妙法蓮華經文句 白話全本 · 冊3

I. Brief Explanation of Three Meanings of Skillful Means

The explanation of the Skillful Means chapter has a brief and an extensive part. The brief explanation is itself divided into two: first an abbreviated explanation, and then an analysis.

In the first explanation, “method” is Dharma and “skillful” is use. Dharmas may be square or round, and their use may differ or converge. Three provisional Dharmas resemble a carpenter's square and are square; one real Dharma resembles a compass and is round. When wisdom penetrates the square, it can skillfully employ partial Dharmas to meet living beings. When wisdom penetrates the circle, it can skillfully employ the perfect Dharma to meet them.

To raise one finger partially and point toward a partial place, for example, is to raise a partial Dharma to indicate the wisdom corresponding to it: “method” should be explained through Dharma and “skillful” through use. To raise the whole hand and point toward the perfect place, however, means that “method” should be explained as secret and “skillful” as wondrous. Explaining skillful means through partial Dharmas chiefly accords with the desires of living beings and is not the Buddha's original intent. The scripture, for example, enables beings to leave every kind of attachment and escape the suffering of the three realms; the Tathāgata therefore earnestly praises skillful means. This meaning can explain other scriptures, but it is not the direct purport of this chapter.

The second explanation takes skillful means as a gateway. A gateway enables someone to pass through and leads toward the place to be reached. Provisional and abbreviated skillful means serve as inducements and form a gateway to the real. The meaning of the real can become clear through the work of skillful means, and skillful means receive their name from their ability to disclose the real. Explaining them as a gateway is therefore like the scripture's statement: “Open the gateway of skillful means and display the mark of reality.” This meaning can likewise explain other scriptures, but it is still not the direct purport of the present chapter.

In the third explanation, “method” is secret and “skillful” wondrous. Wondrous penetration of the method is the genuine secret. Someone points out the priceless jewel originally sewn inside another person's robe; that jewel is no different from the one bright jewel on a king's crown. Someone points out that the hired laborer is actually the elder's son; the laborer and the son are not two different people. Such an explanation is both secret and wondrous. The scripture says: “I alone know this true mark, and the buddhas of the ten directions do likewise.” It also says: “Stop, stop; it need not be said again. My Dharma is subtle, wondrous, and difficult to conceive.” Explaining “method” as secret and “skillful” as wondrous is therefore precisely the purport of the present chapter, which is accordingly titled “Skillful Means.”

II. Analysis of the Three Explanations and Four Propositions concerning Skillful Means and the Provisional

The three preceding explanations will now be analyzed. The first explanation, as method, separately establishes skillful means outside the substance. These are the expedients used when transforming living beings and are teachings in accord with others' intentions. The second explanation, as gateway, likewise separately establishes skillful means outside the substance. It includes provisionality in both one's own practice and the transformation of others and is taught in accord with the intentions of oneself and others. The third explanation, as secret and wondrous, concerns skillful means identical in substance with the real. It is the provisional belonging to one's own practice and is taught in accord with one's own intention.

The first kind of skillful means is neither a gateway that enables entry nor the principle entered. The second is a gateway that enables entry but is not the principle entered. The third is the principle entered but not a gateway enabling entry. Although the name is the same, the meanings therefore differ greatly. Most people fail to see this and interpret the Skillful Means chapter however they please. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Someone asks: “What is the relation between skillful means and the provisional?”

The answer can be distinguished through four propositions. First, skillful means break the provisional. Second, the provisional breaks skillful means. Third, skillful means cultivate the provisional and the provisional also cultivates skillful means. Fourth, skillful means are the provisional and the provisional is skillful means.

“Skillful means break the provisional” means that the four kinds of teaching are all secretly wondrous skillful means, and these skillful means can break the provisional taught in accord with others' intentions. “The provisional breaks skillful means” means that the provisional here is identical with the substance and can break skillful means separately established outside it. Mutual cultivation and mutual identity can be understood in the same way. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕 The first three propositions can explain other scriptures, while only the fourth expresses the purport of this chapter. The Correct Dharma Lotus therefore titles it the chapter “Skillful Provisionality”: provisional and skillful means are no different, and even bowing one's head or raising a hand can accomplish the Buddha path. Both skillful means and skillful provisionality are real.

III. The Extensive Explanation First Refutes Earlier Interpretations

The extensive explanation begins by listing earlier interpretations of provisional and real through the five periods.

First, before the twelfth year, seeing impermanent events was called provisional and seeing the principle of impermanence real, referring to the Abhidharma. Master Zhiyi says that the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom already classifies contemplation of impermanence as a counteractive Dharma belonging to the first three siddhāntas. How could it be classified directly as real? It is therefore not the meaning used in this chapter.

Second, in the Prajñā teaching after the twelfth year, seeing provisional existence was called provisional and seeing provisional existence as immediately empty real. Yet the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom also refutes this understanding: contemplative ideation has already been removed and verbal dharmas are all quiescent. If one is still observing provisional existence as immediately empty, this remains conceptual contemplation. It is therefore not the meaning used in this chapter.

Third, the Vimalakīrti Sutra and Questions of Brahmā Sutra call inward illumination of the two objects, emptiness and existence, real wisdom and outward transformation and responsive activity provisional wisdom. Master Zhiyi says that inward illumination and outward function are still divided into two sides and have not entered the gateway of nonduality. This is therefore not the meaning used in this chapter.

Fourth, one interpretation of the Lotus Sutra calls the three threes provisional and the four ones real. Master Zhiyi says that if the three provisional Dharmas never meet the real, while the one real Dharma has no relation at all to the three provisional Dharmas, this is still not the meaning used in the chapter.

Fifth, an interpretation of the Nirvāṇa Sutra calls impermanence before the vajra-like path provisional and permanence after it real. Master Zhiyi says that suchness before the path is also permanent, while cognition measuring in accord with things after the path still has provisional function. None of these five period-based distinctions of provisional and real is therefore used in this chapter. The two wisdoms of provisional and real described through the half-word, full-word, and four tenets likewise are not used here.

Another interpretation explains skillful means as temporary establishment and the real as truthful determination. Another explains skillful means as provisional skill and the real as wisdom. Another explains skillful means as provisional borrowing, like temporarily setting up three carts outside a gate. Another explains them as adaptation to what is appropriate, because three vehicles are taught in accord with what is fitting. Still another uses a balance weight as a metaphor for the provisional: moved toward the front of the beam it becomes heavy, toward the back it becomes light, and placed in the middle it balances, corresponding to buddha-wisdom's examination and measurement.

Each of these interpretations takes only one line of meaning. Temporary establishment and provisional borrowing concern only location; adaptation to what is appropriate concerns only a Dharma gate; and provisional skill and the balance weight concern only cognitive capacity. None can include the other levels, and their meanings neither interpenetrate nor become wondrous. They therefore cannot explain this chapter.

Another interpretation establishes four kinds of paired wisdom. The first pair takes one wisdom as provisional and one as real. The second pair consists of cognitions of emptiness and existence: observing emptiness without realizing it as a final attainment enables one to leave the two vehicles, while engaging existence without being defiled enables one to transcend ordinary beings. The third pair takes inward quiescent illumination of emptiness and existence as real and outward activation of function as provisional. The fourth distinguishes provisional and real through permanence and impermanence before and after the vajra-like path.

The first pair of wisdoms gives rise to faith, the second to understanding, the third is used to transform others, and the last belongs to fruition. These paired wisdoms also undergo three turnings. The first takes existence as conventional and emptiness as true. The second takes emptiness and existence together as conventional and neither-empty-nor-existent as true. The third takes emptiness and existence as dual and neither-empty-nor-existent as nondual, then classifies both dual and nondual as conventional and neither-dual-nor-nondual as true. Teaching and cognition are likewise divided.

Why are there these differences? They accord with people's capacities. Some do not understand the earlier statement but understand a later one, so the two truths are spoken differently. The Tathāgata constantly teaches through the two truths, and the two truths therefore have three gateways. Although the Buddha's teachings are numerous, they do not fall outside these three gateways. The differences also guide living beings gradually. Ordinary beings grasp mind and form as real, though they are not; the emptiness of Dharma-nature alone is true. Ordinary beings therefore abandon existence and choose emptiness. It is next said that emptiness and existence are both conventional and neither-empty-nor-existent is true. Some, after leaving the two extremes, become stuck in the middle path, so the third turning requires them to leave both extremes without attaching even to the middle. Only this is true.

This system draws in people of the five vehicles. It first leads ordinary beings to generate faith and leave existence, next leads those of the two vehicles into the middle path, and then leads bodhisattvas to relinquish the middle together with the partial. Those studying the middle path are also told that the three provisional designations belong to the world and the emptiness of the three designations is true; this obtains only the first level of meaning. At the second level, where the three provisional designations are not, emptiness and existence are both conventional and neither-empty-nor-existent is true. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

IV. General Refutation of Gradual Progression and the Direct Establishment of Four Propositions for All Dharmas

Master Zhiyi examines the preceding explanations in detail and judges that they rely incidentally upon the five periods to display their own purport and seek to avoid the fault of gradual steps. They may explain other scriptures, but they do not express the purport of this chapter.

The scripture says: “Enable all living beings alike to see.” How, then, can awakening be divided into different earlier and later times? It also says: “Directly relinquish skillful means.” How could one still use gradual steps to enter the perfect and wondrous? To classify the first as giving rise to faith, the second as giving rise to understanding, the third as transforming others, and the last as fruition—what does this have to do with the present scripture's enabling living beings to awaken and enter?

Vasubandhu lists seventeen names for the present scripture, the thirteenth being Greatly Skillful Means. The Mahāyāna Skillful Means Sutra further says that skillful means are tenfold, the ninth being skillful ingenuity, which can turn those of the two vehicles and enable them to enter the pāramitā of great-vehicle skillful means. From this we know that the present chapter speaks of the Tathāgata's skillful means embracing all dharmas, like open space containing the myriad forms or the ocean receiving every stream. How could one explain the great capital of the whole Dharma realm through only one branch or school belonging to various masters?

The direct explanation of provisional and real now begins with four propositions: all dharmas are provisional; all dharmas are real; all dharmas are both provisional and real; and all dharmas are neither provisional nor real.

First, all dharmas are provisional. The scripture says: “Dharmas possess such nature, mark, substance, power, beginning, end, and so forth.” Once even the slightest verbal establishment occurs, it belongs to the provisional.

Second, all dharmas are real. The scripture says: “The Tathāgata skillfully teaches the dharmas and delights the minds of living beings.” Living beings delight in entering the real. It also says: “Dharmas have always been quiescent and extinct.” It says again: “Everything the Tathāgata teaches reaches the ground of all-wisdom,” and “All is real and not false.” The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sutra also says that none of the four propositions can be expressed.

Third, all dharmas are both provisional and real. The scriptural expression “the real-as-it-is mark of all dharmas” simultaneously says that all dharmas are both provisional and real. Even the contemplation of impurity, for example, has one side that is real and one that is provisionally established. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Fourth, all dharmas are neither provisional nor real. The scripture says: “Neither as such nor different.” It also says: “Nor does one practice higher, middle, or lower dharmas, conditioned or unconditioned dharmas, real or unreal dharmas. Neither false nor real is the real-as-it-is mark.”

If all dharmas are provisional, what could not be broken? Even if there were hundreds of thousands of teachers and each presented hundreds of thousands of explanations, not one would fail to be provisional. If even the Tathāgata's verbal expression belongs to the provisional, how could the speech of human teachers necessarily be otherwise? Every preceding interpretation can be broken in this way.

If all dharmas are real, what could not be broken? The scripture says: “This one matter alone is real; the other two are not true.” There is only one ultimate path. How could there be many separate ultimate paths? All the preceding masters should break their attachments and enter the real. How could they continue to defend their own enclosures?

If all dharmas are both provisional and real, what could not be broken? Every dharma has both provisional and real aspects. How could one affirm only one's own path while denying all other interpretations? Each dharma contains provisional and real; it cannot be classified exclusively as either.

If all dharmas are neither provisional nor real, what could not be broken? Why continue the clamor and forcibly establish distinctions? Merely listing the names of the four propositions already has such power to break attachment. Even viewed from afar, their profound purport is this open and lofty; how much more so when their intent is examined further?

V. From the Derivation of Ten Dharmas to the Explanation of Each Pair

From the proposition that dharmas are both provisional and real, ten dharmas are now opened and explained in eight rounds. First their ten names are listed. Second their order of derivation is explained. Third each is explained separately. Fourth scriptures are cited as evidence. Fifth the ten are concluded as three kinds of provisional and real. Sixth the three kinds of provisional and real are distinguished as illuminating three kinds of two truths. Seventh provisional and real are judged according to the various scriptures. Eighth they are judged according to Origin and Trace.

First, the names. The ten are event and principle, principle and teaching, teaching and practice, bondage and liberation, cause and effect, substance and function, gradual and sudden, opening and gathering, shared and distinct, and siddhānta.

Second, their derivation. All dharmas are established from the foundation of nonabiding. Nonabiding is principle; all dharmas are events. Because there are principle and events, there is teaching. Because there is teaching, there is practice. Because there is practice, there are bondage and liberation. Because there is liberation, cause and effect are formed. Because there is effect, substance becomes manifest and can activate function. There are therefore gradual and sudden forms of transformation. Because gradual and sudden are opened, there are opening and gathering. Because there are opening and gathering, there are the two benefits, shared and distinct. Because the two benefits are distinguished, there are the four siddhāntas. This is the sequence of the ten divisions. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Third, each is explained separately.

Event and principle. Principle is suchness. Suchness is originally pure and always remains unchanged whether a buddha appears in the world or not; principle is therefore called real. Events are mind, mentation, consciousness, and the like, which can produce pure and impure karma and which change without fixity; events are therefore called provisional. Without principle, events could not be established; without events, principle could not become manifest. Events possess the work of disclosing principle, and the Tathāgata therefore earnestly praises skillful means.

Principle and teaching. The preceding principle and events are combined and, relative to what follows, both are called principle, just as ultimate and conventional truths are both called truths. Buddhas embody and realize this principle and become sages, and sages are precisely real. When the Buddha wishes to bestow downward upon beings the Dharma he has realized, he establishes verbal teaching in reliance upon principle; teaching is therefore provisional. Without teaching, principle could not be displayed. Principle becomes manifest through reliance upon the teaching, and the Tathāgata therefore praises skillful means. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Teaching and practice. Seeking principle in reliance upon teaching gives rise to correct practice. Practice has differences in the depth of its advance and is therefore called provisional; teaching itself does not advance more or less deeply and is therefore called real. Without teaching, practice could not be established; without practice, one could not realize the purport of the teaching. Realization of teaching depends upon practice, and the Tathāgata therefore praises skillful means. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Bondage and liberation. When practice opposes principle, it produces bondage. Bondage is deluded and therefore called provisional. When practice accords with principle, liberation arises. This liberation darkly accords with principle and is therefore called real. Without bondage, the mind seeking liberation would never arise; the attainment of liberation takes bondage itself as a condition. It is like relying upon a corpse to cross the sea: the corpse too has the power to help one reach the other shore, and skillful means are therefore praised.

Cause and effect. Cause has the function of advancing forward and being temporarily employed and is therefore called provisional. Effect brings cultivation to its endpoint and is permanently realized and is therefore called real. Without effect, cause would have no destination toward which to aspire; without cause, effect could not manifest itself. The two contemplations are therefore taken as the path of skillful means, severing delusion and forming the cause that enters the liberating effect of the middle path. Without the two contemplations, how could one accord with the middle? Effect is reached through cause, and skillful means are therefore praised.

Substance and function. The preceding skillful means are cause, while correct contemplation and entry into an abode are effect. Abiding and emerging are again distinguished as substance and function. Substance is the true mark and has no discrimination. Function establishes every differentiated dharma, like the earth giving rise to many kinds of sprout. Without earth, sprouts could not arise; without sprouts, the earth's generative power could not become manifest. Following the current one can reach the source, and inferring from function one can recognize substance. Function has the work of disclosing substance, and skillful means are therefore praised.

Gradual and sudden. After cultivating cause and realizing effect, function arises from substance. When function arises, it has both gradual and sudden modes; the present discussion concerns only this activation of function. Gradual function is provisional and sudden function real. Without gradual guidance, there is no way to enter the sudden Dharma. The real is attained through the gradual, and skillful means are therefore praised.

Opening and gathering. The gradual Dharma is opened from the sudden. The gradual cannot gather itself back by itself and cannot by itself unite with the sudden, so it is called provisional. When the gradual reaches its ultimate point, it returns and gathers into the sudden and is called real. Gathering can occur only after opening. Because opening has the power to accomplish gathering, it receives the name skillful means and is therefore praised.

Shared and distinct benefit. Shared benefit is that of the impermanent half-word; distinct benefit is that of the permanently abiding full-word. Yet the road to the benefit of permanence is distant and living beings can readily retreat along the way. A conjured city is therefore first used to guide them and give them a sense of peace. The conjured city is then dissolved, and they are led toward the treasure place. Without the benefit of the half-word, there would be no way to enter permanent abiding. The half-word has the function of displaying the full-word, and skillful means are therefore praised.

The four siddhāntas. The first three belong to the world and are therefore provisional; the siddhānta of ultimate meaning transcends the world and is therefore real. Without passing through the world one cannot transcend it. Only through the first three siddhāntas can ultimate meaning be attained, and the Tathāgata therefore praises skillful means. The preceding four propositions should be used to explain these ten rounds of provisional and real. Of them, the first three propositions express the meanings of other scriptures, while only the fourth is the purport of the present chapter. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

VI. The Fourth Round: First Citing the Whole Scripture Generally, Then the Present Chapter Particularly

Fourth, scriptures are cited as evidence. These ten meanings traverse both great and lesser teachings and extend throughout all dharmas. The Lotus Sutra is now taken first as evidence.

The scripture says: “He sees the three realms, yet his vision is unlike that of the three realms.” The three realms are events; vision unlike that of the three realms is principle. It also says: “Dharmas are quiescent and extinct and cannot be expressed in words.” This is principle. It says that the Buddha “taught the five bhikṣus through the power of skillful means.” This is teaching.

The scripture says: “Those able to hear this scripture have practiced the bodhisattva path well.” This witnesses teaching and practice. It also says: “What you practice is the bodhisattva path. When children of the Buddha complete their practice of the path, they will become buddhas in a future age.”

The scripture says that beings “seek the Buddha path through manifold causes and conditions” and also that “merely leaving the false is called liberation.” These witness bondage and liberation. It further says that beings “have not actually attained complete liberation,” that they must “fully practice all the Dharmas belonging to the path of the buddhas,” and finally “accomplish buddha-fruition at the place of awakening.” These witness bondage and liberation and cause and effect. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The scripture says: “With the buddha eye I see living beings in the six paths. When these beings first see my body and hear the Dharma I teach, they all trust, accept, and enter tathāgata-wisdom, except those who previously cultivated and studied the lesser vehicle.” The first part witnesses substance and function, and the latter part gradual and sudden. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The poor son first runs away, is later employed to remove filth, and finally obtains the family wealth, displaying opening and gathering. Travelers are first given rest in the conjured city and later led to the treasure place, displaying shared and distinct benefit. Manifold desires, natures and marks, recollections, and so forth display the four siddhāntas. This completes the general citation of the whole scripture.

The Skillful Means chapter will now be cited particularly. Although its quotations do not follow the order of the ten pairs, all ten kinds of scriptural wording are present.

“The wisdom of the buddhas is extremely profound and immeasurable; the gateway of their wisdom is difficult to understand and difficult to enter.” All events and principles, objects known and wisdom able to observe, and related matters are called real. The verbal teachings established to explain and distinguish them form the gateway of wisdom and are called provisional. This witnesses the provisional and real of principle and teaching. The scripture further says that this gateway is difficult to understand and enter and cannot be known by any śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha. This witnesses the provisional and real of bondage and liberation.

Why is this so? The passage from “The Buddha formerly drew near to innumerable buddhas” through “his name was universally heard” witnesses the provisional and real of teaching and practice. The passage from “he accomplished extremely profound and unprecedented Dharmas” through “what he teaches according to what is appropriate is difficult to understand in intent” witnesses the provisional and real of substance and function. “Since I became a buddha”—becoming a buddha is effect, and effect necessarily has a cause—witnesses the provisional and real of cause and effect.

The passage from “through manifold causes, conditions, and analogies” through “enable living beings to leave every attachment” witnesses the provisional and real of gradual and sudden. Why? Because “the Tathāgata's skillful means and knowledge and vision are all complete” further witnesses the provisional and real of opening and gathering.

“The buddhas appear in the world through the cause and condition of the one great matter in order to enable living beings to open, reveal, awaken to, and enter the Buddha's knowledge and vision” concerns provisional and real benefit. “To state the essential, the Buddha has accomplished all” displays accomplishment in the first three siddhāntas. “Stop, stop; it need not be said again” displays the siddhānta of ultimate meaning. Together these are the provisional and real of the four siddhāntas.

Why is this so? The passage from “The Buddha accomplished the foremost rare Dharma” through “the true mark of all dharmas” is principle. “That is, dharmas have such a mark” is event. This witnesses the provisional and real of principle and event.

This prose passage explains provisional and real for the five buddhas; the same is true for each. The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra interprets the profound wisdom of the buddhas as profound realization. Profound realization has five kinds: profound meaning, profound real substance, profound inward realization, profound basis, and unsurpassed profundity. Unsurpassed profundity is the realization of great awakening. The treatise further interprets the gateway of wisdom as the profound meaning of the teaching spoken. This corresponds to provisional and real in principle and teaching.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra interprets the Buddha's drawing near to hundreds of thousands of buddhas as profundity of cultivation, and courageous advance and a universally heard name as profundity in increasing qualities. These correspond to provisional and real in teaching and practice. It interprets accomplishment of profound and unprecedented Dharmas as profundity in wondrous events, and difficult intent and related statements as unsurpassed profundity and profundity of entry. These correspond to provisional and real in substance and function.

The treatise interprets “Since I became a buddha” as proclaiming the Dharma that accomplishes the Tathāgata's qualities. This corresponds to provisional and real in cause and effect. It interprets innumerable skillful means as accomplishment of teaching and transformation and accomplishment of teaching the Dharma. These correspond to provisional and real in gradual and sudden. It interprets the Tathāgata's completeness in skillful means and knowledge and vision through his profound and boundless entry as the accomplishment of an inconceivable object in his own person, surpassing all other bodhisattvas. This concerns benefit received.

The treatise further interprets being able to distinguish in many ways, delighting the minds of beings, and related statements as accomplishment in language. This concerns the giving of benefit and corresponds to provisional and real in benefit. It interprets stating the essential, stopping without teaching, and related statements as accomplishment concerning living beings capable of transformation. This corresponds to the four siddhāntas' distinction between those who can and cannot be transformed.

The treatise interprets “Only a buddha together with a buddha can exhaustively know” as accomplishment in immeasurable qualities, which only buddhas can know. The substance of the Tathāgata's Dharma body is unchanging, and therefore he can awaken and accomplish self-realization and can also teach the marks of all dharmas in accord with living beings. This corresponds to provisional and real in principle and events. This treatise explains the Buddha's scripture, and the present commentary's establishment darkly agrees with the intent of the two sages represented by scripture and treatise. It may be said to correspond both to sūtra and upadeśa.

VII. The Fifth Round: Concluding as Three Kinds of Provisional and Real and Three Explanations of the Chapter

Fifth, provisional and real are concluded. The ten dharmas traverse the four teachings and therefore form forty kinds of provisional and real. Take the Tripiṭaka Teaching as an example. The ten dharmas realized in one's own person are called provisional and real in one's own practice. Teaching the ten dharmas one has realized to living beings so that they receive benefit is called provisional and real in transforming others. The ten used to transform others are collectively called provisional, while the ten of one's own practice are collectively called real; this is also called provisional and real concerning oneself and others. The ten dharmas of each of the other three teachings are likewise gathered into three kinds of provisional and real.

Within each teaching, they are further distinguished as follows. The four pairs of event and principle, teaching and practice, bondage and liberation, and cause and effect belong to provisional and real in one's own practice. The two pairs of principle and teaching and opening and gathering belong to provisional and real in transforming others. The four pairs of substance and function, gradual and sudden, shared and distinct, and siddhānta belong to provisional and real concerning oneself and others. Although the names are the same, their meanings differ within each teaching.

To summarize further, whether spoken generally or particularly, the first three teachings belong within their own divisions to provisional and real in transforming others because they are taught in accord with others' intentions. Whether spoken generally or particularly, the Perfect Teaching belongs within its own division to provisional and real in one's own practice because it is taught in accord with one's own intention. Transformation of others in the first three teachings is wholly called provisional; one's own practice in the Perfect Teaching is wholly called real.

The four propositions are then concluded. Teaching in accord with others' intentions means that all dharmas are provisional. Teaching in accord with one's own intention means that all dharmas are real. Taking both self and others means that all dharmas are both provisional and real. Negating both self and others means that all dharmas are neither provisional nor real.

