivation, they may reach the stage beyond training after only one or two lives. 〔And so forth: the remainder is abbreviated.〕

In the verse, “spontaneously accomplishing the Buddha path” represents the recompense body. Lapis lazuli represents the original purity of the Dharma body, and the golden image represents the form manifested by the responsive body in accord with the capacities of living beings. The order of the three cannot be reversed.

The third item, beginning when the World-Honored One expounds profound Dharma meaning amid the great assembly, occupies only half a line. Here the recipients are inferred from the Dharma taught. Since that Dharma is deep and wondrous, it must carry those with Mahāyāna capacities and unfold the sudden Dharma. This recites the seven excellences described above, including purity and freedom from admixture.

The fourth item, beginning “In each buddha land, the śrāvaka assembly,” has three lines. Here the Dharma taught is inferred from its recipients. Since the people seen are of the two vehicles, one knows that the Buddha must have unfolded the Tripiṭaka teaching. This recites the preceding teaching of the corresponding Four Truths and other Dharmas for those seeking to become śrāvakas. Although the verse does not separately mention pratyekabuddhas, they are included in its meaning. In the words “giving, patience, and so forth,” “and so forth” includes the other four perfections; this line recites the preceding Mahāyāna of the six perfections.

The fifth item, the two lines beginning “Again he saw bodhisattvas deeply enter many forms of meditation,” recites the appearance of faith and understanding manifested by bodhisattvas in other lands as they practice through many causes and conditions. The question about stūpas seen earlier is not answered yet. In the preceding light, Maitreya did not see an assembly in another land where the Lotus was taught. The next passage must first supply the Lotus assembly; extinction and the raising of stūpas occur afterward, so they are left for the later answer.

The line and a half beginning with the fourfold assembly next supplies a recitation of the doubt that arose among the fourfold assembly in the former buddha's time. The twenty-two and a half lines beginning “The honored one served by devas and humans” recite correspondence between what was formerly seen and what is now and will be, again in six divisions.

First, two lines and two phrases recite correspondence in the person addressed. Second, the one phrase beginning “He taught this Dharma” recites correspondence in the teaching. Third, the line and one phrase beginning “For a full sixty minor eons” recite correspondence in duration, showing the inconceivable wisdom that can make long eons seem short. Wondrous Light receives and preserves all the former buddha teaches, just as Śāriputra receives the present Buddha's entrustment.

Fourth, the five lines beginning “When the Buddha had taught this Lotus Sutra” recite correspondence in the announcement of extinction and also answer the earlier question about buddhas in other lands entering extinction. The passage includes both the announcement and entrustment. Its entrustment is like that in the Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching, its lamentation like that in the Nirvāṇa Sutra, and its consolation also like that in the Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching. Those who should be liberated have all been liberated; those not yet liberated have also planted the causes and conditions for future liberation, just as the present Buddha will entrust living beings to Maitreya. 〔And so forth: the remainder is abbreviated.〕

Fifth, the line and a half beginning with the bodhisattva Virtue Treasury recite prediction. Sixth, the twelve lines beginning “The Buddha entered extinction that night” recite transmission of the scripture after extinction.

The twelve lines on transmission have five items. First, two lines recite the time after the Buddha's extinction and the benefit gained by the fourfold assembly. “Like fuel exhausted and fire extinguished” has two explanations. According to the lesser vehicle, the Buddha's recompense body is like fuel and wisdom like fire. Wisdom abides in dependence upon that body; when the body becomes extinct, wisdom likewise ceases to appear. According to the great vehicle, living beings' capacities to receive transformation are like fuel, while the responsive body manifested by the Buddha in accord with those capacities is like fire. When living beings' capacities are exhausted, the form manifested in response likewise becomes extinct. “Become still more diligent” means that those who should be liberated through a manifestation of extinction are transformed by that very appearance.