The chapter title is next explained in three rounds.

The first round concerns method. What is taught in accord with one's own practice and intention is the Dharma realized by the Buddha at the place of awakening. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sutra calls this attained through cultivation of the path, while the Summary of the Great Vehicle calls it cognition in accord with principle and cognition in accord with measure. These are the provisional and real of the Perfect Teaching in one's own practice, taught in accord with the Buddha's own intention. Although the Buddha can use skillful means to teach this inexpressible Dharma, living beings cannot receive it. If he initially used this Dharma alone to gather beings in, he could not benefit them. It is therefore said to be inexpressible, inexpressible.

Set this aside for the moment. If provisional and real in the Buddha's own practice are combined with those of the Distinct Teaching to gather in living beings, sharp greater-vehicle capacities can attain directly and dull ones indirectly; neither sharp nor dull lesser-vehicle capacities can attain. This broadly expresses the meaning of the Avataṃsaka.

Set this aside for the moment. If only the provisional and real of the Tripiṭaka Teaching are used to gather in living beings, both sharp and dull greater-vehicle capacities attain covertly but cannot attain in a clear and manifest way. Sharp and dull lesser-vehicle capacities only defend what they have realized and cannot obtain the great Dharma. This broadly expresses the meaning of the Tripiṭaka Teaching.

Set this aside for the moment. If the four kinds of provisional and real are used together to gather in living beings, sharp and dull greater-vehicle capacities can attain by crooked or direct routes; sharp and dull lesser-vehicle capacities still defend what they have realized and cannot attain. This broadly expresses the meaning of the Vaipulya teaching.

Set this aside for the moment. If the provisional and real of the Tripiṭaka are set aside and the remaining three kinds are used together to gather in living beings, sharp and dull greater-vehicle capacities can all attain; sharp and dull lesser-vehicle capacities still defend what they have realized and cannot attain. This broadly expresses the meaning of the Prajñā.

Set this aside for the moment. If the first three forms of provisional and real are set aside and only those of the Perfect Teaching in one's own practice are used to gather beings in, greater and lesser capacities, whether sharp or dull, can all attain. This broadly expresses the meaning of the Lotus.

There is nowhere the Tathāgata's wisdom does not penetrate. It clearly illumines the occasion and knows which methods can and cannot be used. The chapter title is therefore explained by taking “method” as the many methods and “skillful” as their apt employment. He aptly employs many methods to gather living beings in and benefit them and therefore earnestly praises skillful means.

The second round concerns gateway. All the provisional and real Dharmas realized by the Tathāgata himself are inexpressible. Out of compassion for living beings, the Buddha first teaches the provisional he himself realized as a gateway into the real. Yet it does not accord with the time for living beings, and they cannot enter through it. The personally realized Dharma therefore remains inexpressible.

If the provisional and real of the Distinct Teaching are taught as a gateway, sharp faculties can enter while dull cannot. It still does not fully accord with living beings and therefore cannot be taught. If the provisional and real of the Tripiṭaka Teaching are taught as a gateway, sharp faculties can enter covertly while dull still cannot. It remains inappropriate for living beings and therefore cannot be taught.

If three kinds of provisional and real used in transforming others are taught as gateways, sharp faculties can enter while dull cannot. The time is still not appropriate, so they cannot be taught. If two kinds used in transforming others are taught as gateways, sharp faculties can enter while dull still cannot. They too remain inappropriate and cannot be taught.

Finally, the three kinds of provisional and real used in transforming others are relinquished and only the provisional of the Buddha's own practice is taught. Both sharp and dull faculties can enter. From beginning to end, skillful means serve as a gateway into the real, and the Tathāgata therefore praises them. The chapter title means that skillful means are a gateway into reality, precisely in this sense. The first round says that the Tathāgata can know and employ skillful means; this round says that practitioners can follow them. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The third round concerns secret wonder. Within what the Tathāgata himself realizes through cultivation of the path, every skillful means is itself real, but the real itself is inexpressible. Even if the Buddha can teach it, living beings cannot immediately accord with it.

The Buddha therefore uses the power of skillful means and, while teaching one identity, carries nonidentity with it: sharp faculties realize identity, while dull ones do not. He then teaches the one without teaching identity: sharp faculties can covertly become identical, while dull ones still cannot. He then teaches one identity while carrying three kinds of nonidentity: sharp faculties can realize identity, while dull ones cannot. He next teaches one identity while carrying two kinds of nonidentity: sharp faculties can realize identity, while dull ones cannot. Finally, he abolishes the three kinds of nonidentity and purely teaches that everything is identical. Sharp and dull faculties can then all realize identity and see the real within skillful means.

The first two rounds concern employing and following skillful means. This round says that skillful means are themselves the real. The real is the perfect cause, and the perfect cause is skillful means in one's own practice. Only now are these skillful means of one's own practice truly entered and realized. The preceding explanation of the chapter title said that skillful means are themselves the real. Because the name derives from skillful means in one's own practice, the chapter is called “Skillful Means.”

VIII. The Sixth Round: Distinguishing How Three Kinds of Provisional and Real Illuminate Three Kinds of Two Truths

Sixth, the truths illuminated are distinguished. The preceding discussion has concluded provisional and real generally, particularly, and within each teaching. The relation becomes easier to see when it is now explained in terms of what these wisdoms illuminate.

If the ten dharmas are used generally to explain the two wisdoms of one's own practice, they illuminate the two truths in accord with wisdom. If the ten are used generally to meet living beings' capacities, they illuminate the two truths in accord with beings' dispositions. If the four groups of provisional and real are gathered into two categories, they illuminate the two truths in accord with both dispositions and wisdom.

Within the individual divisions of each teaching, the four pairs of event and principle, teaching and practice, bondage and liberation, and cause and effect all concern personal realization and illuminate the two truths in accord with wisdom. The pairs of principle and teaching and opening and gathering belong to transforming others and illuminate the two truths in accord with beings' dispositions. The pairs of substance and function, gradual and sudden, shared and distinct, and siddhānta apply to both one's own practice and transforming others and illuminate the two truths in accord with both dispositions and wisdom. Illumination of the truths by the first three teachings is understood in the same way.

The thirty forms of twofold wisdom in the Tripiṭaka Teaching belong to the two wisdoms used to transform others and all illuminate the two truths in accord with beings' dispositions. The Shared and Distinct Teachings together have sixty kinds; these are the two wisdoms concerning oneself and others and illuminate the two truths in accord with both dispositions and wisdom. The Shared Teaching is also sometimes combined with the Tripiṭaka Teaching described above to illuminate the two truths in accord with dispositions. The thirty forms of provisional and real in the Perfect Teaching are the two wisdoms of one's own practice and illuminate the two truths in accord with wisdom.

To summarize again, whether explained generally or particularly, the first three teachings are conditions for attracting living beings and belong entirely to the two wisdoms used to transform others, illuminating the two truths in accord with dispositions. Whether explained generally or particularly, the Perfect Teaching belongs entirely to the two wisdoms of one's own practice, illuminating the two truths in accord with wisdom. If the real of the first three teachings is gathered as provisional and the provisional of the Perfect Teaching gathered as real, these are the two wisdoms concerning oneself and others illuminating the two truths in accord with both dispositions and wisdom.

IX. The Seventh Round: Judging Provisional and Real according to the Various Scriptures

Seventh, the various scriptures are considered.

In terms of teaching, the Avataṃsaka Sutra has only the full-word; in terms of time, only milk; in terms of Dharma, one kind belonging to one's own practice and one to transforming others; in terms of persons, it addresses only bodhisattvas. Those of the two vehicles are as though deaf and mute, and bodhisattvas with physical bodies are still unable to activate the provisional of one's own practice and the real in accord with wisdom. According to the present scripture, the Buddha had never before taught this matter to anyone.

In terms of teaching, the Tripiṭaka has only the half-word; in terms of Dharma, only one kind for transforming others; in terms of time, curds. According to the present scripture, people of the two vehicles stand outside the gate, dressed in filthy and tattered clothing and holding implements for removing excrement.

In terms of teaching, the Vaipulya speaks the full-word in contrast with the half-word; in terms of time, it includes curds while disclosing raw ghee; in terms of Dharma, it has three kinds for transforming others and one for one's own practice. According to the present scripture, the people of the two vehicles can already trust one another in their minds and enter and leave the Dharma wealth of the great vehicle without obstruction.

In terms of teaching, the Prajñā speaks the full-word while carrying the half-word; in terms of time, it includes raw ghee and becomes refined ghee; in terms of Dharma, it has two kinds for transforming others and one for one's own practice. According to the present scripture, those of the two vehicles are informed of everything taken in or paid out.

In terms of teaching, the Lotus abolishes the half-word and speaks only the full-word; in terms of time, it is pure clarified essence; in terms of Dharma, it has only one's own practice. According to the present scripture, it opens the provisional and reveals the real: “This truly is my son, born from me; I truly am the father.” He then entrusts the family estate to him and bestows a prediction of buddhahood. Everything left unspoken in the former teachings is now disclosed. Skillful means are directly relinquished and only the unsurpassed Buddha path taught. This is therefore the provisional of one's own practice, and the chapter is called “Skillful Means.” Other scriptures have either the two wisdoms concerning oneself and others or the two wisdoms used to transform others.

The matter may also be explained from another perspective on the capacities addressed. The Avataṃsaka addresses two kinds of bodhisattva and teaches one kind belonging to one's own practice and one used to transform others; it does not intend those of the two vehicles to hear or understand. The Tripiṭaka addresses the two vehicles and teaches one kind used to transform others. It does not principally address bodhisattvas and therefore does not have one's own practice. The Vaipulya addresses greater and lesser capacities together: for those of the two vehicles it teaches two kinds used to transform others, and for bodhisattvas one kind belonging to one's own practice and one used to transform others. The Prajñā likewise addresses three kinds of capacity and teaches one kind belonging to one's own practice and two used to transform others. It teaches one kind used to transform others for the two vehicles, and one kind belonging to one's own practice and one used to transform others for bodhisattvas.

The Lotus universally addresses those whose capacities have matured and clarifies only one kind belonging to one's own practice, no longer discussing transformation of others. The scripture says: “When bodhisattvas hear this Dharma, their net of doubt is entirely removed; the twelve hundred arhats will likewise all become buddhas.” All living beings enter skillful means in the Buddha's own practice, and the chapter is therefore called “Skillful Means.” 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

X. The Eighth Round: Judging Provisional and Real according to Origin and Trace

Eighth, Origin and Trace are considered.

In his original ground, the Tathāgata realized all provisional and real Dharmas long ago; this is called his own practice. In the intermediate period he extended manifestations and taught transformations that combined or carried different teachings. Extending a trace today, at the place of quiescent extinction he first teaches his own practice while carrying the Distinct Teaching used to transform others. He next teaches one kind for transforming others, then three kinds, then two, and finally the abolition of the three and related teachings. All these are called provisional and real in transforming others.

If the provisional in the Origin is gathered together and called real, while the real in the Trace is gathered together and called provisional, provisional and real concerning oneself and others are formed. The four propositions can then be concluded: all is real; all is provisional; all is both provisional and real; all is neither provisional nor real. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Śāriputra realized every provisional and real Dharma in his original ground; this is his own practice. When extending a trace at Deer Park, he received only what was used to transform others. At the Vaipulya assembly he received one Dharma and was humbled by three. At the Prajñā assembly he carried two kinds used to transform others and turned into one belonging to his own practice. At the Lotus assembly he abolishes the three and awakens to the one. All these are provisional and real in transforming others.

If the provisional in Śāriputra's original ground is gathered and called real, while the real in his trace is gathered and called provisional, provisional and real concerning oneself and others are formed, complete with the four propositions. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Explained through the Buddha's extension of traces, the title is “Skillful Means” because these are provisional and real in transforming others. Explained through guiding living beings into the perfect cause of their own practice, it is likewise “Skillful Means.” Explained through the provisional in Śāriputra's trace, it is “Skillful Means.” Explained through Śāriputra's entry from the provisional in his trace into reality, it is also “Skillful Means.” Because it possesses all these meanings, the chapter is called “Skillful Means.”

I. The Main Teaching of the Trace Gate Is First Brief, Then Extensive

From the Skillful Means chapter through the nineteen lines of verse in the Distinctions in Merit chapter—or, alternatively, extending the boundary through the prose after those verses concerning the four kinds of present faith—the passage may be called the division of main teaching. If the main teaching is divided into two sections, the passage from here through the Predictions for Those Still Learning and Those beyond Learning chapter is the main teaching of the Trace Gate. The nearer boundary is followed here, and the main teaching of the Trace Gate is again divided into two: first, the act of opening the three to reveal the one in brief, beginning here; second, the extensive opening of the three to reveal the one, beginning with the Buddha's words to Śāriputra that he has requested the Dharma earnestly.

The brief opening itself has two parts. First, from the scriptural words “At that time the World-Honored One” onward, is the brief opening of the three to reveal the one. Second, from “At that time the great assembly” onward, former attachments are stirred and doubts arise. The brief opening of the three to reveal the one has prose and verse. Its prose in turn has two parts: first, praise of the two wisdoms, provisional and real, by entrusting the matter to words; second, praise of those wisdoms by stopping speech. If words were not used at all, living beings would have no way to know; yet even when words are used in praise, the matter cannot be exhausted. The two wisdoms of the buddhas are as explained above. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The praise entrusted to words has two sections. The first explains the provisional and real wisdoms of the buddhas, and the second those of Śākyamuni. Because the path practiced by the buddhas is the same, they are praised together. Earlier, the Buddha's light illuminated other lands, Maitreya asked horizontally, Mañjuśrī cited a former buddha, and the assembly heard vertically; all this revealed that the path of the buddhas is the same. The scripture therefore begins by saying that the Buddha calmly emerged from samādhi, making manifest that the path practiced by the buddhas is the same.

The words praising the buddhas divide into three parts: first the dual praise, second the dual explanation, and third the dual conclusion. Within the dual praise, the compiler first introduces the scene and the formal praise follows.

II. Why Does the Buddha Calmly Emerge from Samādhi?

“At that time” means at precisely that moment. The Buddha constantly abides in samādhi; why is it said particularly that he emerged from samādhi? Something is being shown here.

When buddhas of the past taught this scripture, they necessarily first entered the samādhi taught in the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings and then immediately proceeded into the Lotus. The present Buddha does likewise. The rules by which buddhas past and present teach scripture are the same. In terms of the worldly siddhānta, this explains that the Buddha emerged from samādhi out of compassionate concern for living beings.

The Buddha has truly examined the Dharma-gateways he has traversed and the conditions under which living beings receive the Dharma. What he is about to teach will certainly not be mistaken and will increase the faith of living beings. In terms of the siddhānta for each person, this explains that the Buddha emerged from samādhi out of compassionate concern for living beings.

Though quiescent, the Buddha constantly illumines; even he first enters samādhi before teaching. How much less should people with distracted thoughts presume to teach falsely? In terms of the counteractive siddhānta, this explains that the Buddha emerged from samādhi out of compassionate concern for living beings.

While in samādhi, the Buddha takes truth as his object and settles his own mind in the true mark. After emerging, he also settles the minds of living beings in the true mark. In terms of the siddhānta of ultimate meaning, this explains that the Buddha emerged from samādhi out of compassionate concern for living beings. Because these four Dharmas are settled, the scripture says that the Buddha emerged calmly.

The Buddha addresses Śāriputra because Śāriputra is foremost in wisdom among lesser-vehicle śrāvakas. The Buddha will use him to break lesser wisdom and reveal the greater; the ten forms of abandoning, gathering, opening, and covering are explained in detail in the Profound Meaning. This still belongs to the words introducing the scene.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra says that the Buddha entered profound samādhi, remained unmoving in right mindfulness, and contemplated with wisdom as it really is. He arose from samādhi to reveal that the Tathāgata had attained sovereign power and also because no one could disturb or touch the Tathāgata while he was in samādhi. The treatise's meaning corresponds to the explanation here. The siddhānta of 〔ultimate meaning〕 transcends the world and therefore no one can disturb him; the four siddhāntas function without obstruction and therefore the Buddha possesses sovereignty. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Next, the text explains sitting cross-legged. Buddhas and disciples of the past, as numerous as dust motes and Ganges sands, all practiced this way of sitting. Even if someone sitting cross-legged gives rise to an unwholesome thought, the posture can still make others respectful; how much more must someone who truly enters a profound sphere delight devas and humans? It is also not a form of ordinary worldly enjoyment, is not shared with non-Buddhist practitioners, can destroy demon armies and afflictions, and can give rise to the paths of three kinds of awakening. As I understand it, this too contains the purport of the four siddhāntas.

Someone asks: Other scriptures speak of binding mindfulness in front. What does this mean?

Answer: Conceptions of form, birth-and-death, and the sphere of afflictions are placed behind the body, while the object of quiescent extinction and nirvāṇa is rightly contemplated in front. It should therefore be explained in four ways. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Another asks: Why is the object said to be bound at the face?

The answer has four levels. Ordinary beings give rise to desire from a person's face. First they experience bodily pleasure there and afterward throughout the body. The body discharges impurity from nine places, seven of which are openings in the face. Contemplation of impurity is therefore used to counteract desire, and the object is bound at the face. 〔First.〕

The activity of the six consciousnesses gathers at the face, and the mind frequently climbs upward. This signifies that all worthies and sages esteem emptiness and correspond with emptiness; the object is therefore bound at the face. 〔Second.〕

By contemplating the face one can distinguish the six consciousnesses. The object is therefore bound at the face in order to distinguish the six consciousnesses. 〔Third.〕

The body can be divided into six parts, of which the head and face are supreme. This signifies that among all dharmas the true mark is foremost. Because it is the foremost Dharma, the object is bound at the face. 〔Fourth.〕

III. The Two Wisdoms of the Buddhas: First Praising Real Wisdom, Then the Provisional Gateway

In the dual praise of the two wisdoms, real wisdom is praised first and provisional wisdom afterward. Real wisdom is the wisdom of the buddhas. The passage does not concern the three kinds of provisional and real used in transforming others, which is why it particularly speaks of the buddhas. It reveals the real of the buddhas' own practice and therefore calls it wisdom. The substance of this wisdom is the three wisdoms in a single mind.

“Profound and immeasurable” is praise. The Buddha's real wisdom penetrates vertically to the bottom of wisdom in accord with principle and therefore is called profound; horizontally it exhausts the boundary of the Dharma realm and therefore is called immeasurable. Immeasurable and profound mean depth, height, horizontal reach, and breadth. Just as deep roots make branches luxuriant and a distant source makes a stream long, so it is with real wisdom. Provisional wisdom can be understood by analogy. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

“Gateway of wisdom” praises provisional wisdom. It is the skillful means preceding the path in one's own practice and possesses the power of advance, so it is named a gateway. Entering through the gateway, one reaches the path; what is within the path is called real and what precedes it provisional.

“Difficult to understand and difficult to enter” also praises provisional wisdom. Without prior calculation it can know, and its application has no fixed location. The seven kinds of skillful means cannot measure it. At the ten abodes one begins to understand, and at the ten grounds one can be said to enter. Only the initial and final ends are raised, because the stages between cannot each be disclosed. Their difficulty of awakening can be known in the same way. The scripture particularly says that śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas cannot know because the attachment of the two vehicles is heavier and must receive an additional refutation.

The Dharma body's original intent was to face living beings with the provisional and real of one's own practice, but their capacities had not yet awakened and they fled. It is therefore said that they did not know. When the Avataṃsaka suddenly shone upon them, they were like the deaf, mute, blind, and hard of hearing, and so it is said that they did not know. When they were rebuked in the Vaipulya teaching, they still guarded their thatched hut, and so it is said that they did not know. When the Prajñā teaching caused them to turn and teach others, they did not entertain even a single thought of obtaining one meal, and so it is said that they did not know. Now their great-vehicle capacities awaken: the Buddha emits light and moves the earth, and the paths of buddhas here and elsewhere, present and past, are the same. Yet living beings still doubt, so it is said that they do not know. Sharp-facultied bodhisattvas can understand at each stage, while dull-facultied bodhisattvas resemble the two vehicles and likewise cannot know.

Guangzhai takes the skillful means of the two vehicles as the gateway of wisdom in this scripture. This position must be considered from the two aspects of granting and withdrawing. If it truly is the gateway, they should already have obtained the gateway; why then does the Tathāgata refute them as not knowing? Since they do not know, it cannot be said that they have already obtained the gateway. If it is provisionally granted, theirs is merely the shallowest gateway capable of giving access, while they never recognize the place they are to enter. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The present explanation is more expansive. First, skillful wisdom itself can serve as a gateway and enable entry into buddha-wisdom. As the Sutra of the Bodhisattva's Jeweled Necklace of the Original Karma says, the two contemplations are a path of skillful means by which one enters the ultimate meaning of the middle path. Each of the three teachings also possesses four gateways, which serve as skillful means for entering the middle path. Of the two contemplations, Guangzhai's explanation takes only one; of the twelve gateways, it takes only one. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Second, skillful wisdom itself can serve as a gateway enabling entry into skillful wisdom, meaning that each of the three teachings uses its four gateways to enter realization in accordance with that teaching. Third, buddha-wisdom itself can serve as a gateway enabling entry into the Buddha's wisdom. As explained above, the perfect cause is called the Skillful Means chapter; the contemplative wisdom of one's own practice is precisely the gateway. This is the gateway of wisdom praised by the present scripture, and the four gateways of the Perfect Teaching are one such gateway. Fourth, real wisdom itself can serve as a gateway enabling entry into skillful wisdom so that both truths are illuminated. Such an explanation is rich and expansive; how could it be narrow like Guangzhai's confinement to one kind? If the treatises are followed in taking the verbal teachings of the Āgamas as a gateway, the doctrines of the various teachings must be unfolded. This principle can be known by analogy. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

IV. Dual Explanation and Dual Conclusion of the Two Wisdoms of the Buddhas

Guangzhai judges that the passage beginning “Why is this?” opens the section praising Śākyamuni. When the scriptural meaning is examined here, however, it is actually the dual explanation of the two wisdoms of the buddhas.

From the Buddha's former drawing near to innumerable buddhas through his full practice of the path-Dharmas of the buddhas explains the real wisdom of the buddhas. Because the buddhas encountered outwardly were many and the Dharmas received from them were all essential, real wisdom is profound. Because inward cultivation was pure and deep and fully practiced the immeasurable path-Dharmas of the buddhas, real wisdom is immeasurable. Immeasurable explains horizontal breadth, while profound explains vertical height.

Courageous vigor and a name universally heard explain the provisional wisdom of the buddhas. The gateway of wisdom is difficult to understand and enter because only courageous vigor can enter that difficult gateway. Having entered, the reaches of benefit have no boundary and living beings look up to excellent merit, so the name is heard universally. The two phrases can also be divided: courageous vigor enters the Dharma-gateway and explains the depth of provisional wisdom; the universally heard name explains its breadth. The scriptural passage on provisional wisdom does not directly use the words depth and breadth, but this meaning can be established by analogy with real wisdom. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

From “accomplishing the profound” onward is the dual conclusion of the two wisdoms of the buddhas. Corresponding with truth and reaching its finality is called accomplishment; reaching the bottom of the other shore is called profound. This concludes real wisdom. A Dharma taught in accord with the faculties of living beings and meeting them at the appropriate time is called “according to what is appropriate.” Because the seven kinds of skillful means cannot know it, it is called difficult to understand. This concludes provisional wisdom.

If a teaching merely follows the dispositions to which living beings cling, truth is obscured and the teaching is therefore difficult to understand. If it is definitive, its purport becomes manifest and is therefore easy to know. The Summary of the Great Vehicle says that the meaning of a definitive scripture is judged according to its wording, whereas the wording of a nondefinitive scripture is judged according to its meaning. This is precisely the point.

Another explanation takes “accomplishing profound and unprecedented Dharmas” as the conclusion of the provisional and real of one's own practice and “what is taught according to what is appropriate, whose purport is difficult to understand” as the conclusion of the provisional and real used in transforming others. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

V. Śākyamuni's Two Wisdoms: First Recording the Ancient Interpretation, Then Following the Scriptural Sequence

From “Since I became a buddha” onward is the praise of Śākyamuni's provisional and real wisdoms. The ancient interpretation held that Śākyamuni's provisional and real are praised separately. From “since becoming a buddha” onward praises the provisional, and “why is this?” explains the provisional. From “the Tathāgata's knowledge and vision, vast and great” onward praises the real, and “immeasurable and unobstructed” onward explains the real. “The Tathāgata can distinguish in many ways” onward generally concludes the praise of real wisdom.

The ancient interpretation gives three reasons for this earlier and later order. First, the two wisdoms of the buddhas are praised together to reveal that their substances are the same, while Śākyamuni's two wisdoms are praised separately to reveal that their functions differ. Second, to reveal the origin that descends and manifests traces, the buddhas' real is praised first; to reveal the function of the origin, Śākyamuni's provisional is praised first. Third, the buddhas are explained through their own practice, in which the real must be attained first; Śākyamuni is explained through transforming others, in which provisional wisdom first guides beginners. The wording mutually reveals, hides, and manifests its aspects in order to show that the substance is originally complete and cannot be taken from one side alone; preserving one side alone loses the tenet.

The present explanation does not hold this view. The meaning is easily understood by following the scriptural sequence alone; there is no need for circuitous distinctions. Since the ancient interpretation also says that the path of the buddhas is the same, why does it suddenly explain them differently here? It resembles someone skillful in praising filial conduct who nevertheless strikes their own parents. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Under the present division, the Śākyamuni section likewise has three parts: first a dual praise, second a dual explanation, and third a dual conclusion.

“Since I became a buddha” praises real wisdom. If real wisdom were incomplete, the Buddha path could not have been accomplished. Since the text says that he has become a buddha, once that is accomplished everything is accomplished along with it. This is therefore praise of real wisdom.

From “manifold causes and conditions” onward is praise of provisional wisdom. For more than forty years, the Buddha responded to living beings through the three kinds of provisional and real used in transforming others, which is why it says manifold causes and conditions. Among similes, the lesser vehicle uses the plantain and foam, while the great vehicle uses the gandharva city, reflections in a mirror, and the like. According to the treatises, the lesser vehicle is compared to milk and the great vehicle to clarified essence.

“Extensively expounding” means drawing immeasurable meanings from one Dharma. “Innumerable skillful means” are the seven kinds of skillful means. “Guiding living beings and enabling them to separate from every attachment” has five levels. Teaching the scattered ten wholesome deeds enables beings to leave attachment to the three evil destinations. Teaching the pure ten wholesome deeds enables them to leave attachment to the desire realm. Teaching the Tripiṭaka enables them to leave attachment to the delusions of views and thought. Teaching the bodhisattva Dharma enables them to leave attachment to nirvāṇa. Teaching the Buddha Dharma enables them to leave attachment to love of the Dharma that conforms with the path.

From “Why is this?” onward is the dual explanation of the two wisdoms. The half-phrase “Tathāgata” explains real wisdom: coming from true suchness and the true mark, he accomplishes the Buddha path and is therefore named Tathāgata. This explains that real wisdom has been accomplished. “Skillful means” explains provisional wisdom: because he possesses skillful means, he can teach and transform through manifold causes and conditions.

“Perfection of knowledge and vision” raises provisional and real knowledge and vision together. All-mode wisdom is real knowledge, and the buddha eye is real vision. Wisdom of the varieties of the path is provisional knowledge, and the Dharma eye is provisional vision. All have reached the other shore of events and principle and are therefore called perfections.

“All are already complete” says that both the provisional and real have reached their finality. If this were not a dual explanation, why would the text suddenly say “all are already”? The word “all” makes the meaning of the dual explanation manifest.

From “the Tathāgata's knowledge and vision, vast, great, deep, and far-reaching” onward is the dual conclusion of Śākyamuni's two wisdoms. The Tathāgata's knowledge and vision are as explained above. Vast and great indicate the horizontal, deep and far-reaching the vertical. Real wisdom is originally neither horizontal nor vertical. Here, however, the praise is entrusted to words and its illumination without bounds is therefore explained through the horizontal and vertical, just as a large box has a large lid covering it.

From “immeasurable and unobstructed” onward is the conclusion of provisional wisdom. The provisional in one's own practice is the skillful means preceding the path. It is explained in terms of immeasurable Dharma-gateways, clearly showing that this is the conclusion of provisional wisdom, since real wisdom originally has no manifold differentiations. Guangzhai instead takes this passage as explaining real wisdom. Not only does Guangzhai fail to recognize real wisdom; the masters of the Liang also failed to understand that real wisdom has no manifold differentiations. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

“Immeasurable” refers to the four immeasurables at the buddha ground; “unobstructed” to the four kinds of unobstructed eloquence at the buddha ground. From a single term and a single meaning, the Buddha can turn and expound immeasurable joyful eloquence without exhaustion. Compared with him, bodhisattvas of the Distinct and Shared Teachings are like the soil beneath a fingernail beside the great earth. “Power” means the ten powers; “fearlessness” the four fearlessnesses; “meditation” exhausts the true mark of meditation; “concentration” is the Śūraṃgama concentration; and “samādhi” is the king samādhi. “Entering deeply without boundary” concludes vertical depth; “accomplishing every unprecedented Dharma” concludes horizontal breadth.

VI. Turning from Entrusting to Words toward Severing Words

The ancient interpretation takes the passage beginning “The Tathāgata can distinguish in many ways” as the conclusion of the preceding provisional and real. The present interpretation instead uses it to derive what follows. Because the Buddha is about to stop speaking, he first raises the provisional and real once more as the reason for praising through severing words. The passage has two parts: first raising the reason for praise through severing words, and second indicating the sphere toward which it is directed.

The repeated phrasing expresses earnestness. “The Tathāgata can skillfully distinguish and aptly teach all dharmas” raises provisional wisdom. “His words are gentle and delight the minds of the assembly” raises real wisdom. How can this be known? Earlier, when the buddhas of other lands were seen teaching the sudden Dharma, the scripture said that their voices were pure and emitted gentle sounds. When Śāriputra later understood, he said that he heard the Buddha's gentle voice, profound and exceedingly subtle. On the basis of these two passages before and after, one knows that “gentle voice” raises real wisdom here.

In the preceding praise, why was the real placed first and the provisional afterward, whereas here the provisional is placed first and the real afterward? Earlier the matter was entrusted to words, so provisional wisdom unfolded from real wisdom. Now speech is about to stop, so provisional wisdom must be rolled up and returned to real wisdom.

From “To state the essential” onward, the sphere toward which the severing of words is directed is indicated. One division takes “essential” as referring to real wisdom, because nothing is more essential than the real, and takes “immeasurable, boundless, unprecedented Dharmas” as referring to provisional wisdom. A second division takes “raising the essential” as the point at which indication begins: immeasurable and boundless indicate the provisional, while unprecedented Dharma indicates the real. The Buddha has accomplished both Dharmas through cultivation of the path; how could they be expressed exhaustively? If only one were indicated, the text should not say “all.” Because it points to both the provisional and real, the scriptural meaning is perfectly clear.

VII. Why Is the Single Word “Stop” Still Praise?

From the word “stop” onward is the second part, praise through severing words. Master Yin says that the Buddha stopped speaking in order to produce doubt and a desire to request the Dharma in the assembly. Master Guan says that the real Dharma is difficult to know, so he first suppressed speech in order to startle ordinary expectations.

The present explanation is that this Dharma is profound and quiescent, the path of words is severed, and its substance cannot be expressed. The Buddha therefore stops and praises it. Even if he were to teach it from compassion, hearers might fail to understand and instead damage their wholesome roots. He therefore stops.

From “Why is this?” onward is the explanation of praise through stopping, divided into two levels. First, speaking in terms of the Buddha, he is the supreme person and has accomplished and cultivated the supreme Dharma; it therefore cannot be expressed. Second, his realized profound sphere is inconceivable; it therefore cannot be expressed.

From “the Buddha has accomplished” onward explains that the provisional and real of the supreme person are complete horizontally and cannot be expressed. From “only a buddha together with a buddha” onward explains that the provisional and real of the supreme person are vertically profound and cannot be expressed. Accomplished is contrasted with unaccomplished, and difficult to understand with not difficult to understand; all this expresses accomplishment horizontally. It was attained through cultivating the path and therefore cannot be expressed.

Only a buddha together with a buddha can exhaustively comprehend because those at the initial and intermediate stages, although they attain a portion, have not exhausted its source. They resemble the moon on the fourteenth day, when the function of its light is not yet universal. Only a buddha together with a buddha exhausts its boundary and bottom, like the full moon on the fifteenth day, whose body is entirely full and whose light shines everywhere. This vertical depth too was attained by cultivating the path and therefore cannot be expressed.

From “the true mark of all dharmas” onward is the second reason: the profound sphere is inconceivable and therefore cannot be expressed.

VIII. How Do the Various Masters Distribute the Ten Suchnesses?

Guangzhai says that the first phrase marks the two divisions of provisional and real wisdom. “All dharmas” marks the object of provisional wisdom. The three groups each contain three elements and are not a single Dharma, so they are called all dharmas. Among the three Dharmas, teaching is the clearest. Teaching must correspond with faculties and therefore also implies persons who receive the teaching; this is how one knows that the three threes belong to the provisional.

The “true mark” is the object of real wisdom. Truth is one and not false and is therefore called the true mark. Among the four ones, one principle is raised throughout. Because principle is fundamental, it belongs to the real. The nine phrases between them continue to explain the preceding divisions of provisional and real.

The first five phrases explain the division of the provisional. Mark is what can be grasped and distinguished in the verbal teachings of the three vehicles. Nature is the determined division of the natures of those teachings and cannot be changed. Substance means that the teachings of the three vehicles each possess the eight sounds, clauses, and phrases, while the bodhisattva teaching takes the six perfections as its substance. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕 Power means that the teaching-Dharmas of the three vehicles possess the power to train and guide. Activity means that the teaching-Dharmas of the three vehicles are applied to recipients and perform an activity.

The object of real wisdom is explained extensively without repeating its heading. The real sphere contains four ones, and the one principle is extensively explained in four phrases. Cause means that the sphere can produce real understanding, with the myriad wholesome qualities looking toward the effect to be accomplished. Condition means that the sphere can activate real wisdom. What cause looks toward is named effect; what arises as effect and answers cause is named recompense. The last two phrases give a dual conclusion. The phrase beginning and end concludes the provisional: mark raises the beginning and activity the end. The phrase ultimate equality concludes the real: “ultimate” concludes cause and “equality” concludes recompense.

Masters of the northern region say that the Dharmas of the three vehicles all possess mark, nature, effect, recompense, beginning, and end.

Master Yao says that mark and nature explain wisdom's illumination and application to the three vehicles, through which the sprouts of the three vehicles differ. Their necessary establishment as three is nature; arousing the mind is substance; what the mind can receive is power; what this capacity can accomplish is activity; and the practice performed that brings an effect is cause. Once cause has been distinguished, assistance from outside is condition; the joint accomplishment of cause and condition is effect; and answering the cause is recompense. Mark is the beginning, recompense the end, and their final return to one tenet is ultimate equality. “Such” indicates that these matters are not mistaken.

Master Chang explains only in terms of the Buddha. Mark means that each of the ten powers has its own appearance. Nature means that the faculties of living beings have their respective habitual tendencies, and because what is habituated does not change, it belongs to the sphere of the power concerning faculties. Substance means that because faculties differ, desires also differ and the function of mind has its attachments; it is therefore named substance and belongs to the sphere of the power concerning desires. Power is another name for meditation: supernormal change cannot be activated without concentration, and the mind cannot be calmed and disorder stilled without concentration; power therefore belongs to the sphere of the power of meditation. Activity is karma and belongs to the sphere of the power concerning karma. Cause is the path functioning as cause and reaching nirvāṇa and belongs to the sphere of the power concerning the path that leads everywhere. Condition belongs to the sphere of the power concerning former lives. Effect, in terms of a present cause, is the future effect it brings and belongs to the sphere of the power of the divine eye. Recompense, looking back from a present recompense to a former cause, belongs to the sphere of the power concerning exhaustion of the contaminants. The beginning is mark and the end recompense; taken as a whole, all belong to the sphere of the power of knowing what is and is not possible.

IX. Why Does Zhiyi Not Use the Preceding Interpretations?

The preceding interpretations are not each wholly without an intelligible doctrinal route, but they fail in principle and do not accord with the scripture's wording.

They fail to accord with the wording because the scripture says “all dharmas.” What Dharma is not included? How can the phrase be confined to the three vehicles? They fail in principle because the scripture says “true mark.” Where is the true mark absent? How can it be placed only in cause, effect, and substance?

If the real existed only in the Buddha, the Buddha would possess no provisional at all. If the provisional existed only in the three vehicles, the three vehicles would forever possess no real. If the three vehicles were allocated only the first five suchnesses, the provisional Dharma itself would be incomplete and would contain no real. If the last four phrases belonged only to the Buddha, the Buddha would possess no provisional and the real too would be incomplete. Ordinary beings would not be addressed at all, making the words “all dharmas” useless. If the true mark did not pervade, some Dharma would exist outside the true mark. Because they entail these faults, none of the interpretations is adopted.

Fascicle Thirty-One of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that every Dharma has nine aspects. First, each has a substance. Second, each has its own Dharma: although eye and ear are both made from the four elements, the eye has the function of seeing while the ear does not; fire takes heat as its own Dharma and cannot moisten. Third, each has power, as fire has the power to burn and water the power to moisten. Fourth, each has a cause. Fifth, each has a condition. Sixth, each has an effect. Seventh, each has a nature. Eighth, each has a limitation. Ninth, each has a skillful means of opening access.

Dharmottara correlates these nine aspects with the ten suchnesses of the Lotus Sutra. Having its own Dharma is activity as such; having a limitation is mark as such; having an effect comprises effect as such and recompense as such; having a skillful means of opening access is the ultimate equality of beginning and end. The remaining names agree and can be known accordingly.

The present explanation first uses one brief phrase to mark the two divisions of provisional and real, then extensively explains their marks in ten phrases. Zhiyi gives four rounds of explanation: first in terms of the ten Dharma realms, second in terms of the buddha Dharma realm, third in terms of opening and gathering, and fourth in terms of stages. Because the scripture says “all dharmas,” he explains in terms of the ten Dharma realms. Because it says “the foremost rare Dharma accomplished by the Buddha,” he explains in terms of the buddha Dharma realm. Because it says “Stop, stop—there is no need to speak; my Dharma is wondrous and difficult to conceive,” he explains in terms of opening and gathering. Because it says “only a buddha together with a buddha can exhaustively comprehend,” he explains in terms of stages.

X. First Round: Each Realm Completely Possesses the Other Nine

The ten Dharma realms are the six destinations and four sages, together making ten Dharmas. Although Dharmas are immeasurable, their number does not go beyond these ten realms; although each realm has many branches, none goes beyond the ten suchnesses.

The hell realm, for example, possesses in its own position its own mark, nature, beginning, and end, and also possesses the mark, nature, beginning, and end of the animal realm, through those of the buddha Dharma realm, without diminution. The Vibhāṣā therefore says that a living being in the hell destination can accomplish the Dharmas of the Heaven of Mastery over Others' Creations. This is an instance of the same kind; the other nine Dharma realms are likewise.

One should know that each realm possesses the other nine and that each has the ten suchnesses. Viewed in their respective present positions, the ten suchnesses of the nine realms are all called provisional. Viewed in the present position of the buddha realm, its ten suchnesses are called real. The one contains the immeasurable and the immeasurable in turn contains the one; this is why they are called inconceivable.

If the six destinations and three sages were viewed alone, five suchnesses could be called provisional; viewed in terms of the buddha realm, four could be called real. Once everything is clearly distinguished item by item in this way, it becomes expressible and revealable. Why then would it be necessary for the Buddha to say “Stop, stop,” refuse to speak, and praise through severing words?

What truly cannot be revealed is the immeasurable contained within the one. Ordinary beings possess it fully, yet remain cut off from truth and confused through their dispositions. The two vehicles possess it fully, yet abandon the other Dharmas and seek only liberation. Bodhisattvas possess it fully, yet their illumination remains incomplete and is called an inability to understand clearly. The Tathāgata comprehends it horizontally and vertically in complete fullness; he alone understands it, while others cannot see it. It therefore cannot be revealed, and the Buddha stops speaking. This is the purport. The Profound Meaning explains the matter in detail; it is not fully recorded here. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

XI. Second Round: The Ten Suchnesses of the Buddha Dharma Realm and the Great Cart

In the explanation in terms of the buddha Dharma realm, each of the ten suchnesses is established through a double negation.

The buddha realm is not mark and is not without mark, yet is provisionally named mark as such; this refers to the conditioning cause of the myriad wholesome qualities. Later, the scripture therefore says that the great cart is adorned with many jewels. The buddha realm is not nature and is not without nature, yet is provisionally named nature as such; this refers to wisdom as the revealing cause. Later, the scripture therefore says that there is a great white ox. The buddha realm is not substance and is not without substance, yet is provisionally named substance as such; this refers to the true mark as direct cause. Later, the scripture therefore says that the body of the cart is high and broad.

The buddha realm is not power and is not without power, yet is provisionally named power as such; this refers to the power of the mind of awakening, roots of compassion and wholesome qualities, and so forth. Later, the scripture therefore says that a canopy is spread over the cart. The buddha realm is not activity and is not without activity, yet is provisionally named activity as such; this refers to the path operating spontaneously without exertion. Later, the scripture therefore says that the cart moves swiftly like the wind.

The buddha realm is not cause and is not without cause, yet is provisionally named cause as such; this refers to the forty-one stages. Later, the scripture therefore says that they ride jeweled vehicles and travel in the four directions. The buddha realm is not condition and is not without condition, yet is provisionally named condition as such; this refers to every aid to the path of awakening. Later, the scripture therefore says that many servants guard and attend them.

The buddha realm is not effect and is not without effect, yet is provisionally named effect as such; this refers to the brilliance of wondrous awakening accomplished through the perfect cause. Later, the scripture therefore says that they proceed directly to the place of awakening. The buddha realm is not recompense and is not without recompense, yet is provisionally named recompense as such; this refers to great parinirvāṇa. Later, the scripture therefore says that they obtain immeasurable, uncontaminated, pure effects and recompenses.

The buddha effect is not beginning and is not end, yet beginning and end are provisionally spoken of. The beginning is the mark of buddhahood and the end the recompense of buddhahood; this is the provisional of one's own practice. The buddha realm is not equality and is not inequality, yet ultimate equality is provisionally spoken of, pointing to the true mark. The heading therefore speaks of the true mark; this is the real of one's own practice.

Because the real is provisional, beginning and end are spoken of; because the provisional is real, equality is spoken of. This is the Tathāgata's provisional and real in his own practice, the most unsurpassed. From unsurpassed mark through unsurpassed recompense, in horizontal breadth and vertical depth, there is nothing above it. The heading therefore says “the true mark of all dharmas.” By analogy it should also say the real nature, real substance, real power, through real ultimate equality of all dharmas. Because the wording is concise, raising one covers the rest.

The Tathāgata illuminates everywhere horizontally and vertically and understands completely, like viewing a fruit in his palm. Ordinary beings, however, resemble people blind in both eyes; the two vehicles resemble someone with an obstruction in one eye; and bodhisattvas resemble those looking at things at night, dim and indistinct. It therefore cannot be revealed, and the Buddha says “Stop, stop” and does not speak. This is the purport.

XII. Third Round on Opening and Gathering, and Fourth Round on Stages

In the explanation through opening and gathering, the ten realms and ten suchnesses contemplated by the Buddha's mind are all unsurpassed marks through unsurpassed effects and recompenses. Gathered together, they form only the one buddha Dharma realm, like the ocean receiving ten thousand streams or a thousand carts following one track. This is the provisional and real of one's own practice.

In accord with others' intentions, however, the nine Dharma realms are opened, together with the marks, natures, and so forth of each realm. This is the provisional and real used in transforming others. Although transforming others contains the real, it is gathered under the provisional; although one's own practice contains the provisional, it is gathered under the real. In accord with others there is opening, and in accord with self there is gathering; illumination extends everywhere horizontally and vertically, and opening and gathering are free.

Although the immeasurable is opened, the immeasurable remains one. Although it is gathered as one, the one remains immeasurable. Although immeasurable and one are spoken of, it is neither one nor immeasurable. Although it is neither one nor immeasurable, it is still one and still immeasurable. Only a buddha together with a buddha can exhaustively comprehend. Ordinary beings slander it and do not believe; the two vehicles are confused and refuse it; and bodhisattvas too see unclearly, as though a post or dust stood before them. Because of this meaning, the Buddha stops speaking. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

In the explanation by stages, all living beings innately possess the true mark. This is the appearance of the tathāgata-garbha and is called mark as such. The wisdom of innate virtue, the emptiness of ultimate meaning, is called nature as such. The principle of the Dharma-nature of the middle path is called substance as such. These three together form the three virtues, extend through the ten Dharma realms, and are possessed at every stage.

When the three virtues are studied and cultivated and one enters the ten faiths, they are named power as such and activity as such. Entering the forty-one grounds, they are named cause as such and condition as such. Reaching the buddha ground, they are named effect as such and recompense as such. The first three are named the beginning and the following three groups the end. Since the beginning and end alike are the three virtues, they are called ultimately equal.

At the initial stage, the three virtues extend through evil and good, worthies and sages, the lesser and great, the beginning and culmination. Although present in evil, they do not sink; although present in good, they do not rise. Although present in worthies, they do not become lower; although present in sages, they do not become higher. Although present in the lesser, they do not become narrow; although present in the great, they do not become broad. Although present at the beginning, they are not newly existent; although present at the culmination, they are not old. They are therefore inconceivable and inexpressible, and the Buddha says “Stop, stop” and does not speak.

XIII. Ultimate Equality and the Inconceivable

The ultimate equality of the three virtues can be explained further. Although the natures and marks of the ten realms have manifold differences in provisional and real and in opening and gathering, when they are contemplated as they really are through great impartial wisdom, all are ultimately equal.

When one is confused about this sphere, the natures and marks of the six realms appear and are called the worldly truth. When one understands this sphere, the natures and marks of the two vehicles appear and are called the true truth. When one comprehends that it is neither confusion nor understanding, the natures and marks of bodhisattvas and the buddha realm appear and are called the middle path and truth of ultimate meaning.

When the conventional truth is contemplated impartially with this wisdom, it is no longer confusion. When the true truth is contemplated impartially, it is no longer understanding. It is neither understanding nor confusion; by doubly negating confusion and understanding, it is called simply impartiality. When the provisional and real are both illumined, the provisional is precisely the real and the real precisely the provisional. Though two, they are nondual and are also called ultimately equal.

Further, the nondual sphere of provisional and real is not a sphere that the seven kinds of skillful means can impartially contemplate with nondual wisdom. Only the buddhas can impartially contemplate the nondual sphere with nondual wisdom. It is therefore called ultimately equal.

Further, because great-vehicle capacities awaken today, the natures and marks of the nine realms are no longer taught separately. The text directly says that all natures and marks entirely enter the natures and marks of the buddha realm. The former teachings did not say this, and the assembly therefore thought that the former and present teachings were unequal. Once it is taught in this way today, they know that past and present have always been equal. It is therefore called ultimate equality.

The first explanation establishes equality through confusion and understanding, the next through persons, and the last through teachings. The meaning is originally extensive, but the recorder was unable to record every detail.

When the inconceivable is explained through surpassing words and thought, Fascicle Seventy-Nine of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that inconceivable means incapable of fixed determination. It surpasses every mind and mental factor and every path of language; one cannot travel to it or reach it, and it is therefore called inconceivable.

When the inconceivable is explained through simile, Fascicle Fourteen of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that one cannot enter the path of equality by destroying form. Only by contemplating form as nondifferent can one enter the great vehicle equally. It is like light and darkness existing together: merely because they are not seen together, people say they differ. To understand the meaning, one can observe moonlight. Again, when the sun rises, darkness has not gone to the ten directions. Darkness was always present and has nowhere to return, and light likewise unites with darkness. Birth-and-death unites with the path; the path is precisely birth-and-death. The Buddha has exhausted what should be exhausted and ferried across those who should be ferried across. All this is inconceivable. Scriptures and treatises contain many examples of the same kind.

When the inconceivable is explained through events, the Āgamas speak of four kinds: living beings, the world, dragons, and buddhas. From where do living beings come and where do they go? Why are they born and why do they die? Does the world have a boundary or no boundary? Can it be ended or not ended? Who among devas, dragons, humans, and spirits made it?

The Āgamas also say that a man beside Kuṇṭhika Pond in Rājagṛha was reflecting on whether the world has or lacks a boundary when he saw an entire fourfold army enter the pore of a lotus fiber. Startled, he wondered whether he had gone mad, since no such strange event should exist in the world. He asked the Buddha, who said that he was not mad: asuras pursued by devas had been defeated and hidden inside the lotus pore. Reflecting on such worldly questions is not the path to nirvāṇa and has no benefit in meaning, Dharma, or brahma conduct. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Does rain from a dragon emerge from its mouth, ears, eyes, nose, or tongue? It does not actually emerge from any of these places, but solely from one thought of the dragon. A wholesome or unwholesome thought can both produce rain because its former practice has given it this power in the present life. A deva named Great Power in the flank of Mount Sumeru can also produce rain.