Second, the two phrases beginning with Wondrous Light recite the person able to propagate the scripture. Third, the two phrases beginning “For eighty minor eons” recite the duration of its propagation. Fourth, the eight lines beginning with the eight princes recite the disciples benefited through that propagation. These form two levels. The first three lines recite disciples who had accomplished the path long before and became buddhas. The five lines beginning again with Wondrous Light recite disciples such as Seeker of Fame who accomplished it only later. Fifth, the one line beginning “After that buddha entered extinction” recites the identification of persons of the past with persons of the present.

XII. The Final Four Verses End Four Implied Doubts

Earlier masters say that the final four verses merely summarize what precedes and make living beings aspire and look upward. Master Zhiyi holds that they do more. Since the preceding prose contains a clear judgment, these four verses recite that judgment again. Their wording can be divided into three sections: the first verse of one line recites that the Buddha will teach a Mahāyāna scripture; the middle two verses of two lines recite that it is a Dharma for teaching bodhisattvas; and the final verse of one line recites that it is kept in mind by the buddhas.

In addition, Maitreya earlier posed four implied challenges that made it necessary for Mañjuśrī to answer. Here Mañjuśrī removes four implied doubts so that Maitreya need not ask again. The former set of challenges gives rise to the answer; the latter set of doubts is ended by it. Their directions are different.

The first doubt is this: although Mañjuśrī has extensively cited a former buddha who taught the Lotus Sutra, Maitreya might still wonder whether the present Buddha must do the same. Buddhas appear in accord with the causes and conditions of living beings; the persons they address and the times in which they appear are not alike. Why must the present Buddha teach a scripture called the Lotus simply because an ancient buddha did?

Mañjuśrī ends this doubt with the first verse. He saw that the light-portent of Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance Buddha in the past was just like this, and therefore knows that the present Buddha will teach the Lotus Sutra. This answers the doubt about the scripture's name.

The second doubt is this: sometimes the same name has the same meaning, while at other times the same name bears a different meaning. What does the present name actually disclose and designate?

Mañjuśrī ends this doubt with the second verse. The present portents are like the original portents of the past; this is a skillful means of the buddhas. The present Buddha emits light to assist in revealing the meaning of the true mark. This answers the doubt about the scripture's substance.

The third doubt is this: the true mark is originally without marks, so who can understand it?

Mañjuśrī ends this doubt with the third verse. The assembly should now understand, join palms, and wait single-mindedly. The Buddha will rain the Dharma rain and fully satisfy all seekers of the path. This answers the doubt about the assembly that receives the teaching and its tenet.

The fourth doubt is this: does the Dharma rain sent down by the Buddha moisten only bodhisattvas, or does it also moisten the two vehicles of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas?

Mañjuśrī ends this doubt with the fourth verse. If any who seek the three vehicles still harbor doubt or regret, the Buddha will remove it for them so completely that not a trace remains. This answers the doubt about the Dharma's function.

Maitreya forms one doubt after another, and Mañjuśrī removes each in turn. The events have been fully explained, the principles have become clear, and every answer can be understood in the mind. This may be called skill in asking and skill in answering, with both question and answer jointly accomplishing an adornment.

Guangzhai knows only how to transmit Master Zhao's explanation of the four implied challenges, which require Mañjuśrī to answer and thereby display Maitreya's excellence in questioning. He does not see that Mañjuśrī also removes four implied doubts so that Maitreya need not ask again. He thus diminishes Wondrous Virtue Mañjuśrī's excellence in answering. This meaning is Tiantai's own judgment and was not transmitted from another ancient commentary. Let later worthies not suppress another person's excellence.

For several hundred years after Master Zhao, people who lectured on the Lotus Sutra filled the roads. The transmitted wording of the final sentence is difficult. In light of what precedes and follows, it may provisionally be read: “Has anyone seen this purport? If one will not acknowledge that this too is another's excellence, what else can be said?” 〔That is to say: this is what it means.〕