Another scripture says that each of the five destinations has one inconceivable feature. The bodies of beings in hell can be severed and then join again; animals can fly; hungry ghosts can transform a small amount into much; humans can make fire burn fuel; and devas spontaneously obtain their recompenses. These are inconceivable events belonging to the Dharma of recompense. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕 This explains the inconceivable only through conditioned events; how much more must the profound sphere be inconceivable?

XIV. How Do the Twenty-One Lines of Verse Restate the Prose?

The verse has twenty-one lines and divides into two parts. The first seventeen and a half lines restate the prose; the final three and a half briefly open the three to reveal the one, stirring former attachments and giving rise to doubt. The first seventeen and a half lines in turn have two parts: four lines restate the praise entrusted to words, and thirteen and a half restate the praise through severing words. Verse and prose treat one another's material extensively or briefly so that the meaning becomes easy to reveal. The prose separately praises the provisional and real of the buddhas and Śākyamuni, showing that conditions for teaching and transforming differ; the verse praises the two buddhas together, showing that the principle of their two wisdoms is the same.

The four lines praising through entrusted words again divide into two. The first two lines together restate the two wisdoms of the two buddhas, and the next two together restate the explanation and conclusion of their praise. The first two lines themselves have two levels. The phrase “Heroes of the World” restates the wisdom of the buddhas, while “cannot be measured” restates “profound and immeasurable”; this restates the real wisdom of the buddhas. The following three phrases restate their provisional wisdom.

This differs from the prose in three ways. First, the prose raises the persons and also labels the Dharma, saying “the wisdom of the buddhas”; the verse raises only the persons, using their epithet to praise the Dharma and saying “Heroes of the World.” Second, the prose praises separately while the verse praises together. The Dharma has distinctions and is therefore treated separately; persons can gather the whole and are therefore treated together. Third, the prose says that none of the two vehicles know, while the verse says that no class of living beings knows.

The one line beginning “the Buddha's powers” restates Śākyamuni's two wisdoms. “Buddha” restates “since I became a buddha” and directly praises real wisdom. Powers, fearlessnesses, and other merits restate provisional wisdom. “Other Dharmas” refers to the provisional used in transforming others and is an additional aid to real wisdom, directly restating the preceding manifold causes and conditions. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The two lines beginning “Originally, following innumerable buddhas” together restate the purport of the explanation and conclusion of the praise of the two buddhas. “Originally, following innumerable buddhas” and “fully practicing the various paths” restate the buddhas' former drawing near hundreds of thousands of buddhas and fully practicing the path-Dharmas. “Profound and subtle Dharma” restates real wisdom's accomplishment of profound and unprecedented Dharma. “Difficult to see and difficult to understand” restates the difficult-to-understand purport of provisional wisdom. “For immeasurable koṭis of eons, having practiced these paths” restates that all the perfections of Śākyamuni's knowledge and vision were complete; the first two phrases raise the complete cause. “At the place of awakening, he accomplished the effect” raises the complete effect. “I have entirely known and seen” restates the vastness of the Tathāgata's knowledge and vision and concludes Śākyamuni's two wisdoms.

Another division uses four verses to restate the provisional and real of the two buddhas together, then distinguishes six items. First, the phrase “Heroes of the World” generally restates the two wisdoms of the two buddhas. Second, the three phrases beginning “devas and humans” restate the exclusion of persons. Third, the line beginning “the Buddha's powers” restates Śākyamuni's provisional and real. Fourth, the line beginning “Originally, following” restates the provisional and real of the buddhas. Fifth, the half-line beginning “for immeasurable” restates the preceding causal practice. Sixth, the two phrases beginning “at the place of awakening he accomplished” restate the effect attained.

From “such great effects and recompenses” onward, thirteen and a half lines restate the praise through severing words and divide into five parts. First, the opening half-line, “such great effects and recompenses,” restates the inconceivable sphere. It raises only the beginning, and the rest and middle can be known by the meaning. The word “meaning” also restates ultimate equality. “Great” and “manifold” have been explained in the Profound Meaning.

Second, the half-line beginning “I and the buddhas of the ten directions” retrospectively restates “to state the essential, the Buddha has accomplished all.” Third, the half-line beginning “cannot be revealed” retrospectively restates “Stop, there is no need to speak again.” The true mark has no fixed location and therefore cannot be revealed; it is not on the path of language and therefore words are quiescently extinct.

Fourth, the passage beginning “the other classes of living beings” restates the persons unable to know. The prose says that no one can know and the Buddha therefore stops without speaking; the verse spends ten and a half lines listing the persons who do not know, dividing them into eight classes. First, half a verse generally excludes those unable to enter, meaning the seven kinds of skillful means. Second, the two phrases beginning “except those” select those who can enter, meaning the ten faiths of the Perfect Teaching; it speaks of those whose power of faith is firm. The prose raises the ultimate Buddha as knowing, while the verse raises the initial stage of faith as able to know; the two mutually raise different ends.

Third, the line and a half beginning “disciples of the buddhas” excludes the two vehicles as not knowing. Fourth, the line beginning “even if the world were filled” raises Śāriputra as not knowing. Fifth, the line and a half beginning “even if the ten directions were filled” raises the great disciples as not knowing. Sixth, the two lines beginning “pratyekabuddhas” raise pratyekabuddhas as not knowing. Seventh, the two and a half lines beginning “those newly arousing the intent” raise bodhisattvas who have aroused the mind as unable to enter. The expression “arousing the mind” has a broad meaning. It can refer to bodhisattvas who practice the six perfections for three great asaṃkhya eons without yet severing delusion. Or the preceding classes of devas and humans can include those practicing the six perfections, while “arousing the mind” is separately correlated with arousal in the Shared, Distinct, and other teachings. Eighth, the line beginning “nonretrogressing bodhisattvas” excludes even nonretrogressing bodhisattvas as unable to know. Those nonretrogressing in the Shared Teaching have severed delusions within the realms but still do not know the distinct principle; before the grounds, those in the Distinct Teaching likewise possess nonretrogression in realization, practice, and so forth but still cannot know.

Fifth, the one and a half lines beginning “again he addressed Śāriputra” and “uncontaminated” restate the sphere of the true mark, the difficult-to-understand Dharma known only by buddhas. “Uncontaminated and inconceivable” restates the concluding essential point and raises the sphere of provisional and real toward which stopping speech is directed. “Profound and subtle Dharma” restates the foremost, rare, difficult-to-understand Dharma. The three phrases beginning “I have now fully attained” restate that only a buddha together with a buddha can exhaustively comprehend. The path practiced by the buddhas is the same and has likewise been brought to finality by all; the text therefore says, “Only I know this mark, and the buddhas of the ten directions do so as well.”

XV. Four Phrases Return to the Four Rounds; Three and a Half Lines Briefly Open and Reveal

The inconceivable can be explained through the wish-fulfilling jewel, which in itself possesses not a single externally measurable thing yet can rain down many treasures. The true mark does not arise yet can give rise to prajñā.

The line and a half on “uncontaminated and inconceivable” can serve as the basis from which the preceding four explanations arise. The half-phrase “uncontaminated” is the basis for explanation through the ten Dharma realms: the ten realms and ten suchnesses encompass the principle-nature of ordinary and sage without omission and encompass the three truths and the provisional and real wisdoms without omission. “Inconceivable” is the basis for explanation through opening and gathering: the provisional is real and the real is provisional, and this is therefore inconceivable. “Profound and subtle Dharma” is the basis for explanation through the buddha Dharma realm. “Only I know this mark” is the basis for explanation through stages. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

From “Śāriputra, you should know that the words of the buddhas do not differ” onward is the brief opening of the three to reveal the one, which also stirs former attachments and gives rise to doubt. The opening and revealing divides into two parts: first the buddhas reveal the real, then Śākyamuni opens the three. Each side clarifies one aspect and they mutually reveal one another.

“The words of the buddhas do not differ” means that the path by which the buddhas teach and transform is the same. The following two phrases exhort living beings to give rise to faith, while the next two formally reveal the real: after a long time, the Buddha will now finally teach reality. These words stir the assembly's former attachments and produce their present doubt. They even wonder whether a demon has transformed into the Buddha before them, precisely because they hear these words. Since the Buddha exhorts them to faith according to reality, why do they instead doubt? The Buddha first exhorts them because he wishes to prevent anyone from allowing doubt to become slander.

From “he addressed the śrāvaka assembly” onward, Śākyamuni opens the three in three parts. The first line formally opens the three. Because he is about to reveal that the two vehicles are not ultimate, the verse says “those who have reached nirvāṇa.”

Another explanation takes “I enabled them to leave the bonds of suffering and reach nirvāṇa” as referring to the bodhisattva vehicle that practices the six perfections. Practice of the six perfections can free one from the bonds of the four evil destinations but cannot immediately enter extinction; only after three great asaṃkhya eons and one hundred eons does one attain nirvāṇa. “Reach” indicates that the distance is long but one finally arrives. Practice of the six perfections first ferries others across, and the text therefore says “I enabled them to leave the bonds of suffering”; afterward they attain the uncontaminated, and it therefore says “reach nirvāṇa.” From this one knows that the six-perfection vehicle is intended.

The number also supports this reading: the next phrase says that the Buddha reveals the teaching of the three vehicles through the power of skillful means. If the six-perfection vehicle were not included here, from where would the third vehicle be established? The two vehicles should not be counted twice and called three.

The following half-line formally rebukes all three vehicles as false, and the final two phrases explain the purpose for establishing them. The Buddha guides provisionally so that living beings leave manifold suffering. The three vehicles therefore are not the ultimate real, but only gateways of skillful means.

XVI. What Does the Assembly Doubt, and How Does Śāriputra Request?

From “At that time the great assembly” onward, the doubt is expressed and the Buddha is asked to decide. Having heard that the three vehicles are skillful means and the One Vehicle real, the assembly's former attachments are stirred and doubts consequently arise. The passage has two parts: narration of the doubt and the formal request.

The narration of the doubt again has two levels: first the compiler narrates, then the assembly's doubt is formally stated. The compiler first describes the doubt of the twelve hundred arhats and then that of the fourfold assembly. Since the preceding passage rebukes all three vehicles as skillful means, why are only the two vehicles raised here? Because their attachment is heavier and their doubt deeper, they are raised particularly. In the verses expressing doubt, the scripture explicitly says that eighty thousand bodhisattvas seeking the Buddha path likewise all doubt. From this one knows that all three vehicles doubt, though the two vehicles are raised first.

From “each had this thought” onward is the formal arising of doubt, again divided into two kinds: first doubt concerning the Buddha's provisional and real wisdoms, and second doubt concerning one's own attainment.

“Why does he so earnestly praise skillful means?” generally questions the provisional and real wisdoms. “The Dharma attained by the Buddha is profound” questions real wisdom. “What he teaches has a purport difficult to know” questions provisional wisdom. The assembly doubts because it has heard that the words of the buddhas do not differ and that the real will finally be taught. The Buddha formerly taught that the wisdom attained in the three vehicles was the same, differing only in whether habitual tendencies had or had not been exhausted. Now he suddenly praises the Tathāgata's two wisdoms as beyond their reach. They therefore doubt the Buddha's two wisdoms.

From “the Buddha taught one meaning of liberation, and we too have attained this Dharma” onward, they question their own attainment. The noble paths of the three vehicles are truly the essential means of leaving; having practiced according to that principle, they have already reached nirvāṇa. Now the Buddha suddenly says these paths are all skillful means. They do not know which is real and therefore say they do not understand where this meaning tends. This doubt arises directly from the preceding rebuke of the three vehicles as skillful means.

From Śāriputra's formal request onward, there are three requests and two refusals. If the one stopping in the preceding praise through severing words is counted as well, there are three refusals in all.

Masters Yao and Long say that the first refusal is because the principle is profound and difficult to understand, while the first request seeks resolution for oneself and others. The second refusal is because the assembly might be startled, doubt, and disbelieve, while the second request says that the assembly has long planted wholesome roots and must be able to understand. The third refusal is because some will certainly slander and fall into evil destinations, while the third request is because people of sharp faculties can obtain benefit.

The present master gives another explanation. The Buddha knew in advance that the benefits obtained through the three rounds of teaching would not arise simultaneously and would differ in their earlier and later timing. He therefore suppressed the teaching three times while awaiting Śāriputra's three requests.

The first request itself has prose and verse. The prose divides into expressing doubt and expressing the request. Expressing doubt concerns the two wisdoms; expressing the request includes Śāriputra's request for himself and his request on behalf of the assembly.

The verse has eleven lines and divides into six parts. First, the opening two phrases restate the doubt concerning real wisdom. Second, the three lines beginning “You yourself say you have attained” restate doubt concerning provisional wisdom. Third, the three lines beginning “the uncontaminated arhats” say that the three vehicles and fourfold assembly all doubt. The first phrase speaks of arhats, the next two lines of pratyekabuddhas, while “and those seeking nirvāṇa” between them speaks of six-perfection bodhisattvas. How can this be known? Earlier the text said “those who have reached nirvāṇa,” and here it again uses the word “and.” Such bodhisattvas seek nirvāṇa for themselves and also benefit others through nirvāṇa, unlike the two vehicles; this clearly speaks of bodhisattvas.

Fourth, the line and a half beginning “among the śrāvaka assembly” describe Śāriputra's own doubt. Fifth, the line beginning “born from the Buddha's mouth” describes the doubt of children of the Buddha. Sixth, the two lines beginning “devas and dragons” generally describe the assembly's shared doubt and shared request.

The verse and prose can be inferred from one another according to their meaning. If some verse phrases do not restate the prose, they present material additional to it. Where a point is not essential to the doctrine, the recorder could not use burdensome wording to divide every phrase and therefore abbreviates.

From “the Buddha addressed Śāriputra” onward are the two refusals after the request. At the Buddha's first refusal, Śāriputra turns the doubt into his second request; the Buddha then refuses a second time. All this is plainly visible in the scriptural text. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Fascicle Three, Lower, of the Words and Phrases of the Sutra of the Lotus Blossom of the Wondrous Dharma ends.

I. The Three Rounds and the Tenfold Analysis

From the World-Honored One's words to Śāriputra that, since he has now made three earnest requests, how could the Buddha not speak, the scripture uses seven and a half chapters to explain extensively the opening of the three vehicles to reveal the one vehicle. This long passage is divided into three rounds. First is direct Dharma-teaching for those of sharp faculties; second is teaching through simile for those of middling faculties; third is teaching through causes and conditions from former lives for those of dull faculties. These three rounds are also called principle, event, and practice, just as the Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra likewise teaches for three kinds of faculty. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Ten doctrinal points will now be analyzed in sequence. First, each of the three rounds has a common and a specific meaning. Second, śrāvakas ultimately exist or do not exist. Third, delusion can be thick or thin. Fourth, faculties can or cannot be transformed. Fifth, the various faculties awaken or fail to awaken. Sixth, there are or are not expressions of understanding. Seventh, predictions are or are not received. Eighth, awakening and understanding can be shallow or deep. Ninth concerns the benefit attained by provisional and actual practitioners. Tenth concerns whether awakening must wait for the corresponding occasion.

II. First Inquiry: The Common and Specific Meanings of the Three Rounds

The first round is specifically called teaching through Dharma; this is its specific meaning. Viewed from its common meaning, however, all three modes of teaching are already present. When the Buddha says that an udumbara blossom appears only after a very long time, this is teaching through simile. When he says that whenever he encounters living beings he teaches them all through the buddha path, this is teaching through causes and conditions.

The second round is specifically called teaching through simile, but viewed from its common meaning it too possesses all three modes. The Buddha first says that he had not previously stated explicitly that everything was in fact for the sake of teaching bodhisattvas. Then, in correlating the simile with its meaning, he says that the one buddha vehicle was divided and taught as three; this is direct Dharma-teaching. When the Buddha says that he constantly taught and transformed Śāriputra in the presence of two myriads of koṭis of buddhas, this is teaching through causes and conditions. If this sentence is still classified as direct Dharma-teaching, one may instead take the elder hearing that his children were in the burning house, entering it in alarm, and only then devising a way to save them. Because this passage recounts their former relationship and the origin of the later instruction, it is teaching through causes and conditions.

The third round is specifically called teaching through causes and conditions from former lives, but viewed from its common meaning it too possesses all three modes. The statement that the time of nirvāṇa has arrived, that the assembly is purified, and that they should be enabled to enter buddha-wisdom is direct Dharma-teaching. The account of a certain guide is teaching through simile.

Since each round commonly possesses all three modes of teaching, why are three rounds still distinguished? A name is established according to the aspect that is predominant and principal, not the one that is brief and subsidiary. This keeps the names from becoming confused with one another, each being established according to its principal meaning.

Someone asks: The three rounds were originally taught for three kinds of faculty. If each round commonly possesses all three modes of teaching, should a single round also contain all three kinds of faculty?

Answer: The Dharma-teaching does not address only the sharpest among the three grades of faculty. Those of middling and dull faculties are also present. It is only because the principal aspect is followed and the subsidiary omitted that the Dharma-teaching is said principally to correspond to those of sharp faculties. The other two rounds are the same.

III. Second Inquiry: The Existence and Nonexistence of Śrāvakas

Guangzhai definitively asserts that actual śrāvakas who genuinely practice and realize the fruit exist. His reason is that if there were no actual śrāvakas, whom would śrāvakas manifested through provisional means correspond to? Kaishan instead explains that no actual śrāvakas exist. Citing the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra, which says that beginners in the practices of the three vehicles are not ignorant of the Dharma, he argues that they already knew of the one vehicle while still ordinary beings outside the stages. Why, then, would those of the two vehicles still cling to a lesser fruit? Thus, although the scripture says there are śrāvakas, they are all provisional manifestations. Each of these two schools clings to one extreme and fails to accord with the scripture and its meaning.

If the actual existence of śrāvakas is fixed, why does the scripture also say that there are no śrāvaka disciples and that only bodhisattvas are taught? If the complete nonexistence of śrāvakas is fixed, who enters the conjured city? If there are no three vehicles to converge, whom do provisional means guide? Suppose one answers that actual śrāvakas are guided by provisional śrāvakas. There should then likewise be an actual buddha of the Tripiṭaka Teaching who is guided by a provisionally manifested buddha of that teaching. But if one says there is no actual buddha of this kind, only a provisional buddha, why not allow there to be only provisional śrāvakas and no actual ones?

The two examples are not in fact equivalent. A person who genuinely severs delusions within the realms may be called an actual śrāvaka according to that genuine realization, while a provisional figure may manifest as a śrāvaka to guide that person. But where is there another buddha who has severed only delusions within the realms, so that a provisional buddha must manifest as the same kind in order to guide that buddha?

The present explanation is that neither existence nor nonexistence may be maintained one-sidedly. Viewed from the elder's true wisdom, there is no hired laborer with an inherently fixed identity. Viewed from the poor son's faculties and self-understanding at that time, he believes himself to be merely a hired worker.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra enumerates four kinds of śrāvaka: first, determinate śrāvakas; second, overweening-pride śrāvakas; third, śrāvakas who lost the great resolve; and fourth, responsive-transformation śrāvakas. The faculties of the first two kinds are not yet mature, and they do not receive predictions. The latter two kinds receive predictions. From the standpoint of the present scripture, however, one should speak of five kinds of śrāvaka.

First, some have long practiced the Lesser Vehicle and mature in the path in the present life, hearing the lesser teaching and realizing its fruit. These correspond to the determinate śrāvakas of the treatise.

Second, some were originally bodhisattvas cultivating the path over many eons, but grew weary of birth-and-death midway, lost the great resolve, and attained a lesser fruit. The Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra calls these “distinct wholesome roots.” The Buddha provisionally fulfills their lesser path and teaches them the lesser teaching; following it, they sever the bonds and attain the fruit. Because they lost the great resolve only recently and have practiced the lesser path for a shorter time, they should in principle awaken more easily. These correspond to the treatise's śrāvakas who withdrew from bodhi.

Third, because the preceding two kinds of people exist, buddhas and bodhisattvas inwardly conceal their great virtue and outwardly manifest Lesser Vehicle traces. They bring the first two kinds to maturity and guide them into the great path. These correspond to the responsive-transformation śrāvakas of the treatise.

Fourth, some see that actual and provisional śrāvakas both escape birth-and-death and so delight in nirvāṇa, cultivating precepts, concentration, and wisdom. They possess a small measure of contemplative wisdom but have not entered even the stage of resemblance. With only slight attainment, they suppose that they have realized the fruit. Thus they claim attainment without attaining and realization without realizing. These correspond to the treatise's overweening-pride śrāvakas.

Fifth are Great Vehicle śrāvakas, who cause all living beings to hear the voice of the buddha path.

Viewed from determinate śrāvakas and those who withdrew from bodhi, śrāvakas certainly exist. Viewed from the Great Vehicle principle, however, no one abides forever in the extinction of body and wisdom or in the conjured city without further advance; all ultimately proceed toward the place of treasure. Since this is so for actual śrāvakas, one cannot separately fix an eternally corresponding class of provisional śrāvakas, and therefore one may also say that śrāvakas do not exist. As for those of overweening pride, they have not entered a stage and are neither actual nor responsive-transformation śrāvakas, so they cannot be counted among provisional figures. Once these boundaries are understood, existence and nonexistence are naturally clear. Why argue bitterly?

Moreover, Great Vehicle śrāvakas themselves may be said either to exist or not exist. When provisionally manifested through responsive transformation, they outwardly display Lesser Vehicle traces and inwardly conceal their great virtue; from the external appearance one says there are no Great Vehicle śrāvakas. When their own practice is revealed and their original ground disclosed, one says that Great Vehicle śrāvakas exist.

The principal purport of opening the three to reveal the one here is to transform determinate śrāvakas and those who withdrew from the Great into Great Vehicle śrāvakas. Once their own practice is established, they can respond to the voices of living beings by manifesting as śrāvakas and teaching others. In this way both the existence and nonexistence of śrāvakas become intelligible.

IV. Third Inquiry: Delusion Can Be Thick or Thin

Master Yao says that after the three kinds of faculty attain the fruit, they range contemplatively through the principle of nonarising. The principle of nonarising is one, but when they emerge from contemplation the three teachings they take as objects differ from one another. They use the necessarily different three teachings to cast doubt upon the one principle of nonarising, thinking: if the teachings are three, how can the principle be only one? They also use the one principle to cast doubt upon the three teachings, thinking: if the principle is one, how can the teachings be three? Thus they waver between principle and teaching and remain uncertain between attainment and loss.

According to this old interpretation, using the one principle to question the three teachings contains doctrinal attainment, while using the three teachings to question the one principle contains doctrinal loss. Those of sharp faculties mostly use principle to question the teaching. The first Dharma-teaching accords precisely with their minds, so they awaken at once. Those of dull faculties mostly use the teaching to question the principle. Hearing the Dharma-teaching declare that there are no three vehicles contradicts their former reckoning, so they understand only after hearing all three times. Those of middling faculties stand between the two extremes; they fail to awaken at the Dharma-teaching and understand upon hearing the simile.

The present interpretation holds that this explanation of the three faculties is not necessarily apt. Between what principle and what teaching do these three kinds of people waver? If they waver between the principle and teaching of the Lesser Vehicle, their doubt has not been exhausted and they cannot even be counted as stream-enterers who have severed the bonds. If they waver between the principle and teaching of the Great Vehicle, the Great and Lesser Vehicles are already clearly distinct; when were they ever confused with each other in a way requiring such hesitation? If they use the lesser to question the great and the great to question the lesser, why did they already enter and emerge from contemplation and begin wavering before provisional means had yet been refuted? If they were already wavering, their doubt arose earlier and their former attachments had already been stirred, not merely today. If those attachments had previously been stirred and doubts arisen, they should understand as soon as they hear the opening of the three to reveal the one today. Why would alarm and doubt remain? This interpretation lacks a basis whichever way it turns, so it is not adopted.

The present explanation treats sharp and dull faculties entirely in terms of Great Vehicle faculties and treats thick and thin delusion in terms of distinct delusion. Four propositions therefore arise, in this order: first, thin delusion and sharp faculties; second, thick delusion and sharp faculties; third, thin delusion and dull faculties; fourth, thick delusion and dull faculties.

Those whose distinct delusion is thin and whose Great Vehicle faculties are sharp awaken on the first hearing. Those whose delusion is thick and faculties sharp understand upon a second hearing. Those whose delusion is thin and faculties dull decide the matter only upon the third hearing. Those in the fourth class, with thick delusion and dull faculties, still fail to awaken after the three rounds and only become members of the assembly who form a connection with the great Dharma. Alternatively, the first two propositions can be jointly classified as sharp faculties and included among the superior faculty; or the two middle propositions can be divided between the middling and inferior faculties. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

This can also be explained in terms of three layers of ignorance in the initial grade covering the middle path of the first abode. During the first Dharma-teaching, those of sharp faculties sever all three layers at once, open the Buddha's knowledge and vision, enter the bodhisattva stage, and receive a prediction of bodhi. Those of middling faculties sever two layers of ignorance, while those of dull faculties sever one.

During the second, simile teaching, those of middling faculties exhaust the third layer of ignorance, open the Buddha's knowledge and vision, enter the bodhisattva stage, and receive a prediction. Those of dull faculties advance by severing a second layer. During the third teaching, through causes and conditions from former lives, those of dull faculties finally exhaust all three layers of ignorance, open the Buddha's knowledge and vision, and enter the bodhisattva stage. This is like the sixteen thought-moments of the Lesser Vehicle: before they are complete, one cannot be called a stream-enterer; only when all sixteen have been completed is that stage attained.

V. Fourth Inquiry: Faculties Are or Are Not Transformed

The old interpretation holds that those of sharp faculties awaken when they first hear the Dharma-teaching; those of middling faculties are transformed at that time to become the same as those of sharp faculties, while those of dull faculties advance to middling faculties. During the teaching through simile, those formerly of middling faculties have already become sharp and so can awaken, while those formerly dull are again transformed into sharp. During the teaching through causes and conditions, the formerly dull faculties have also become the same as the sharp and therefore awaken at once.

If this were really so, all those of dull faculties would already have become sharp by the teaching through causes and conditions. Everyone would then equally possess sharp faculties. Since sharpness and dullness would be wholly equal, why would some still be called dull and be required to wait for teaching through causes and conditions? If they have become sharp, they should awaken simultaneously with those of sharp faculties. If they have not awakened and are still called dull, there is no real sense in which their faculties have been transformed.

Śāriputra, for example, hears once and Maudgalyāyana hears again, and both attain the first fruit. If attaining the same first fruit makes them equally sharp, there is no superiority or inferiority. If one is still called sharp and the other dull, arriving at the same fruit cannot mean that their faculties have been transformed into complete equality.

The minds and consciousnesses of living beings are not fixed. Encountering harmful conditions, they can be transformed from sharp to dull; encountering wholesome conditions, from dull to sharp. When they encountered buddhas and heard the Dharma in former lives, some had already transformed their faculties from dull or middling to sharp and therefore awaken at the Dharma-teaching in the present life. Some had transformed from dull to middling and therefore understand upon hearing the simile. Others remain dull and untransformed and understand only upon the third round. This explanation of transformed faculties differs from the old interpretation.

It is like cutting wood with three knives. A sharp knife cuts once, a middling knife twice, and a dull knife three times. All three cut through the wood, and the place where it finally breaks is the same, yet the names sharp and dull, disclosed through one, two, or three strokes, have not disappeared.

Someone asks: Once the three kinds of faculty have all entered the first abode, do sharpness and dullness remain?

Answer: Once the substance of true cultivation becomes manifest, there is no higher or lower gradation.

Another asks: If so, when cultivation responsive to conditions is again undertaken above the first abode, is there superiority or inferiority?

Answer: Among people at the same stage, no victor or loser is established. Since the substance of true cultivation is perfectly integrated, how could there be a separate difference?

VI. Fifth Inquiry: Awakening and Not Awakening

Many scriptural passages classify bodhisattvas as those of sharp faculties, pratyekabuddhas as those of middling faculties, and śrāvakas as those of dull faculties. If all bodhisattvas are sharp, should they all awaken during the Dharma-teaching? Should every pratyekabuddha understand during the simile teaching? Should every śrāvaka awaken only upon the teaching through causes and conditions? The scripture merely gives a broad classification of three faculties; actual awakening and understanding need not be apportioned so mechanically.

The present scripture visibly shows only śrāvakas understanding and does not separately show pratyekabuddhas understanding. This is because, although pratyekabuddhas belong to the middling faculty, when they encounter a buddha in the world they are included among the śrāvaka assembly and awaken according to their own faculties; pratyekabuddhas therefore receive no separate heading. Śāriputra's verse requesting the Dharma lists those seeking pratyekabuddhahood among monks and nuns, showing that pratyekabuddhas are included within the fourfold assembly. The Dharma Teacher chapter likewise lists monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, and those seeking śrāvakahood, pratyekabuddhahood, or the buddha path. How can it be said that no pratyekabuddhas understand?

The old interpretation holds that bodhisattvas are generally called sharp-facultied, not because every one is sharp but because the name follows the majority. What they originally cherished was the quest for buddhahood. Even if they once clung to the idea that they had traveled three hundred yojanas and could then seek a nearby fruit, this doubtful attachment was still easy to transform. According to this view, bodhisattvas of all three faculties understand during the Dharma-teaching: those of sharp faculties perhaps during the brief teaching, those of middling faculties perhaps at the beginning of the extensive teaching, and those of dull faculties simultaneously with Śāriputra.

The present explanation says that the designation bodhisattva is broad: anyone who arouses the great resolve is a bodhisattva. Why must all have sharp faculties? Moreover, if few bodhisattvas remained by the time Śāriputra awakened—or if all had entered awakening before the first round—why do the later circulation section and Life Span chapter repeatedly show bodhisattvas newly attaining patience regarding the nonarising of dharmas or newly arousing the mind of bodhi?

The old interpretation further holds that everyone who awakens in the Life Span chapter had already attained the Dharma-body and merely advances in the path and diminishes birth-and-death. The present explanation does not adopt this claim either. The scripture says that six hundred and eighty myriads of koṭis of nayutas of persons, numerous as Ganges sands, attained patience regarding the nonarising of dharmas. They attained that patience at that moment, showing that not all possessed the Dharma-body before the Life Span chapter. Bodhisattva awakening therefore cannot be confined to the beginning of the first round.

Someone asks: Since bodhisattva awakening can extend throughout the scripture, the awakening of the two vehicles should also extend into its later portions.

Answer: The three rounds have already established the father and sons' inherent kinship. Thereafter, all these persons are called bodhisattvas, so even if they awaken only later, their awakening is collectively called bodhisattva awakening.

VII. Sixth Inquiry: Expressions of Understanding or Their Absence

If the three vehicles awaken alike, why does the scripture show only śrāvakas stating their understanding, while the other two vehicles do not?

One who awakens independently when no buddha appears is called a solitary awakened one; one who hears a buddha teach the twelve links of dependent arising and awakens is called a condition awakened one. Since condition awakened ones are included among the śrāvaka assembly, awaken, and express their understanding there, they are not separately listed; the general purport is apparent from this. Śāriputra, Kāśyapa, and the others also possess the faculties of the middle vehicle, so śrāvaka expressions of understanding encompass condition awakened ones and no separate chapter is needed. The fourfold assembly also contains people who have aroused the aspiration for condition awakening, and more than one person actually awakens. In the Faith and Understanding chapter, the two persons secretly dispatched to pursue, seize, and bring back the son signify this meaning.

Why do bodhisattvas make no separate expressions of understanding? The teachings previously studied by the śrāvakas never stated explicitly that they could become buddhas. The present scripture now opens the road of return to the Great Vehicle, and the śrāvakas fear that they may have understood it wrongly, so they state their understanding before the Buddha. The bodhisattvas' situation is different and they are therefore given no separate expression. This has three further meanings.

First, bodhisattvas originally sought buddhahood. Even when they have other attachments, those attachments are comparatively light. Ultimately they still take up the buddha-fruit and have no anxiety that it cannot be attained. Hearing the three rounds now merely rectifies their contemplative wisdom, so no separate expression of understanding is required.

Second, scriptural passages in which bodhisattvas awaken to the Great appear throughout, whereas the buddhahood of the two vehicles becomes clearly manifest only with this teaching. To transmit the essential point, bodhisattva expressions of understanding are omitted. A Sanskrit version may contain relevant wording, while the Chinese version abbreviates it and does not record it.

Third, bodhisattva stages and practices are profound and far-reaching, and beginner bodhisattvas do not dare to express understanding on behalf of the assembly. After the Life Span chapter was taught, Maitreya already gathered the attainments of the entire assembly, from those newly attaining patience regarding nonarising to those only one life from buddhahood. Their expression of understanding is complete; what else need be sought? 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

VIII. Seventh Inquiry: Receiving or Not Receiving Predictions

If the three vehicles alike express understanding, why are only śrāvakas seen receiving predictions, with no predictions for pratyekabuddhas or bodhisattvas? This too has three meanings.

First, the earlier teachings said that once those of the two vehicles entered the position of certainty they could no longer arouse the great resolve. If they could not arouse it, how could they receive predictions? Now that they have awakened to the Great Vehicle, they gladly seek a definite assurance, so the Buddha predicts the eons and lands of their future buddhahood. Bodhisattvas have already aroused the resolve and seek buddhahood; when their practice matures, it naturally becomes complete. They neither urgently seek buddhahood nor press the Buddha for predictions, and the earlier teachings already contain predictions for bodhisattvas throughout. This is constantly taught in the scriptures; the transmission again follows the essential point, just as explained above. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Second, bodhisattvas also receive individual predictions. Are the passages on Devadatta and the dragon girl not clear evidence of prediction or buddhahood? The Dharma Teacher chapter further says that every kind of person seeking śrāvakahood, pratyekabuddhahood, or the buddha path who hears the Lotus Sutra before the Buddha receives a prediction of attaining unsurpassed complete awakening. Does this not show that all three classes receive predictions?

Third, those of the two vehicles had not previously received predictions of attaining the path through the eight marks, so the eons and lands are specifically recorded here. Bodhisattvas received predictions earlier and thus they are not repeated. A shallow and near prediction attainable at the first abode is not what bodhisattvas seek. They seek the distant prediction of perfect culmination and accomplishment of wondrous awakening. In the Life Span chapter, from those newly arousing the mind through those having only one life remaining, the wondrous cause is fulfilled and the ultimate fruit suddenly completed. This is precisely prediction concerning the Dharma-body. How can one say that bodhisattvas receive no predictions?

Someone asks: Since those of the two vehicles awaken from the Lesser to the Great Vehicle, they should likewise receive predictions concerning the Dharma-body. Why do they receive only predictions of attaining the path through the eight marks?

Answer: The eight marks constitute a prediction of responsive manifestation. Once a prediction of responsive buddhahood is received, one knows that it necessarily has an underlying basis. It also enables living beings who hear it to form conditions for future deliverance, so the prediction of responsive manifestation is given first. Moreover, if these persons of the two vehicles also hear the Life Span chapter, they will diminish birth-and-death and receive predictions concerning the Dharma-body.

IX. Eighth Inquiry: Awakening and Understanding Can Be Shallow or Deep

In broad terms, all three faculties destroy ignorance and realize the first abode, entering the same stage. When the matter is examined finely, however, their understanding may still be dim or clear. Having first heard the Dharma-teaching and entered buddha-wisdom, would understanding not become clearer upon subsequently hearing the teaching through simile? Hearing the teaching through causes and conditions should further advance it; hearing the Life Span chapter makes it still more excellent and profound.

It is like a person at a single stage who hears the Dharma again and gains more than before. It is also like an unlined and a lined robe, each with a different thickness. Examined finely, awakening and understanding can therefore still be shallow or deep.

X. Ninth Inquiry: Benefit Attained by Provisional and Actual Practitioners

One view holds that only actual practitioners receive benefit. Provisional practitioners merely guide the actual, serving as companions who assist the teaching, so no benefit of their own need be discussed.

The present explanation says otherwise. By the Life Span chapter, provisional and actual practitioners both receive benefit: their path advances higher, their birth-and-death is diminished more completely, and they gradually approach the ultimate point of perfection, with only one life remaining. How could this not be benefit attained by provisional figures?

At first, provisional figures serve as assisting companions and together bring the faculties of actual practitioners to maturity. Later, when they hear the Buddha teach the ultimate fruit, their own path becomes clearer. In the parable of the poor son, the profit earned through his coming and going in business extends through other lands; although earned elsewhere, it is still his own benefit. The benefit of actual practitioners comes about through the guidance of provisional figures, and the merit of teaching living beings also returns to those provisional figures. They therefore benefit as well. The Buddha teaches the Dharma with a single voice and living beings each understand according to their kind. Why must one wait until the Life Span chapter to speak of benefit for provisional figures? 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The scripture further states that one also wishes to attain this real and pure great Dharma oneself. This is benefit attained by the teacher.

XI. Tenth Inquiry: Waiting and Not Waiting for the Occasion

Those who did not awaken earlier and must wait until the Lotus Sutra to awaken are called persons who wait for the occasion. Those who already understood in teachings before the Lotus Sutra are called persons who do not wait for the occasion.

Why is this? The Buddha possesses two modes of teaching, explicit and secret. From the standpoint of explicit teaching, before the Lotus Sutra those of the two vehicles had not yet awakened to the great path. They had to be brought to maturity gradually through the sequence of five flavors and finally gathered in the Lotus. The Buddha therefore says that the time for teaching had not arrived before, whereas now is precisely the corresponding time and the Great Vehicle should certainly be taught. This is waiting for the occasion.

From the standpoint of secret teaching, not everyone must pass through all five flavors and wait until the Lotus Sutra to converge. Some had already awakened through secret teaching, and these are called persons who do not wait for the occasion. This is the broad classification of waiting and not waiting. Compressed within the three rounds, there is also waiting and not waiting; viewed in terms of the Trace and Origin Gates, there is likewise waiting and not waiting. Living beings awakening earlier or later is precisely this meaning.

Someone asks: If a certain faculty is gathered by neither the secret nor the explicit occasion, has that person forever missed the occasion and become unable to awaken?

Answer: Other scriptures may call this missing the occasion, but the present scripture does not. Although this person awakens through neither secret nor explicit occasions and once thinks that extinction has been entered, the scripture can still be heard in another land. Thus the occasion has not been missed forever; the person is simply awaiting the corresponding occasion in another land.

Another asks: Surely the five thousand who rose and left the Dharma assembly missed their occasion?

Answer: After the Tathāgata's extinction, these people should receive benefit from those who propagate this scripture.

XII. First Miscellaneous Analysis: Requesting and Teaching the Dharma Are Both Universal

Someone asks: In the first round Śāriputra requests the Dharma for the fourfold assembly and all three faculties; in the simile round he again requests it for those of middling and dull faculties. How can it be said that the Buddha teaches all three faculties in every round?

Answer: This claim is unsound. The Dharma is requested universally for the assembly, and the Buddha likewise teaches universally for the assembly. It is only that those of sharp faculties possess keen wisdom and awaken through the Dharma-teaching; those of middling faculties awaken through the simile; and those of dull faculties awaken only upon hearing the third round. One should understand by following the meaning. How could the surface wording alone be used to divide them? 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

XIII. Second Miscellaneous Analysis: Dharma, Simile, Former Lives, and the Three Times

Someone asks: Former lives concern the past. Can teaching through Dharma and teaching through simile be said to concern the future and the present respectively?

Answer: The scripture contains no explicit statement establishing this correlation. It can only be inferred from the meaning and said to be broadly so. Guiding the three vehicles to return to the one vehicle means that, viewed from the three vehicles, the one vehicle is the destination in the future and may therefore be called future. Taking a present event as a simile allows simile to be called present. Looking back from what follows toward what precedes, the matter may broadly be as the questioner says. This remains an inference from meaning, not a transformation of an unstated correlation into explicit scriptural wording.

XIV. Third Miscellaneous Analysis: Obstruction and Hearing the Dharma

Someone asks: The old interpretation says that the five turbidities obstruct the great Dharma and analyzes them through the four propositions described above. Another person combines view-delusion and ignorance as obstructions, citing the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra statement that even persons without afflictions retain defiled pride and do not know that the Dharma-body of the one vehicle permanently abides. As for ordinary beings, though they do not cling to nirvāṇa, they cannot hear the Dharma; for them ignorance alone is the obstruction.

If so, is the ignorance of the three faculties destroyed after hearing the Dharma in the three rounds, or before they have heard it? If it is destroyed only after hearing, ignorance would not seem to obstruct hearing. If ignorance can be destroyed before they hear, there would seem to be no obstruction at all. How is this point to be reconciled?

Answer: This is a doctrine established by others, for which the present text merely supplies a reconciliation. It is like the arising of lamplight and the disappearance of darkness: the lamp's arising and darkness's disappearance cannot be determined as two separate moments, one before and one after. Although neither precedes the other, darkness is certainly an obstruction. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

XV. Fourth Miscellaneous Analysis: Knowing and Not Knowing

Someone asks: The Śrīmālādevī Sūtra says that beginners in the practices of the three vehicles are not ignorant of the Dharma and themselves know that they will awaken. Chapter Fourteen of the Sūtra on Upāsaka Precepts says that those of the two vehicles know that they will attain bodhi but provisionally attain a Lesser Vehicle fruit; Chapter Thirteen says that knowing this is easy but practicing it is difficult, and so even though they know the one vehicle, they first attain the arhat fruit. These two scriptures say that the two vehicles can know. Why does the present scripture say that the three kinds of faculty still do not know before passing through the three rounds, doubting at first and awakening only later? How can these statements be reconciled?

Answer: The present scripture also says they can know. It says that if someone has truly attained the arhat fruit yet does not believe this Dharma, that is absolutely impossible. Only after the Buddha's extinction, when no buddha is present, might such a person conceive the thought of having entered extinction; if that person then encounters another buddha, understanding and certainty will still be attained.

There are three levels here. The former passage clarifies knowing, the next not knowing, and the last a return to knowing; not knowing does not mean never knowing. Śāriputra also says that the assembly now before the Buddha has fallen into doubt and does not itself know where this meaning leads. At the time of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, the śrāvakas likewise gave rise to many doubts. They saw a buddha in person and heard the Dharma directly yet still doubted and did not know. How much less, without seeing a buddha or hearing the Dharma, could all of them suddenly know?

Clinging to two passages as contradictory only increases contention. What benefit does that bring to cultivation of the path? Others may discuss other matters; whether śrāvakas can or cannot know after becoming noble ones is a sphere known only by the Buddha and is not something with which the opponent is familiar. The present text will provisionally attempt a reconciliation.

“Initial practice” has two starting points. If the distant past is taken as their initial practice, these people once heard the Great Vehicle and were not ignorant of the Dharma. If the point at which they forgot the great resolve midway and today study the Lesser Vehicle, first cultivating the stations of mindfulness, is taken as their initial practice, they still do not know. Thus provisional figures manifest initial practice while inwardly actually knowing; actual practitioners genuinely begin this course of study and therefore cannot know.

Another person says that those of sharp faculties can know and those of dull faculties cannot. This position can be expanded into four propositions. First, provisional figures manifest sharp or dull faculties, and both manifest not knowing. Second, provisional figures manifest sharp or dull faculties, and both manifest knowing. Third, provisional figures manifest sharp or dull faculties, know upon hearing, and do not know without hearing. Fourth, provisional figures manifest sharp or dull faculties, and both manifest neither knowing nor not knowing.

The present text does not adopt this classification. It takes only the fact that provisional figures are inwardly perfectly clear and have known since the distant past, while actual practitioners have not yet entered the Great Vehicle and therefore genuinely do not know. The meaning then becomes clear of itself. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

XVI. Fifth Miscellaneous Analysis: Condition Awakened, Solitary Awakened, Group Practice, and Transformation

Someone asks: Since pratyekabuddhas are said to appear in a world without a buddha, why are pratyekabuddhas still present in the assembly during the three rounds?

Answer: The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom distinguishes condition awakened and solitary awakened ones. Solitary awakened ones appear in a world without a buddha; condition awakened ones aspire to be born in a world with a buddha. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra says that as the bodhisattva descends from Tuṣita, he emits light illuminating the pratyekabuddhas. Those who perceive the light relinquish their bodies, while those who do not are moved to another region. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra uses a comet as a simile. The Treatise on the Middle Way says that when pratyekabuddhas appear in the world, the Buddha Dharma has already become extinct; these are solitary awakened ones.

Those who aspire to be born in a buddha's world may previously have attained the first fruit. If they encounter a buddha before completing fourteen successive births and deaths, they become arhats; if they do not encounter one, they become solitary awakened ones. Since those present now have encountered a buddha, they neither relinquish their lifespan nor are moved elsewhere, because they originally aspired to see a buddha. The same principle applies to those who previously attained the second or third fruit.

There are also group-practice pratyekabuddhas, among whom teachers and disciples still instruct one another in a world without a buddha. Two situations must be distinguished here. After a buddha's extinction, when no writing remains in the world and living beings' faculties are dull, pratyekabuddhas do not teach the Dharma. Those are not the group-practice practitioners meant here. Group-practice practitioners can teach others.

There are also transformation pratyekabuddhas. For people whom it is appropriate to teach by appearing in the body of a pratyekabuddha, they manifest precisely such a body. Once the distinct referents of solitary awakened ones, condition awakened ones aspiring to birth in a buddha's world, group-practice pratyekabuddhas, and transformation pratyekabuddhas are understood, the presence of pratyekabuddhas in the assembly during the three rounds becomes intelligible.

I. The Five Sections of the First-Round Dharma-Teaching and the Three Sections of Prose

The first round proceeds principally through direct Dharma-teaching, and its scriptural text as a whole is divided into five sections. First, from the point where Śāriputra has already made three earnest requests and the Buddha asks how he could fail to speak, through the end of this fascicle, is the formal Dharma-teaching. Second, from the beginning of the next fascicle through the end of the verses, is Śāriputra's understanding. Third, from the Buddha's declaration among the assembly of gods, humans, and others through his statement that this is what the buddhas protect and keep in mind, is the Buddha's confirmation of Śāriputra's understanding. Fourth, from the Buddha's telling Śāriputra what will happen in a future age through the instruction that he should rejoice in himself, is the prediction bestowed upon him. Fifth, from the fourfold assembly's hearing through everyone's dedication of all merit to the buddha path, is the fourfold assembly's rejoicing.

The Dharma-teaching in the first section itself has prose and verse. The prose is divided into three: the Buddha's assent to teach, Śāriputra's reception of the Buddha's intent, and the formal teaching. The assent to teach likewise has three layers: first, assenting in response to Śāriputra's request; second, admonishing him to listen well and assenting; and third, distinguishing and removing those unable to receive the teaching and then assenting.

The Buddha's statement that Śāriputra has now requested the Dharma three times is the responsive assent. His instruction to listen carefully now is the admonitory assent. Listening carefully corresponds to wisdom born of hearing; reflecting well corresponds to wisdom born of reflection; and keeping what one has heard and reflected upon continually in mind corresponds to wisdom born of cultivation. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says that four wholesome dharmas are causes of great nirvāṇa. Here the treatise identifies only the spiritual friend among them as the Tathāgata; the others can be understood from the wording and meaning.

When the Buddha speaks these words, the text enters the assent made after distinguishing the assembly. Because the five thousand are still seated, the Tathāgata had previously stopped the teaching three times. Now, just as he is about to assent to teach extensively, he uses his awe-inspiring power to cause them to leave. This is why it is called distinguishing the assembly.

II. Why the Five Thousand Leave the Assembly

The treatise explains the faults of the five thousand from three perspectives. First, the five turbidities create many obstructions, so their offenses are called grave. Second, they are attached to the Lesser Vehicle and use a lesser Dharma to conceal the great Dharma, so their attachment is called deep-rooted. Third, although they have not attained, they suppose that they have, so they are called persons of overweening pride: although they have not attained the three fruits, they suppose that they have, and although they have not realized the stage beyond training, they suppose that they have realized it. Thus, the scripture's words “they had faults such as these” do not refer to pride alone, but to the three faults of obstruction, attachment, and pride.

The Buddha remains silent and does not restrain them because, although he previously taught opening the three to reveal the one, the wording was brief and the meaning still concealed; the five thousand therefore had not yet slandered it. What they had already heard was also sufficient to become a later cause and condition like the jewel sewn into a robe. By leaving now they can avoid slandering the Dharma, so leaving benefits them. If they remained to hear the extensive teaching that opens the three and reveals the one, its content would run contrary to their attachments and they would instead slander it, so remaining would harm them. The Buddha therefore does not prevent their departure.

The scripture says that the assembly is now free of branches and leaves. Branches and leaves are fine, peripheral parts that cannot serve as useful timber. What these people cling to is a provisional means within provisional means; in relation to the great Dharma, they are not yet vessels capable of receiving it. The Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra says that those who discard the root and cling to branches and leaves are not wise; this is precisely its meaning here.

The scripture also says that it is well that they have withdrawn. Because they used a lesser Dharma to conceal themselves and also prevented others from receiving the illumination of the great Dharma, their withdrawal now leaves them without the fault of slandering the Dharma and without the fault of obstructing others. Thus the Buddha says it is well. Before the branches and leaves had withdrawn, the Tathāgata stopped three times; because the genuine members of the assembly single-mindedly wished to hear, Śāriputra requested the Dharma four times. Teacher and disciple both perceive the faculties of the assembly. It is not that the Buddha begrudges the Dharma or that Śāriputra presses his request in vain.

III. Why Supernatural Power Is Not Used to Keep Them There

Someone asks: The Buddha possesses great compassion. Why does he not use supernatural power to keep the five thousand seated while making them unable to hear, like the śrāvakas in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra? Or why does he not force the profound Dharma upon them even against their will, as with the poisonous drum or Bodhisattva Root of Joy's teaching to the bhikṣu Superior Intent?

The answer is that each way of acting has its own rationale. Only at the end of the Avataṃsaka assembly does a gradual path begin to be opened for the śrāvakas. At that time, their Lesser Vehicle attachments have not yet been broken, so although they remain seated, they are cut off from what is seen and heard. Here, however, the buddhas are about to teach the real after a very long time. They are precisely about to abolish the temporary stopping place of the conjured city and break down the narrow shelter of the grass hut. Those unable to receive the teaching must therefore be distinguished and removed.

If a person would slander whether leaving or remaining, one should forcefully teach that person as Bodhisattva Root of Joy did. But the five thousand before the Buddha benefit by leaving, so how could he suddenly force them to remain? Remaining would harm them, so how could he suddenly prevent them from going? Root of Joy teaches forcefully out of loving-kindness; the Tathāgata sends them away out of compassion. Each treatment has its own reason.

IV. If They Cannot Receive It Now, Will They Still Benefit Later?

Someone further asks: The five thousand gained no benefit even while seated. What benefit could they gain after leaving?

The answer is that these are not people who can directly receive the formal teaching now. Rather, they form causes and conditions for liberation at a later time, as already explained above. In the past, during the time of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, immeasurable living beings likewise gave rise to doubts. Life after life they remained together with their teacher, and now they have all attained liberation. The same is true of these five thousand.

When the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra was taught, fifteen thousand koṭis of people did not give rise to faith in the scriptural Dharma, yet the treatise says that they would still give rise to faith in the future. By analogy, the benefit of the five thousand need not wait until an extremely distant time. The Sūtra of Golden Light says that there are two kinds of people in Jambudvīpa, which is also used to express the same meaning. The text transmitted in this treatise reads “fifteen thousand koṭis”; the different figure in the present edition is discussed separately in the textual notes.

When the Buddha again tells Śāriputra to listen well, he concludes the three kinds of assent. Śāriputra's reception of the Buddha's intent is clear in the original wording and meaning and requires no separate analysis.

V. From the Brief Teaching to the Extensive Teaching

Beginning with the scripture's words “Such a wondrous Dharma,” the text enters the formal extensive teaching and is divided into two chapters. The first is the four-buddha chapter, which extensively teaches the provisional and the real of the buddhas in general that were previously presented. The second is the Śākyamuni chapter, which extensively teaches the provisional and the real of Śākyamuni Buddha that were previously presented.

The earlier passage contains few sentences, so its wording is brief. It refers only generally to the buddhas, so its persons are brief. It only summarizes the opening of the three vehicles and revelation of the one vehicle, so its meaning is brief. Here the phrases and passages increase, so the wording is extensive. Five kinds of buddha are listed, so the persons are extensive. Six meanings are listed, so the meaning is extensive.

The six meanings are, in order: first, praising the rarity of the Dharma-gate; second, declaring that the Buddha's words contain no falsehood or error; third, opening provisional means; fourth, revealing the real; fifth, citing the five turbidities to explain why the three vehicles had to be established; and sixth, distinguishing the false and encouraging the genuine. Praising the Dharma-gate causes people to give rise to reverence. Declaring the absence of falsehood and error stops their slander of the Buddha's words. Opening provisional means keeps them from clinging to a lesser Dharma. Revealing the real causes them to awaken to the great Dharma. Citing the five turbidities makes clear why the Buddha could not avoid teaching the three vehicles. Distinguishing the false and encouraging the genuine makes clear that those capable of receiving the teaching must be genuine.

Each of the five buddha chapters should originally possess all six meanings. In the scriptural text, however, the meanings appear reciprocally in earlier and later chapters and need not be repeated one by one in every chapter. This is the Tathāgata's skillful teaching: although the wording is brief, the meaning is complete, and it goes directly to what must be explained without becoming cumbersome. The sequence in which the six meanings appear in the individual chapters is likewise not fixed; the rest can be understood accordingly.

VI. The Four Meanings of the General-Buddha Chapter and Praise of the Rare Dharma

The four-buddha chapter is divided into two parts: first the buddhas are discussed generally, and then the buddhas of the past, future, and present are listed separately. The general-buddha chapter should possess all six meanings, but four are explicitly stated here: first, praise of the Dharma; second, absence of falsehood; third, opening provisional means; and fourth, revealing the real. The two omitted meanings—using the five turbidities to explain the provisional and distinguishing the false to encourage the genuine—point ahead to the Śākyamuni chapter.

The passage praising the Dharma praises it through both Dharma and simile. All buddhas appear alike in an age of the five turbidities and must, like Śākyamuni, first open the three vehicles. Only after more than forty years do they reveal the real. Because they explicitly teach it just once after a very long time, the scripture says they speak only when the proper time arrives. There are three reasons it was not taught for so long: the listeners were not yet capable of receiving it; the time for teaching had not yet arrived; and the five thousand had not yet left. Now there are three corresponding conditions: the listeners are capable of receiving it; the time has arrived; and the five thousand have left. The Buddha therefore resolves to teach the Great Vehicle, and the text says, “only then does he speak it.”

Udumbara is translated as “auspicious marvel.” It appears once every three thousand years, and when it appears, a wheel-turning king of the golden wheel emerges in the world. This simile means that only after the faculties for the three vehicles have been trained and matured does the Buddha teach the wondrous Dharma and bestow predictions that people will become Dharma kings. It is also like passing through the three flavors of curds, raw butter, and clarified butter before teaching the Dharma-flavor of ghee. The remaining meanings can be inferred from these.

From the perspective of contemplating the mind, contemplating this very mind as the middle way is called an auspicious sign. Because this contemplation penetrates all dharmas and reaches the true aspect, it is called marvelous. The remaining meanings can be understood accordingly.

VII. Absence of Falsehood and Opening Provisional Means

When the Buddha exhorts the assembly to believe, he exhorts them to trust a Dharma without falsehood. The principle revealed now is exceedingly profound and differs from what they heard in the past. The words spoken now are exceedingly wondrous and run contrary to the former teachings. The practice undertaken now is exceedingly universal and conflicts with former practice. The people transformed now are exceedingly excellent, surpassing those previously regarded as inferior. These still refer to the four coarse aspects of principle, words, practice, and persons associated with the poor son's self-description as a hired laborer; all are now opened and revealed as wondrous. Living beings may therefore suspect that the Buddha's earlier and later teachings contradict each other, so he exhorts them to believe. Those who can believe are persons free from falsehood; what they believe and what is taught is a Dharma free from falsehood.

Beginning with the scripture's statement that the buddhas teach the Dharma according to what is appropriate, the text opens provisional means in three sections: opening, explaining, and concluding.

First, the buddha path establishes provisional means in accord with what is appropriate for three kinds of faculty and is therefore said to accord with what is suitable. Yet the Buddha's own intent is directed toward the real, which living beings cannot understand; thus the scripture says that his intent is difficult to understand.

Second, the words “Why is this?” introduce a further explanation. The treatise cites Śākyamuni Buddha's own power of provisional means to explain how the buddhas in general employ provisional means. Because the buddhas share the same skillful wisdom, this buddha is used to explain those buddhas. Śākyamuni's statement that he uses innumerable provisional means, various causes and conditions, similes, and expressions to expound the dharmas likewise shows that all buddhas open the provisional in this same manner.

Third, the scriptural statement that this Dharma cannot be understood through thought and discrimination has two possible affiliations. If taken as the conclusion to opening the provisional, it says that the Buddha's intent is difficult to know and can be thoroughly understood only by buddhas together with buddhas. Those who receive the teaching suppose that there are three vehicles, while the buddhas know that in fact there is only one. If taken as the opening statement of revealing the real, it belongs to the text that follows.

VIII. The Five Sections of Revealing the Real and the Causes and Conditions of the One Great Matter

Revealing the real is divided into five: first, indicating the supreme persons and Dharma; second, indicating the original intent for which the buddhas appear in the world; third, raising the topic again; fourth, giving the formal explanation; and fifth, concluding and establishing the meaning.

First, the scripture presents a Dharma free from discrimination that only a buddha can know. A buddha knows the Dharma free from discrimination through nondiscriminating wisdom. The knowing buddha and the Dharma known are presented together; this is the revelation of the real Dharma.

Second, the original intent for appearing in the world is indicated, first through a general explanation and then through an explanation of the individual words. The general explanation is this: the buddhas awaken to the aspect of things just as they are, ride upon the real path, and respond by appearing in the world solely to enable living beings to attain that same true aspect. The buddhas appear only for this matter and no other. Apart from the true mark of all dharmas, everything else in this context of the provisional and the real is called the work of Māra.

The individual words are explained as follows. “One” is the one true aspect; it is not five, three, seven, or nine, and is therefore called one. Its nature is vast and comprehensive, encompassing five, three, seven, and nine, so it is called great. It is the rite enacted by the buddhas in appearing in the world, so it is called a matter. Living beings possess faculties capable of affecting a buddha, so they are called the cause. A buddha responds by appearing in accordance with the faculties of living beings, so he is called the condition. This is the original intent for which the buddhas appear in the world.

Since the original intent lies in the one, why are three vehicles now opened? The three are opened to serve as inducements toward the one vehicle, like someone who wishes to acquire everything another person possesses and therefore first gives that person something. Although a buddha teaches various paths, what he truly acts for remains the one vehicle.

Third, when the scripture again asks Śāriputra what the one great matter is, it raises the topic anew before analyzing and explaining it, thereby opening the explanation. Because this great matter is also honored by the Buddha, he speaks of it repeatedly. As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says, a royal father delights in hearing the name of the crown prince and never tires of repeating it. The treatise speaks only of a royal father and crown prince and gives no separate names.

IX. Three Interpretations: the Old Four Ones, Guangzhai, and the Masters of the Treatise on the Grounds

Fourth, in giving the formal explanation, the interpretations of various masters are presented first.

An old interpretation explains the four ones as one effect, one class of persons, one teaching, and one cause. The first two sentences are explained from the perspective of the teacher, while the latter two are explained from the perspective of those receiving the teaching. From the teacher's perspective, first briefly presenting the principle of the effect in the Cause Gate is called opening the Buddha's knowledge and vision; later extensively revealing the principle of the effect in the Effect Gate is called showing the Buddha's knowledge and vision. From the recipients' perspective, first gaining a brief understanding in the Cause Gate is called awakening, while later extensively entering the purport of the principle in the Effect Gate is called entering.

The present treatise does not adopt this explanation. All four scriptural sentences say that the action is undertaken for living beings, and their meaning principally concerns the present faculties' attainment of benefit, not the transforming lord himself. How, then, can the two sentences on opening and showing be assigned to the teaching buddha? At this moment the Dharma is being taught in the Cause Gate and the three are being opened to reveal the one. How could two sentences be assigned in advance to the Effect Gate? The causes and conditions for the Effect Gate have not yet assembled, so it cannot be taught beforehand. According to the old explanation, the first appearance of the six auspicious signs, before the Buddha has even emerged from samādhi, would already have to be the brief teaching, while the time before the five thousand have left would have to be the extensive teaching. Yet neither passage is such a teaching. The bodhisattvas from below have not yet emerged and the buddhas who are Śākyamuni's emanations have not yet assembled. How can two sentences in the Cause Gate be made to refer to the Effect Gate?

Guangzhai says that the first sentence contains the two meanings of opening by removing and opening by producing. The three vehicles formerly taught as provisional means enable people to remove the five turbidities, thereby opening forth the Great Vehicle principle of awakening to the Buddha's knowledge and vision. Although this principle was previously opened and taught to people, its rationale was not explained, so it is shown again, causing people to develop wisdom through hearing. Although they have heard, they have not yet awakened, so it is further analyzed extensively, causing them to develop wisdom through reflection. Once they have gained the purport through faith and awakening, they are caused to arouse the resolve to train in the Buddha's knowledge and vision, attain wisdom through cultivation, and enter the principle of the Buddha's knowledge and vision.

The present treatise does not adopt this either. Since it follows the old interpretation in defining the topic as the one effect, all four sentences should explain the effect. How can wisdom through hearing, reflection, and cultivation from the causal stage be used in their explanation, contradicting the causal and resultant stages before and after? Moreover, there are many kinds of the three wisdoms. Because this scripture precisely refutes the determinate attachments of the two vehicles, the three wisdoms of the Tripiṭaka Teaching cannot be adopted. If the provisional means of bodhisattvas are the same as those of the two vehicles, they express only the meaning of the Shared Teaching and cannot be adopted either. If the three wisdoms of the Distinct Teaching are intended, they are a bodhisattva Dharma and not a buddha Dharma. If the three wisdoms of the Perfect Teaching are said to open the Buddha's knowledge and vision, they still cannot appropriately resolve the scriptural text. If some other three wisdoms are taken, the interpretation strays even farther from the scripture. If the Perfect Teaching's three wisdoms are retained, the originally asserted one effect cannot be established. None of these paths can be adopted; the rest can be inferred accordingly.

The masters of the Treatise on the Grounds say that the eightfold understanding attained in the presence of buddhas numerous as the sands of the fifth Ganges River is the stage of the thirty minds and corresponds to opening. From the first through the sixth ground, the delusions of views and thought are exhausted and understanding gradually becomes clear; these correspond to showing. On the seventh and eighth grounds, emptiness and existence are contemplated together without obstruction; these correspond to awakening. The tenth ground corresponds to entering, and they cite a scripture saying that the tenth ground is called seeing with the eyes.

The present treatise does not adopt this either. This scripture teaches the opening of the Buddha's knowledge and vision. A buddha knows through the wisdom of all modes and sees with the buddha-eye; only the opening and development of such wisdom and vision is called the Buddha's knowledge and vision. The eightfold understanding attained in the presence of buddhas numerous as the sands of the fifth Ganges River has not yet entered the grounds. How could it be called opening? This opening does not open the buddha-eye, and this knowledge is not the knowledge of the wisdom of all modes. It does not accord with the scripture.

X. Ten Further Interpretations and Their Point-by-Point Refutation

Someone else says that the first sentence is the principle and the latter three are its brief explanation. Because the eight sufferings and five turbidities conceal the future buddha-fruit, this is called closed. Now the teaching removes the five turbidities and the knowledge and vision of the buddha-fruit become manifest, so this is called open; because defilements are removed and the principle appears, it is called purity. The latter three sentences are then correlated with hearing, reflection, and cultivation. The present treatise says that the objections to this school are the same as those above.

Another person correlates the separate teachings of the three vehicles with opening, the teaching shared by the three vehicles with showing, the disparagement of the Lesser and praise of the Great with awakening, and the Lotus Sūtra with entering. Yet another correlates the Shared Teaching of the three vehicles with opening, disparagement and praise with showing, the Sūtra of Immeasurable Meanings with awakening, and the Lotus Sūtra with entering. Both interpretations split three sentences off into other scriptures and leave only one for the Lotus. The treatise judges this to be a fragmented and forced construction that injures and falsely imputes the scripture's intent; the fault is grave.

Another person says that the thirty minds are opening, the first through sixth grounds are showing, the seventh through ninth grounds are awakening, and the tenth ground is entering. The present treatise says that this takes a peripheral meaning from the Shared Teaching and inserts the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. It still does not reveal what is extraordinary about the Lotus; how could it merit such praise from the scripture?

Another person cites the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, the Sūtra of the Jeweled Necklace, the Sūtra for Humane Kings, the Summary of the Great Vehicle, and the Treatise on the Seventeen Grounds, saying that ordinary beings and others also have fifty-two stages and that there are forty minds before the grounds. Why are these not used? The present treatise says that this person misquotes the Avataṃsaka, because the Avataṃsaka does not teach the ten faiths. Even if other classes of scripture teach forty minds before the grounds, none of these stages is a path that severs delusion. They cannot be used to explain the opening of the Buddha's knowledge and vision; these are merely groundless words.

Another person cites the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, saying that the general and specific aspects of the four wisdoms are attained simultaneously. The present treatise says that this cannot explain opening, showing, awakening, and entering. The four sentences appear to have shallow and deep levels, while the four wisdoms themselves are lofty. Opening and showing can extend through both shallow and deep levels and cannot be compared merely because the four wisdoms occur simultaneously. This school sees only the simultaneity of the four wisdoms stated in the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom and fails to see that opening and showing themselves can also be complete simultaneously.

Another person says that neither emptiness nor existence is opening, the capacity for emptiness and existence is showing, the nonduality of emptiness and existence is awakening, and understanding the twofold character of the nondual is entering. The present treatise says that this only explains the two truths of emptiness and existence. It cannot even draw the two vehicles out, so how could it be the One Vehicle purport of the Lotus?

Another person says that penetrating the principle of the three truths is opening, clearly distinguishing the three truths is showing, not seeing the three truths as either one or different is awakening, and naturally following their flow is entering. The present treatise says that this interpretation unfolds the three truths sequentially and still does not go beyond a bodhisattva Dharma. How could it be called a buddha Dharma?

Another person says that “knowledge” in the Buddha's knowledge and vision is the general aspect known by all-wisdom, while “vision” is the specific aspect known by the wisdom of all modes. The present treatise says that the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom assigns all-wisdom to śrāvaka wisdom, path-wisdom to bodhisattva wisdom, and the wisdom of all modes to buddha-wisdom. These are three wisdoms arranged separately, not three wisdoms present together in one mind. How could the knowledge of the two vehicles be joined to the vision of the buddha of the Distinct Teaching and used to explain the knowledge and vision of the buddha of the Perfect Teaching?

Finally, another person says that the exhaustion-wisdom in which afflictions are completely severed and purified is called knowledge, while the nonarising-wisdom in which the afflictive burdens of cause and effect will ultimately never arise again is called vision. The present treatise says that this takes the name and doctrine of a buddha as taught by the Shared school and uses them to explain the ultimate buddha; it is wholly inapplicable. The masters above randomly take phrases from different scriptures and none sees the great intent of the Lotus.

XI. Three Rounds of Explanation in the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra first explains four meanings in relation to the three vehicles. First, opening means unsurpassed: apart from all-wisdom there is no other matter. The scripture says that the Buddha appears in the world to open the Buddha's knowledge and vision and enable living beings to attain purity. Second, showing means sameness: the buddha-nature and Dharma-body of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and buddhas are equal. The scripture says that the Buddha appears in the world to show living beings the Buddha's knowledge and vision because there is no difference in the buddha-nature and Dharma-body. Third, awakening means not knowing: the two vehicles do not know that ultimately there is only the one buddha vehicle, and now they are caused to know. Fourth, entering means causing people to realize the ground of nonretrogression and manifesting the activity of immeasurable wisdom.

The sequence of the treatise is this: first it says that the Buddha's knowledge and vision is unsurpassed. People might suppose, however, that the Buddha alone possesses it, so the second point says that the three vehicles alike possess the buddha-nature and Dharma-body. Although they possess these equally, the two vehicles are still unaware of it, so the third point causes them to know. Although they know, they have not yet attained nonretrogression, so the fourth causes them to realize nonretrogression.

The second round explains the passage in relation to bodhisattvas. Opening is the same as in the first round. Showing causes bodhisattvas whose minds contain doubts to know how to practice in accord with reality. Awakening causes those who have not yet aroused the mind of bodhi to arouse it. Entering causes those who have already aroused the mind of bodhi to enter the true Dharma.

The third round explains the passage in relation to ordinary beings. Opening is again as above. Showing reveals that ordinary beings possess the Dharma-body and buddha-nature. Awakening causes non-Buddhist living beings to awaken. Entering causes them to enter great bodhi.

XII. The Present Master's Explanation: from Immeasurable Ones to Ten Kinds of One and the Four Ones

The present master's four explanations do not contradict the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra. The treatise explains each sentence separately, while the present master gives four explanations within a single sentence. The treatise speaks of realizing the ground of nonretrogression; the present master explains this through the four stages. The treatise says that the Tathāgata can realize the real; the present master explains this through the four wisdoms. The treatise speaks of sameness; the present master explains it through contemplating the mind. The treatise speaks of not knowing the ultimate place; the present master explains it through the four gateways. The remaining correspondences can be understood accordingly.

In the present explanation of revealing the real, one can extensively explain immeasurable dharmas as all being one. Following the ten subtleties of the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra, these become ten kinds of one. If provisionally reconciled with the old interpretation, they can be explained briefly as the four ones. With respect to immeasurable ones, no single form or fragrance is anything other than the middle way; the meaning is evident. If the ten kinds of one are correlated one by one with the scripture, the ten meanings are all present even though the scriptural wording does not arrange them entirely in sequence.

The scripture's statement that the Buddha expounds the dharmas through innumerable provisional means and various causes and conditions still belongs to the passage opening the provisional. The following statement that this Dharma cannot be understood through thought and discrimination reveals one principle. Only buddhas can know it, revealing one wisdom. The words “only for the sake of one great matter” reveal one practice: “one” is principle, “great” is wisdom, and “matter” is practice. Principle is illuminated by wisdom, and wisdom in turn guides practice. The Buddha's knowledge and vision means that wisdom knows the principle and the buddha-eye sees the truth. Because opening, showing, awakening, and entering are extensively distinguished as the forty stages, these words reveal one set of stages.

The conclusion to the four sentences through “one great matter” further reveals the oneness of the three dharmas: “one” is the Dharma-body, “great” is prajñā, and “matter” is liberation; together they form the secret treasury. The Buddha's appearance in the world reveals one stimulus-and-response. Teaching only bodhisattvas reveals one retinue. Everything he does reveals one spiritual power. Using only the Buddha's knowledge and vision to cause living beings to be shown it and awaken to it reveals one benefit. Teaching the Dharma to living beings only through the one buddha vehicle reveals one teaching. Scripture and meaning correspond like the matching halves of a tally.

If explained briefly through the four ones, the present and old interpretations have the same number but different meanings. The old school calls the first the one effect; the present master calls it one principle. In terms of meaning, without one principle all matters would become inverted, turning into Māra's teaching rather than a buddha scripture. In terms of wording, the scripture speaks of the Buddha's knowledge and vision, and the present explanation takes what the Buddha knows and sees: what is seen is the truth, and what is known is the object. The object and truth are the principle of the true aspect, so this is called one principle. The old school calls the next one cause; the present master calls it one practice. Cause indicates only a single stage, while practice includes both cause and effect, so it is called one practice. The names one class of persons and one teaching are the same as in the old school.

XIII. The First Explanation of One Principle: the Four Stages

The scripture will now be explained briefly through the four ones. One principle is explained first, using four approaches: first, the four stages; second, the four wisdoms; third, the four gateways; and fourth, contemplating the mind.

First, the four stages. The object of truth cannot be known and seen through ordinary knowledge and vision; it must be known and seen through wisdom and the eye. The two wisdoms and four eyes cannot know and see it ultimately; only the wisdom of all modes and the buddha-eye can do so. Yet the scripture says that living beings are caused to open the Buddha's knowledge and vision, not merely that the Buddha-fruit itself knows and sees. To speak solely of the Buddha-fruit loses the side of living beings; to speak solely of living beings leaves no Buddha's knowledge and vision. Neither side can therefore be taken in isolation.

Although practitioners of the three teachings are also living beings, they do not yet possess the buddha-eye and buddha-wisdom and cannot know and see the true aspect. People in the four stages of the Perfect Teaching are likewise living beings, yet they have already acquired a share of the buddha-eye and buddha-wisdom. They therefore fulfill both the meaning of living beings and the meaning of the Buddha's knowledge and vision, so the four stages are used to explain one principle. In the auspicious signs, the heavens rain four kinds of flowers, indicating that the myriad wholesome deeds all converge and enter the four stages. Living beings ride the flowers of the four stages toward the buddha-fruit; therefore the principle is revealed through the stages.

First, opening corresponds to the ten abodes. At the first of the ten abodes, one first breaks ignorance, opens the tathāgata treasury, and sees the principle of the true aspect. The inherently possessed principle of one's nature is stained and concealed by the delusions of the Shared and Distinct Teachings and is difficult to know. Although a beginner can have perfect faith, perfect reception, and perfect mastery, that person cannot yet sever delusion, so this is not called opening. Inwardly, contemplative practice is intensified; outwardly, the rain of Dharma assists its completion. The delusions that conceal the principle are broken, and the real virtue of cultivation and the original nature are revealed. Knowledge and vision become bright and open, like the sun rising, darkness vanishing, and the eye becoming able to function. This is called opening. Because delusion is broken through cultivation dependent upon conditions, living beings are said to be caused to attain purity. The Sūtra for Humane Kings says that entering the prajñā of principle is called abiding; this means abiding in the stage of the small white flower of the ten abodes.

Second, showing corresponds to the ten practices. Once the obstructing delusions have been removed, the essence of knowledge and vision appears. This essence possesses the myriad virtues, and all the virtues of the Dharma-realm are shown with clarity. Thus it is called showing; this is the stage of the great white flower of the ten practices.

Third, awakening corresponds to the ten dedications. Once obstructions have been removed, the essence appears and the practices of the Dharma-realm become clear. Event and principle interpenetrate, and there are no longer two different destinations. The Summary of the Great Vehicle speaks of wisdom in accord with principle and wisdom in accord with measure. Here principle and measure are nondual, so this is called awakening; this is the stage of the small red flower of the ten dedications.

Fourth, entering corresponds to the ten grounds. Once event and principle have interpenetrated, one can function freely and without obstruction, flowing naturally from the letter a to the letter ḍha and entering the ocean of sarvajñā. As the Summary of the Great Vehicle says, one penetrates freely in accord with principle and measure. Knowledge and vision in accord with measure can sustain the myriad virtues; knowledge and vision in accord with principle can ward off all delusions. This is the stage of the great red flower of the ten grounds.

Yet within the perfectly subtle stages, the merit of all forty-one grounds is complete in any one stage. Opening itself already possesses showing, awakening, and entering; these are not four mutually separate minds. With respect to knowledge and vision in accord with principle, no shallow or deep aspects can be distinguished. The four stages are distinguished only to illuminate knowledge and vision in accord with measure. The mind at first arousal and the ultimate mind do not differ in essence, yet the present treatise still says that the former mind is more difficult. Since there is difficulty and ease, the beginning and ultimate minds differ in brightness and darkness, shallowness and depth. The moon's body is round both at first and last, yet the new moon and full moon differ in brightness. The knowledge and vision of all four stages illuminates the true aspect, yet one can still speak of the difference between opening and entering. The rest can be inferred accordingly.

XIV. Three Further Explanations of One Principle and Their Forward and Reverse Arising

Second, the four wisdoms. Here the four wisdoms of the Perfect Teaching must be correlated with the four stages; the Shared Teaching interpretation in the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras is not followed.

First, path-wisdom sees the reality of the path, and within that reality the Buddha's knowledge and vision is opened. Second, wisdom of path varieties knows the paths, categories, understandings, and deluded aspects of each of the ten Dharma-realms, thereby showing the Buddha's knowledge and vision in each. Third, all-wisdom knows that all dharmas share the single aspect of quiescent extinction; that quiescent extinction is awakening to the Buddha's knowledge and vision. Fourth, the wisdom of all modes both knows that all dharmas share the single aspect of quiescent extinction and distinguishes the varied features of their kinds of practice; this is entering the Buddha's knowledge and vision.

A second set of correlations may also be made. Path-wisdom accords with principle and is called opening. Wisdom of path varieties accords with measure and is called showing. All-wisdom makes principle and measure nondual and is called awakening. The wisdom of all modes illuminates both principle and measure and is called entering. This too distinguishes shallow and deep for purposes of explanation within the real principle, which in itself has no shallow or deep.

Third, the four gateways explain the four sentences horizontally. In the gateway of emptiness, one emptiness means that all is empty; this corresponds to opening. In the gateway of existence, one existence means that all exists; this corresponds to showing. In the gateway of both emptiness and existence, all is both empty and existent; this corresponds to awakening. In the gateway of neither emptiness nor existence, all is neither empty nor existent; this corresponds to entering. The gateways capable of reaching the principle are four, but the principle reached is one. Opening, showing, awakening, and entering are the gateways that penetrate; what is known and seen is the principle penetrated.

Fourth, contemplating the mind. Contemplating the inconceivable principle of the three truths inherent in the nature of the mind, with this contemplation clear and pure, is called opening. Although inconceivable, emptiness, provisional existence, and the middle can nevertheless be distinguished clearly without confusion; this is called showing. Emptiness, provisional existence, and the middle are three and yet one, one and yet three; this is called awakening. Emptiness, provisional existence, and the middle are not three fixed entities, yet all three are simultaneously illuminated; this is called entering. These are the distinctions of opening, showing, awakening, and entering within the three contemplations in one mind.

Why are these four explanations given? In forward sequence: seeing the principle depends on the stages; establishing the stages depends on wisdom; arousing wisdom depends on the gateways; and penetrating the gateways depends on contemplation. In reverse sequence: because there is contemplation, the gateways are penetrated; because the gateways are penetrated, wisdom is perfected; because wisdom is perfected, the stages are established; because the stages are established, the principle is seen; and because the principle is seen, it is called one principle. Beginning with the scripture's conclusion that the buddhas appear in the world for the one great matter is the concluding establishment of one principle.

The former provisional teachings can also be said, according to their meaning, to contain opening, showing, awakening, and entering. Yet these are not the Buddha's knowledge and vision, so they are called provisional. Now the Buddha's knowledge and vision is explicitly taught, so it is called real. The real is one principle.

XV. One Class of Persons, One Practice, and One Teaching

Beginning with the Buddha's telling Śāriputra that the buddhas and tathāgatas teach only bodhisattvas is the explanation of one class of persons. Viewed according to former provisional means, it appeared that the three vehicles were taught. According to the real, those taught are only bodhisattvas. The poor son thinks himself a lowly hired laborer, while the elder sees and knows that he is truly his own son. This is one class of persons.

Beginning with the statement that everything they do is always for one matter, what Guangzhai calls one teaching the present master calls one practice. The many practices of the three vehicles are called “all”; because all these practices exist for the sake of perfection, the many practices are the one matter. Where does this one practice go? It proceeds only toward the Buddha's knowledge and vision; this is one practice.

This sentence can also emphasize one teaching. From the perspective of the teaching lord, everything the buddhas do takes teaching and transforming as its work, so it is more convenient to call it one teaching. From the perspective of practitioners, what is done is practice, so it is more convenient to call it one practice. All four sentences in fact have two directions. In the sentence on one principle, taking that which knows and sees emphasizes one set of stages, while taking that which is known and seen emphasizes one principle. In the sentence on persons, taking the act of teaching and transforming emphasizes one teaching, while taking bodhisattvas emphasizes one class of persons. In the sentence on teaching, taking the teaching of the Dharma to living beings through the one buddha vehicle emphasizes one teaching, while taking “vehicle” in its meaning of bearing and transporting emphasizes one practice. Each of the four sentences can be interpreted in this way, following whichever direction is more convenient in its context.

Beginning with the words “only through the one buddha vehicle,” what Guangzhai calls one cause the present master calls one teaching. The perfectly sudden teaching is called the one buddha vehicle. Thus the Introductory chapter speaks of expounding a Great Vehicle scripture; this precisely indicates the meaning of teaching. The teachings below the Distinct Teaching remain residual statements carrying unexhausted provisional means; they are not the ultimate and definitive one buddha vehicle.

XVI. No Other, No Two, No Three, and the Conclusion to the Four-Buddha Chapter

Guangzhai says that “no two” means there are no two vehicles of pratyekabuddhas and śrāvakas, while “no three” means there is no third vehicle of partial-practice bodhisattvas. Another person says that “no two” means there are no bodhisattvas or pratyekabuddhas, while “no three” means there are no śrāvakas. If this were so, it would merely remove the vehicles of the Tripiṭaka Teaching while preserving the vehicle of the Shared Teaching and would have nothing to do with the one buddha vehicle.

Another says that “no two” means there are no pratyekabuddhas and “no three” means there are no śrāvakas, while still preserving the Great Vehicle of bodhisattvas. If this were so, only the two vehicles within the Tripiṭaka Teaching would be removed, while the Tripiṭaka bodhisattva would still remain. This would still leave a remainder and would have nothing to do with the buddha vehicle. Moreover, where does any scripture or treatise list the śrāvaka vehicle as third? Since no such sequence exists, this is a false claim. In this arrangement, “no two” removes only pratyekabuddhas, while “no three” then switches to removing bodhisattvas; the first vehicle of śrāvakas is instead never removed, making the sequence even more disordered.

The present master says that “only through the one buddha vehicle” means the vehicle of the Perfect Teaching that teaches the Buddha-Dharma in purity. “No other vehicle” means there is no residual statement of the Distinct Teaching carrying provisional means. “No two” means there is no duality carried within the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras. “No three” means there are no three vehicles set in opposition within the Vaipulya teachings. If even these twos and threes do not exist, how much less the three vehicles of the Tripiṭaka Teaching.

Beginning with “Śāriputra, the Dharma of all buddhas throughout the ten directions is also like this” is the fifth section, the conclusion. The chapters on the buddhas of the past, future, and present each explicitly teach one teaching and one practice; the general text that follows then teaches one class of persons and one principle, as the wording shows. The four ones can also be explained within each chapter, but they are not as clearly manifest as in the general passage.

Chapter Thirteen of the Sūtra of the Bodhisattva's Jeweled Necklace speaks of nine generations of buddhas: the three great categories of past, present, and future are each again divided into three times. Among the three generations of future buddhas, ancient buddhas who enter the future through compassion and manifest various bodies to liberate living beings are the past buddhas within the future. Those who will receive predictions in the future are the present buddhas within the future. Those who will in turn be predicted by future buddhas are the future buddhas within the future. The three generations of past buddhas can be inferred from this, and the rest is not elaborated separately. Among the three generations of present buddhas, the present buddha within the present is the teaching lord at this moment; the next bodhisattva in the position of succession is the future buddha within the present; and an ancient buddha who lowers a trace is the past buddha within the present.

XVII. The Chapters on the Buddhas of the Past, Future, and Present

The chapter on past buddhas should possess all six meanings, but the explicit text presents only two: first, opening provisional means; second, revealing the real. Of the remaining four, two point upward to the general-buddha chapter and two point downward to the Śākyamuni chapter. The scripture's statement that past buddhas used immeasurable and innumerable provisional means explains the opening of the provisional. Its statement that all the dharmas they taught were for the sake of the one buddha vehicle explains the revelation of the real.

According to the preceding passage, the one buddha vehicle is one teaching. Living beings hear the Dharma from the buddhas; because the passage speaks both of the Dharma heard and the living beings receiving it, it also includes one class of persons. In “all ultimately attained the wisdom of all modes,” the object known by the wisdom of all modes is one principle, while that which knows is one practice. Although the scriptural wording does not follow the sequence of principle, persons, practice, and teaching, all four ones are present.

The future-buddha chapter likewise explicitly presents the two meanings of opening provisional means and revealing the real. The other meanings point reciprocally upward and downward, so all six are present together. The rest can be understood by analogy with the past-buddha chapter.

The present-buddha chapter takes the buddhas of the present as the teaching lords of the present moment. First it indicates the intent for which the buddhas appear in the world. Just as the general-buddha chapter says that the buddhas appear in the world solely because of the causes and conditions of the one great matter, here too the buddhas appear solely to benefit living beings and bring them peace and joy. Next comes opening the provisional, then revealing the real; the four ones of principle, persons, practice, and teaching are likewise included.

Words and Phrases of the Sutra of the Lotus Blossom of the Wondrous Dharma, Fascicle Four, Second Part. Taught by the Great Master Zhizhe of Tiantai.

I. Only Five Sections among the Six Meanings Appear in the Śākyamuni Chapter

Second is the extensive explanation of the Śākyamuni Buddha chapter. The original chapter framework has six meanings. The Śākyamuni chapter lacks the meaning of praising the rarity of the Dharma, so only five sections appear here: first, opening and revealing the provisional; second, revealing the real; third, citing the five turbidities to explain why skillful means are established; fourth, distinguishing the false and urging the assembly to believe and receive the single reality; fifth, explaining that the Buddha's words contain no falsehood.

In “I too am now like this,” “I” is Śākyamuni Buddha. Śākyamuni now teaches three vehicles first and one vehicle afterward, without differing from the four buddhas above, and therefore says that he too is like this.

“Knowing that living beings have various desires” means that living beings possess the faculties, natures, and desires of the five vehicles. The past is called faculty, the present desire, and the future nature. “The deep attachments in their minds” also refers to faculty. “Skillful means” means opening the provisional Dharmas of the three vehicles according to what is appropriate for living beings.

“All of these are to enable living beings to attain the one buddha vehicle” reveals the real. Buddha vehicle indicates that the Dharma taught is one. “All” indicates that the practice undertaken is one. The object known by the wisdom of all modes indicates that the principle realized is one. Here the three ones of teaching, practice, and principle are listed first; the one class of persons has not yet been listed.

II. Why Distinguish and Teach Three within the Pure, Single Reality?

Beginning with “Throughout the worlds of the ten directions there are not even two vehicles, how much less three,” the text enters the third section: citing the five turbidities to explain why the provisional is opened.

Before formally presenting the five turbidities, the passage first indicates its intent. The preceding text has already explained the buddhas' opening the provisional to reveal the real, but has not yet explained why they conceal the real and establish the provisional. That one real Dharma is pure, limpid, and undivided like empty space. Within it there are not even provisional Dharmas carrying two or three vehicles, much less provisional Dharmas establishing the three vehicles alone or the five vehicles alone.

Only because the obstructions of the five turbidities are heavy and the real Dharma cannot be taught directly must the provisional Dharmas of five alone and three alone be established, together with the provisional Dharmas carrying two and carrying three. The scripture therefore says that three are distinguished and taught within the one buddha vehicle. This “three” includes the three in carrying two and carrying three, as well as the three in five alone and three alone.

III. The Essences and Aspects of the Five Turbidities

The five turbidities are distinguished in four layers: first, announcing their number; second, listing their names; third, explaining their essences and aspects; fourth, explaining and concluding. The scripture itself clearly announces their number and lists their names, so these are not recopied here. The scriptural word “such” refers generally to the essences and aspects of the five turbidities.

First, the essences of the five turbidities.

The turbidity of the eon has no independent essence. An eon is an extended time, while a kṣaṇa is a brief time. The provisional name “turbidity of the eon” is established only because the other four turbidities gather within the same period. This is the meaning of the scripture's words “the disordered time of the turbidity of the eon.”

The turbidity of living beings likewise has no independent essence. It appropriates views and pride and establishes the provisional name “living being” upon retribution. This is the meaning of the scripture's words “living beings heavily defiled.”

The turbidity of afflictions takes the five dull agents as its essence. The turbidity of views takes the five sharp agents as its essence. The turbidity of life takes the continuous sustaining of form and mind as its essence. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Next, the aspects of the five turbidities.

The aspect of the turbidity of the eon is the intensification and convergence of the other four turbidities during that period. When anger intensifies, there is the disaster of weapons and war. When greed intensifies, there is the disaster of famine. When delusion intensifies, there is the disaster of epidemic disease. When these three disasters occur together, afflictions become still more rampant, various false views still more blazing, and form and mind coarse, harmful, and corrupt. Reputations become defiled and the years and length of life are diminished, as all the turbidities converge.

This is like rushing water becoming muddy, with wind and waves churning and fish and dragons stirring it from within, leaving nowhere on which a person can rely; the conditions of that time make it so. It is also like the beginning of an eon of formation, when beings from the Heaven of Streaming Light fall to the ground and the ground causes them to develop desire; or like the gods of Trāyastriṃśa entering the Coarse and Harsh Garden and developing contentious minds because of that garden. These are called the aspects of the turbidity of the eon.

The aspect of the turbidity of afflictions has five similes. Greed is like the ocean receiving a hundred rivers and never being satisfied. Anger is like a poisonous snake drawing in venom and disturbing the world. Delusion is dark, stubborn, and intractable, blacker than lacquer and ink. Pride looks down from above, domineering and disregarding others without measure. Doubt is like a net: without faith, the real Dharma cannot be told to such a person. These are the aspects of the turbidity of afflictions.

The aspect of the turbidity of views is falsely claiming that a real person exists where there is no real subject, and denying that a true path exists where there actually is one. The sixteen views, sixty-two views, and others are like nets and dense forests in which people are bound and bent, unable to escape. This is the aspect of the turbidity of views.

The aspect of the turbidity of living beings is appropriating form and mind and establishing a controlling subject. It is also like birdlime, to which everything adheres. Living beings drift and wander through the six destinies, taking birth everywhere. In reality they are impoverished and short-lived, yet they are provisionally named long-lived and wealthy. This is the aspect of the turbidity of living beings.

The aspect of the turbidity of life is arising in the morning and dying by night, appearing during the day and vanishing by evening. It turns like waves and coils like smoke, never pausing for an instant. Such is the aspect of the turbidity of life. The aspects of the five turbidities are numerous and cannot all be described.

Next is the sequence in which they arise. The turbidities of afflictions and views are fundamental. From these two, the turbidity of living beings is formed. Once living beings exist, there is life that continuously sustains them. When these four turbidities pass through a period of time, it is called the turbidity of the eon.

IV. First Question: If the Five Turbidities Obstruct the Great, Why Do Some Still Hear It?

The analytical questions now begin.

Question: If the five turbidities obstruct the Great Vehicle, why could some people in the Avataṃsaka assembly hear the great Dharma before removing the five turbidities?

Answer: This should be distinguished through four propositions.

First, sharp Great Vehicle faculties and heavy obstructions. Because the faculties are sharp, even heavy obstructions cannot obstruct. Those who first heard the Great Vehicle in the Avataṃsaka assembly in this land belong to this proposition.

Second, sharp faculties and light obstructions. The body lists only this combination and assigns no separate person to it.

Third, dull faculties and light obstructions. Those who hear the Great Vehicle in pure lands elsewhere belong to this proposition.

Fourth, dull faculties and heavy obstructions. People like Śāriputra in this land must first remove the five turbidities and can hear the Great Vehicle only afterward.

V. Second Question: Do the Five Turbidities Also Obstruct the Lesser Vehicle?

Question: Do the five turbidities obstruct the Lesser Vehicle?

Answer: This too should be distinguished through four propositions concerning the Lesser Vehicle.

First, sharp Lesser Vehicle faculties and light coverings: the coverings cannot become an obstruction. Śāriputra belongs to this class.

Second, sharp faculties and heavy coverings: the coverings still cannot become an obstruction. Aṅgulimāla belongs to this class.

Third, dull faculties and light coverings: these too do not form an obstruction. Panthaka belongs to this class.

Fourth, dull faculties and heavy coverings: only these form an obstruction. Such people cannot hear the Lesser Vehicle and cannot thereby be liberated.

VI. Third Question: Hearing the Great or Lesser outside the Avataṃsaka and Tripiṭaka Teachings

Question: Other people can hear the Great or Lesser Vehicle even though they are neither in the Avataṃsaka assembly nor within the Tripiṭaka Teaching. Why is this?

Answer: This should be explained in terms of the four teachings, with four gateways distinguished within each.

Those with sharp faculties and light coverings hear the gateway of neither emptiness nor existence and enter. Those with sharp faculties and heavy coverings hear the gateway of both emptiness and existence and enter. Those with dull faculties and light coverings hear the gateway of emptiness and enter. Those with dull faculties and heavy coverings hear the gateway of existence and enter.

The four gateways of two teachings are distinguished in relation to the Lesser Vehicle; those of the other two are distinguished in relation to the Great Vehicle. Correlating them one by one requires further careful investigation. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

VII. Fourth Question: Why Is It Said Generally That They Obstruct the Great but Not the Lesser?

Question: Generally speaking, why do the five turbidities obstruct the Great Vehicle but not the Lesser Vehicle?

Answer: Because the turbidity of living beings is heavy, living beings falsely reckon the five aggregates to possess the four virtues of permanence, bliss, self, and purity. If they directly hear permanence and self, they will take the false to be correct. This is like the stubborn ignorance of an old physician who does not know that milk-medicine can be beneficial or harmful, does not know the source from which illness arises, and does not know when medicine should be allowed or prohibited. Because such a person understands nothing, the five turbidities obstruct the Great Vehicle.

The scripture says: “If I praised only the buddha vehicle, living beings would sink into suffering.” This is its meaning.

If living beings first hear impermanence, suffering, and emptiness, they reject birth-and-death, aspire to nirvāṇa, and break false reckonings. The five turbidities therefore do not obstruct the Lesser Vehicle. The scripture says: “While I was reflecting in this way, all the buddhas throughout the ten directions appeared and comforted and instructed me with pure Brahmā voices.” This is its meaning.

The four siddhāntas are further explained through the five turbidities. The turbidities of the eon and life belong to the worldly siddhānta. The turbidities of living beings and views belong to the siddhānta for each person. The turbidity of afflictions belongs to the counteractive siddhānta. The first three siddhāntas initially remove the five turbidities, after which the Great Vehicle siddhānta of ultimate meaning is taught to living beings.

Distinguished in terms of cause and effect, the turbidities of afflictions and views are two causes and the other three turbidities are effects. Distinguished in terms of persons and dharmas, the living being is one person and the other four turbidities are four dharmas. Distinguished in terms of dharmas and time, four turbidities are dharmas and the turbidity of the eon is one time.

Distinguished in terms of the three obstructions, there are two retributive obstructions and two afflictive obstructions, with karmic obstruction between them. Distinguished through the three provisional designations of causal formation, continuity, and relativity, the living being is a causally formed provisional designation, life a continuous provisional designation, and the other three turbidities can be understood by analogy as relative provisional designations. Distinguished through received, Dharma, and name provisional designations, the living being is the received provisional designation, the other four turbidities are Dharma provisional designations, and name provisional designation extends through both.

Distinguished in terms of ordinary and noble persons, the turbidities of afflictions and views belong to ordinary beings, while the other three extend through ordinary and noble persons. Distinguished in terms of long and short, life is short and the eon long, while the other three extend through both long and short. An eon is only a period of time; life is a time discussed together with the dharmas of form and mind.

Distinguished in terms of inner and outer, the turbidity of the eon extends through both, while the turbidity of life occurs only within the sentient body. Distinguished by what is harmed, the three minor disasters harm people but not external things, while the three great disasters harm external things but not people. Distinguished by the realms and destinies through which they extend, a minor eon occurs only in the human realm, a great eon extends through the form realm, and life extends through the five destinies and three realms.

The turbidity of the eon is shared by living beings, while each of the other four is distinct. A minor eon is only an eon of turbidity; a great eon extends through both the presence and absence of turbidity. Human life gradually diminishes from eighty thousand years to ten years, which is called one minor eon. Eighty cycles of increase and decrease are called a great eon.

VIII. Fifth Question: What Are the Five Purities?

Question: If there are five turbidities, what are the five purities?

Answer: They can be explained by analogy with the deviant and correct three poisons. The deviant three poisons are the five turbidities; the correct three poisons are the five purities. Pure lands elsewhere lack the deviant three poisons, so the obstruction of the five turbidities is lighter. The meaning can be understood by analogy. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The body uses only the deviant and correct three poisons as an analogy and does not list five fixed names for the five purities.

IX. Distinguishing the False and Encouraging the Genuine: Who Is a Genuine Disciple?

Beginning with “If my disciples call themselves,” the text enters the fourth section: distinguishing the false and encouraging the genuine. Buddha-disciples who can believe, receive, and understand are Buddha-disciples. Those unable to believe and understand are neither genuine disciples nor genuine arhats. This passage urges and presses the present assembly to believe, receive, and understand.

According to the scripture, it is divided into two passages: first, distinguishing the genuine and false; second, making exclusions and resolving doubts. Distinguishing the genuine and false has two further layers: first, those who have neither heard nor known are not genuine disciples; second, those who have heard but refuse to believe and receive become persons of overweening pride.

Worldly disciples follow the Dharma taught by their teachers, inherit the Dharma-lineage, and transmit the lamp. If they have neither heard nor known, there is no Dharma for them to follow. How could they be called disciples?

Because of the five turbidities, the Tathāgata formerly opened and taught the three vehicles; you followed the provisional Dharma and attained nirvāṇa. Because you could hear and know, you were called disciples. Now that the five turbidities have been removed and the Buddha teaches the one vehicle for you, why do you instead neither hear nor know?

Not hearing means not having heard the one teaching. Not knowing means not knowing the one practice. Being false means not according with the one principle. Not being disciples means not having accomplished the one class of persons. The four ones of teaching, practice, principle, and persons are fully correlated here.

Next, beginning where the scripture again addresses Śāriputra, is the second layer: disbelief makes one a person of overweening pride. This passage likewise urges them to give rise to faith.

Why? You call this your final body, but you still have immeasurable bodies and this is not the final body. You claim to have reached the ultimate, but in the simile the place of treasure still lies two hundred yojanas away and you have not actually reached the ultimate. If you have not attained but claim attainment, is that not overweening pride?

A genuine arhat, when the five turbidities have been removed and the faculties are clear and sharp, knows that the ultimate has not yet been reached and believes the real Dharma. Such a person knows that this is not the final body and therefore does not give rise to overweening pride. Knowing that the ultimate has not yet been reached yet believing and receiving the true ultimate is belief in the one principle. Being free of overweening pride accomplishes the one practice. The one teaching is what is believed. Being able to become a Buddha-disciple is the one class of persons.

X. Two Exclusions after the Buddha's Extinction

Beginning with “except after the Buddha's extinction,” the text enters the second major passage: first making exclusions, then resolving doubts.

The first exclusion is that after the Buddha's extinction, such a situation need not be judged a case of overweening pride. The second is that after the Buddha's extinction spiritual friends are difficult to encounter and profound scriptures difficult to understand, so this situation likewise need not be judged a case of overweening pride.

If the Buddha is present and teaching this scripture, but listeners still disbelieve and refuse to receive it, they are not genuine arhats and become persons of overweening pride. If someone attains arhatship only after the Buddha's extinction, clings one-sidedly to provisional scriptures, and disbelieves the perfect Dharma, it is provisionally allowed that this person not be judged a person of overweening pride.

Someone further asks: Although the Buddha has entered extinction, this scripture still remains in the world. If that person disbelieves and refuses to receive it, should this not still be overweening pride?

A further exclusion is made here. After the Buddha's extinction, although this scripture remains, people capable of explaining its wording and meaning are difficult to encounter. This prevents those who have attained arhatship from believing and understanding, so it is provisionally allowed that they not be judged persons of overweening pride. This does not mean that all disbelief after the Buddha's extinction becomes correct; the judgment of overweening pride is excluded according to whether a buddha is present and whether a person able to explain the scripture can be encountered.

XI. The Land with Remainder, Other Buddhas, and the Question and Answer from the Treatise

Next, the doubt is resolved.

Question: If people able to explain the scripture are difficult to encounter after the Buddha's extinction, do those who have attained arhatship enter nirvāṇa forever?

Answer: Although such a person gives rise to the thought of having attained extinction, after relinquishing this life that person will still be born in a land with remainder beyond the three realms. There, upon encountering other buddhas and hearing this scripture, the person can understand it decisively.

Fascicle Ninety-Three of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, in its explanation of the Determination chapter, raises this question: “An arhat's body received from a former life must necessarily pass into extinction. Where does the arhat abide in order to complete the buddha path?”

It answers: “The causes and conditions of the contaminants in the three realms have been exhausted for an arhat, who is not born again in the three realms. Beyond the three realms are pure buddha-lands in which even the name affliction does not exist. Before the buddha of such a land, the arhat hears the Lotus Sūtra and can complete the buddha path.”

The Treatise then cites the Lotus Sūtra: “If arhats have not heard the Lotus, they suppose that they have attained extinction. In other lands I will explain this matter for them: all of you will become buddhas.”

Since the Treatise cites the Lotus Sūtra as proof, the present explanation of the Lotus Sūtra likewise uses the Treatise to elucidate it.

XII. Nanyue's Three Explanations, Master Yao, and a Further Alternative Interpretation

Master Nanyue gives three further explanations of “other buddhas.”

First, “other buddhas” means persons of the four reliances. An arhat encounters persons of the four reliances, hears this scripture, and attains decisive understanding.

Second, an arhat cultivates buddha-recollection samādhi and sees the buddhas throughout the ten directions. Those buddhas teach this scripture, and the arhat attains decisive understanding.

Third, when an ordinary practitioner reaches the extremity of suffering and gives rise to repentance, that person sees the buddhas throughout the ten directions teach the Dharma and likewise attains decisive understanding.

Master Yao says that a genuine arhat necessarily knows the Lotus directly and aspires to the Great Vehicle. Those of sharp faculties can know it themselves, while those of middling and dull faculties must know it through hearing; this is why the scripture speaks of hearing and knowing. How could a noble person after the Buddha's extinction be allowed not to have heard the Lotus, or to have heard yet been unable to believe, and then have to encounter another buddha before understanding? Even ordinary beings in the Final Dharma can believe, how much more noble persons. Thus the scripture's words “except after the Buddha's extinction” should refer to ordinary beings.

Someone else presents the opposite explanation. Ordinary beings have not yet realized the characteristics of dharmas; what they see is unclear and their attachments are not firm, so they instead believe easily. Arhats have realized the characteristics of dharmas; what they see is clear and their attachments firm. Upon suddenly hearing a teaching different from what they knew before, they may not immediately believe and receive. This is why the scripture speaks of disbelief; the principle must be so.

This interpretation further cites Śāriputra's doubt: “Could Māra have assumed the Buddha's form to disturb my mind?” According to this explanation, the one who encounters another buddha and attains decisive understanding is an arhat, not an ordinary being. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The root treatise finally says that this is merely a different interpretation and does not adopt its meaning.

XIII. Why the Buddha's Words Contain No Falsehood

Beginning where the scripture again addresses Śāriputra is the fifth section: explaining that the Buddha's words contain no falsehood in order to stop the assembly's impulse to slander. This section has three layers.

First, living beings are exhorted to believe the reality taught by Śākyamuni Buddha: you should single-mindedly believe and understand, receive and uphold the Buddha's words.

Second, living beings are exhorted to believe all buddhas: what the buddhas teach contains no falsehood. Because the path practiced by all buddhas is the same, it should be believed and received all the more.

Third, the truthfulness of the Buddha's words is concluded: apart from the one buddha vehicle taught, there is no other vehicle; there is only the buddha vehicle.

I. Verse of Assent: Distinguishing the Assembly and Admonishing Them to Listen

The second major passage is the verse, containing one hundred and twenty-one lines and divided into two parts. The first four lines and one phrase restate the Buddha's assent to answer above; the following one hundred and sixteen lines and three phrases restate the formal answer. The assent in prose originally had three levels: compliant assent, admonition, and distinguishing the assembly. The verse does not restate compliant assent, but only distinguishing the assembly and admonition.

Distinguishing the assembly is further divided in two. The first three and a half lines restate the departure of the five thousand; the next two phrases restate that the assembly remaining was purified. The following phrase restates the admonition to listen, namely that Śāriputra should listen well.

The three faults of overweening pride, self-pride, and disbelief can occur among all four groups, monastic and lay. The two monastic groups, men and women, often cultivate the path and attain meditation; because some mistake meditative concentration for a noble fruit, they more readily generate overweening pride. Laypeople elevate themselves through their social position and more readily generate self-pride. The root treatise further repeats an ancient judgment that women possess shallow wisdom and more frequently generate deviant and one-sided views. This is the context in which the passage separately assigns the three faults to the four groups.

The scripture says that they do not see their own faults. The three faults conceal the mind, causing people to hide their defects and proclaim their virtues, unable to turn back and examine themselves. These are persons without a sense of shame. Only when one can see one's own faults is one still a monastic with a sense of shame.

As for deficiencies and omissions in the precepts, a failure in the discipline precepts is called a deficiency; a failure in the precepts shared with concentration and those shared with the path is called an omission. Because the precepts shared with the path and concentration are absent, unwholesome thoughts arise inwardly, like a flaw concealed within fine jade. Because the discipline precepts are absent, body and speech move falsely outwardly, like fine jade exposing its flaw externally. One covers one's own offenses and instead guards them, unwilling to relinquish them; this is therefore called protective attachment.

“Lesser wisdom” means not having attained the wisdom of noble persons in training or beyond training, yet possessing worldly cleverness and falsely taking contaminated wisdom to be uncontaminated wisdom. This is smaller than wisdom already called lesser, and is therefore called the lesser within the lesser.

“Lees and chaff” means that they lack the moistening of uncontaminated meditative concentration and are like wine lees alone; they also lack wisdom penetrating principle and are like grain chaff alone. Even if these five thousand possess worldly concentration, it is like lees; even if they possess textual understanding, it is like chaff. They seal themselves within wording and lose the principle the wording is meant to express, like chaff without grain. Further, lees and chaff represent their lack of the great capacity capable of giving rise to the great Dharma, while branches and leaves represent their not being good vessels able to receive it. Since they cannot be employed in either respect, they must be allowed to leave.

When the scripture says that Śāriputra should listen well, it restates the preceding admonition before permission to teach and tells him to listen single-mindedly.

II. General Outline of the Formal Answer and the Four-Buddha Chapter

From the Dharma attained by the buddhas onward are one hundred and sixteen lines and three phrases restating the formal answer above, divided into two major passages. The first, beginning with the Dharma attained by the buddhas, has seventy-three lines and one phrase and restates the four-buddha chapter. The next unit, beginning with “I too am now like this,” has forty-three and a half lines and restates the Śākyamuni Buddha chapter.

The four-buddha chapter is further divided into four gateways. First is the gateway of buddhas in general, with thirty-four lines and three phrases. Second is the past-buddha gateway, with twenty-seven and a half lines. Third is the future-buddha gateway, with six and a half lines. Fourth is the present-buddha gateway, with four and a half lines.

The verse of the gateway of buddhas in general differs from the preceding prose in three ways. First, the prose and verse each have content absent from the other: the prose praises the rarity of the Buddha-Dharma but lacks the five turbidities; the verse has the five turbidities but lacks praise of the Dharma. Second, their order is interwoven: the prose first praises the Dharma, next says the Buddha's words are not false, and then explains opening the provisional and revealing the real; the verse first explains opening the provisional and revealing the real and only at the end explains absence of falsehood. Third, their combination and separation differ: the prose combines the exhortation to believe with absence of falsehood; the verse separates the exhortation to believe, inserting the passage on the five turbidities between exhortation and absence of falsehood.

The root treatise adds a fourth point as a private observation: in the prose, Śākyamuni Buddha's skillful means explain the provisional established by the buddhas; in the verse, the real revealed by Śākyamuni Buddha explains that all buddhas reveal the one vehicle. This is an additional reading and does not alter the three expressly listed above into four.

The gateway of buddhas in general itself has five passages. First, the five lines and three phrases beginning with the Dharma attained by the buddhas restate the buddhas' establishment of the provisional. Second, the thirteen lines beginning with “I teach this as skillful means” restate the buddhas' revelation of the real. Third, the four and a half lines beginning with belief, reception, and taking refuge in the Buddha restate the exhortation to believe in the chapter on the buddhas. Fourth, the outline heading marks the nine and a half lines beginning with “If I pass among living beings” as an extended restatement of the five turbidities. Fifth, the two lines beginning with the buddhas' power of skillful means restate the preceding absence of falsehood in the Buddha's words.

III. How the Buddhas Establish the Provisional

The first passage on establishing the provisional is divided into two levels. The first four lines and one phrase positively restate the establishment of skillful means; the next one and a half lines conclude why skillful means must be established.

The Dharma attained by the buddhas refers to the various skillful Dharmas attained after the Buddha cultivated the path. The scripture says that he possesses the power of immeasurable skillful means, restating that he expounds the dharmas through innumerable skillful means and various causes and conditions. It also speaks of the thoughts in living beings' minds, restating that the Buddha teaches the Dharma according to what is appropriate for living beings. The verse gives a broader list of what responsiveness looks like: the Buddha illuminates the capacities of living beings in the nine Dharma realms and teaches them seven kinds of provisional means. The nine kinds of capacities and seven provisional means cannot be assigned in fixed one-to-one pairs and are therefore described collectively as manifold.

According to the capacity of what living beings presently enjoy, the worldly siddhānta is applied. According to the natures habituated in their past, the individual siddhānta is applied. According to what in their wholesome and unwholesome karma requires treatment, the counteractive siddhānta is applied. Hope arising in the present is called thought; the difference among Dharma gateways is called manifold; what was habituated in the past is called nature; and present delight and seeking are called desire. It may also be said that repeatedly habituating a desire gradually forms a nature, and that after a nature is formed it in turn gives rise to corresponding habits and desires. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

As for wholesome and unwholesome karma, the seven provisional means can be divided into wholesome and unwholesome according to their relations to one another. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕 The Buddha illuminates living beings' manifold provisional means, natures, and desires through provisional wisdom, then uses various causes and conditions and similes to teach the nine divisions according to what is appropriate for each. The meanings of the twelve divisions are as explained in the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra.

The one and a half lines beginning with dull faculties and delight in a Lesser Dharma conclude the intent behind establishing the provisional. Because living beings had dull faculties in past lives, in this life they lack the capacity to hear the great Dharma and cannot hear and receive the profound and wondrous path. Because they were deeply attached in past lives, in this life they are oppressed by various sufferings and are suited only to hear a Lesser Dharma first. The Buddha therefore teaches them nirvāṇa.

IV. Revealing the Real: Principle, Persons, Teaching, and Practice Return to One

The thirteen lines beginning with “I teach this as skillful means” are the second passage, restating the buddhas' revelation of the real, and are divided into four levels.

The first level, three lines, restates one principle. Causing living beings to enter buddha-wisdom restates the preceding statement that the Buddha appears in the world because of the causes and conditions of the one great matter. The determination to teach the Great Vehicle collectively includes opening, showing, awakening to, and entering the Buddha's knowledge and vision. Teaching the nine divisions with entry into the Great Vehicle as their foundation restates entry into the Buddha's knowledge and vision. The truth toward which skillful means lead is only one.

The second level, the four and a half lines beginning with children of the Buddha whose minds are pure, restates that the buddhas and tathāgatas teach only bodhisattvas and explains one class of persons. The prose directly says only that they teach bodhisattvas; the verse broadly explains that persons of every provisional identity become genuine children of the Buddha. Children of the Buddha whose minds are pure are persons of the Separate teaching. When the Buddha teaches the Great Vehicle scripture to such children of the Buddha and they rejoice after receiving predictions, they become genuine persons of the Perfect teaching.

The śrāvakas spoken of in the scripture also include pratyekabuddhas, and its bodhisattvas also include bodhisattvas who cultivate the six perfections, bodhisattvas of the Shared teaching, and others. That all will become buddhas without doubt means that not one of the people of the seven provisional means is not a child of the Buddha. This is the restatement of one class of persons.

The third level, the one line and three phrases beginning with buddha-lands throughout the ten directions, restates that the Tathāgata teaches living beings only through the one buddha vehicle, without other vehicles of two or three. The buddhas throughout the ten directions teach only one Dharma: this is one teaching. The other provisionally established names are only provisional teachings used to guide living beings. The scripture cites the provisional names of the three teachings and manifests the one teaching of buddha-wisdom; the wording is clear.

The root treatise explains “no other vehicle” as the absence of a distinction remaining after the Perfect principle within the Separate teaching enters the Separate teaching. “No two” means the absence of the two opposed half-word and full-word teachings within the Shared teaching. “No three” means the absence of the three vehicles within the Tripiṭaka teaching. These twos and threes are only provisionally established names used to guide various classes of living beings. What is now revealed is only the complete one buddha vehicle.

The fourth level, the three lines and three phrases beginning with the buddhas' appearance in the world and only one real matter, restates that everything the buddhas constantly do is only for the one great matter. This is one practice. “Matter” means practice. That the Buddha ultimately does not liberate living beings through the Lesser Vehicle restates that everything he constantly does is only for the one great matter. That the Buddha himself dwells in the Great Vehicle and liberates living beings through the Dharma he has attained restates that he uses only the Buddha's knowledge and vision to open and show living beings and cause them to awaken and enter. The final line explains why he does not use the Lesser Vehicle as ultimate liberation.

V. Exhorting Belief through Effect and through Cause

The four and a half lines beginning with living beings believing, receiving, and taking refuge in the Buddha are the third passage, restating the exhortation to believe. The prose has already said that the assembly should believe what the Buddha teaches. The verse is further divided into two levels: the first two and a half lines raise the Buddha's effect to exhort belief; the two lines beginning with “Śāriputra, you should know” raise the Buddha's cause to exhort belief.

Exhorting belief through effect is further divided into inner mind and outward form. When living beings believe, receive, and take refuge in the Buddha, they should know that the Tathāgata does not deceive. The Buddha's mind is pure: ignorance, the stain of stinginess, and every evil have been removed. He teaches the Dharma from a pure mind and can therefore be trusted. The one line beginning with the Buddha's adornment of his body with dignified marks explains outward form. His bodily marks are brilliant, upright, and adorned. Inwardly there is no darkness or delusion, while outwardly radiance is manifest; there is therefore no deception in his speech. He is revered by the assembly, and what he teaches bears the seal of the Great Vehicle; it should be believed and received.

The two lines beginning with the vow originally established by the Buddha raise the cause to exhort belief and are also divided into two levels. First, the one line beginning with the Buddha's original establishment of the vow raises the vow made in the past. Second, the one line beginning with the former vow explains that the vow has now been fulfilled. The vow formerly made by the Buddha was not only to seek awakening for himself, but that living beings would together enter buddha-wisdom. He teaches this Dharma now to fulfill that vow, and it too is therefore credible.

The Buddha's awakening has now been perfected, and through it living beings can enter buddha-wisdom. Since Śāriputra personally realizes and knows buddha-wisdom, he can verify that the Buddha's former vow was not false. This concludes the exhortation to believe through the Buddha's cause.

Someone asks: Since the Buddha's original vow universally embraces all living beings and living beings are still so numerous, how can it be said that the vow has been perfected?

The answer is that the Buddha benefits living beings throughout the past, present, and future. Here the fulfillment of the vow is discussed only in relation to his present work of transformation.

VI. General Explanation of the Five Turbidities and Three Meanings of “Living Beings”

The nine and a half lines beginning with the scripture's “If I encounter living beings” are the fourth passage, presenting the five turbidities. The prose places the five turbidities after the Śākyamuni Buddha chapter; the verse first places them at the end of the general gateway of the buddhas, and the later Śākyamuni Buddha gateway will teach them again. This shows that the buddhas likewise appear in evil worlds of the five turbidities, first establish the three vehicles, and afterward reveal the one vehicle.

This passage is divided into four levels. First, one line generally explains that the five turbidities obstruct the great Dharma. Second, six lines separately explain that the five turbidities obstruct the three. Third, one line says that because of the five turbidities the Buddha teaches a Lesser Dharma as skillful means. Fourth, one and a half lines say that the Buddha teaches a Lesser Dharma for the sake of the great Dharma, treating the five turbidities through the Lesser Dharma so that his great vow to liberate living beings can arise.

The root treatise begins with the term zhongsheng (“living beings”). Fascicle Twelve of the Madhyama Āgama says that when the world first formed, beings from the Heaven of Streaming Light descended and were born in the world. Before there were distinctions of male and female or noble and base, all were born together in the world and were therefore called living beings. This explanation concerns their first common birth. When one says that the aggregates are gathered and the provisional name living being established, the term concerns the retribution received during one lifetime. When one says that they are called living beings because they repeatedly take birth everywhere, it concerns transmigration through the five destinies by the power of karma.

The Sūtra of the Right-Dharma Recollection gives ten kinds of living beings: long, short, square, round, triangular, blue, yellow, red, white, and purple.

What is the long birth-and-death of living beings? In hell, the body undergoes inconceivable suffering and the mind generates immeasurable and boundless unwholesome thoughts. Among animals, bodies devour one another and minds oppress one another. Among hungry ghosts, bodies are like burning mountains and minds like boiling pots; deviant views blaze, and beings are defiant, violent, deluded, and cruel. Among humans, body, speech, and mind constantly perform harmful acts that exhaust oneself, while one constantly thinks harmful thoughts that bind oneself. Among gods, beings are immersed in the six sense objects and indulge in play, do not hear the true Dharma, and obstruct the source of merit. This is called the long birth-and-death of living beings.

What is the short birth-and-death of living beings? In hell, one can quiet the mind for a single thought-moment and receive precepts. Among animals, one can quiet the mind for a single thought-moment and rely upon the Three Jewels. Among hungry ghosts, one can quiet the mind for a single thought-moment and still the faculties. Among humans, one can cultivate the six perfections, support one's parents, honor the Three Jewels, and adorn body, speech, and mind with wholesome practice. Among gods, one can relinquish heavenly pleasures, observe precepts, delight in meditation, teach others, read and recite scriptures, cultivate brahmā-conduct, and speak little. This is called the short birth-and-death of living beings.

What is the square birth-and-death of living beings? Like the people of Uttarakuru, they have no thought of possession concerning anything. After relinquishing the body they are certainly born in heaven and proceed upward from one heaven to the next, rising only toward wholesome destinations. It is therefore called angular birth-and-death.

What is the round birth-and-death of living beings? It is turning in circles only among the three evil destinies and four lower destinies, like a whirling firebrand and curling smoke. This is round birth-and-death. What is triangular birth-and-death? The three kinds of wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate karma. What is blue birth-and-death? Constantly entering dark hells with fear continually present in the mind. What is yellow birth-and-death? Hungry ghosts are starved and emaciated, their color withered and yellow. What is red birth-and-death? Animals devour one another and bright blood flows. What is white birth-and-death? The white karma and wholesome paths among humans and gods. When gods approach death, other gods tell them that they will be born in the human destiny; when humans approach death, relatives and friends tell them that they will be born in heaven. From this one can know that the human and heavenly realms are white birth-and-death. The root treatise lists purple but gives no separate explanation here.

Fascicle Five of the same scripture further says that mind paints hell black, hungry ghosts dove-colored, animals yellow, humans red, and gods white. Someone asks why this set of colors differs from the preceding passage. The answer is that the preceding passage concerns the retribution of the five destinies, while this passage concerns the karma through which living beings produce the five destinies; this is why they differ. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

When living beings such as these encounter the Buddha, they are tormented by suffering while the buddhas rescue beings through great compassion. The Buddha's compassion and living beings' suffering face one another, and this is therefore called encounter. Further, the thusness of the Buddha and the thusness of living beings are the same thusness, without two thusnesses. Their natures are mutually connected, and this too is called encounter.

Great compassion constantly feels tenderness for living beings. If the Buddha taught them only human and heavenly wholesome Dharmas, it would be as though he himself fell into dark delusion, merely freeing living beings from blue, yellow, red, purple, square, round, angular, and triangular birth-and-death without teaching them the buddha path. This is impossible. If the Buddha encountered living beings and taught them only to cultivate the Lesser Vehicle, it would be as though he himself fell into stinginess and refused to give the great Dharma. This too is impossible, because it would merely free living beings from the twenty-five modes of existence. If the Buddha taught only the Shared and Separate teachings, it would be as though he himself fell into partiality and lost the Buddha's knowledge and vision. This is likewise impossible.

The Buddha now intends to cause all living beings to attain the wondrous wisdom of the true mark and realize that everything is the Buddha-Dharma and nowhere is outside the correct path. Only this is teaching the entire buddha path to living beings and forever exhausting the suffering of birth-and-death. The Buddha constantly teaches in this way; only because living beings' faculties are dull and offenses heavy can the work not immediately be accomplished fully according to his wish.

In the past there was a buddha named Abiding in Nonabiding, who vowed that the living beings in his land would become buddhas on the same day and at the same time and would enter extinction on the same day. Before the Worthy Eon there was also a buddha named Equality, who vowed that the living beings in his own land and throughout the ten directions would all become buddhas on the same day and enter extinction on the same day.

Someone therefore asks: Since there are still buddhas and living beings today, how should this be understood? The Buddha says, “Stop, stop.” His preceding statement referred to those who had attained human bodies. Another asks whether anyone ever vowed that beings in the five destinies would become buddhas on the same day. The Buddha replies that one cannot attain the unsurpassed path directly in a bodily form incapable of receiving it. Living beings in the three evil destinies must first be transformed so that they attain human or heavenly bodies, and only then can they accomplish the path according to the vow. The three evil destinies are not wholesome paths; how could beings become buddhas in those very forms? It is like someone seeking a heap of jewels: one cannot seek it in empty space but must first have a place capable of bearing the jewels.

VII. Separate Explanation of the Five Turbidities, Provisional Teaching of a Lesser Dharma, and Absence of Falsehood

The six lines beginning with the scripture's “I know these living beings” separately explain the five turbidities in five items.

First, two lines explain the turbidity of living beings. The wholesome foundation is the true mark of thusness. Because living beings do not plant roots of goodness in accord with this wholesome foundation, they cannot elicit the great Dharma. They cling firmly to the five desires, which are also the root of every evil. From delusion and craving for existence arises the illness of attachment to self.

Second, the one line beginning with the minute form received in the womb explains the turbidity of life. Interpreted through contemplating the mind, when a single thought-moment arises it creates karma for the future. Karma is like a womb. Womb-karma has no end, continuing from life to life without interruption; noninterruption is growth. The minute form received in the womb consists of the five aggregates, which are also called world. Life continuously sustains the aggregates, causing them to enter the world, continuing from the first embryonic form like thin curds through decline, old age, and death. It is therefore called growth from life to life, and this is the turbidity of life.

The Sūtra on Receiving the Aggregate-Body says that when an ordinary being receives a body, there is no change in the first seven days. In the second seven days a form arises like thin curds. In the third it is like thick curds; in the fourth like clarified cream; in the fifth like unbaked pottery; in the sixth like a lump of flesh. In the seventh, five protrusions arise from the lump of flesh and form the head, hands, feet, and other parts. In the eighth seven days five more protrusions arise: one head, two shoulders, and two wrists. In the ninth, twenty-four more protrusions arise; four form the eyes, ears, nose, and tongue, and twenty form the twenty digits. By the seventeenth seven days, the shape of the abdomen becomes visible, and the various forms of skin, bones, and other parts gradually separate.

Seven hundred sinews and seven thousand channels further arise. Whatever characteristic the body requires is colored by a corresponding wind. If a white characteristic is needed, it is colored by a white wind; the other colors are likewise formed by corresponding winds. Because of fragrant winds, the body is stable and upright; because of foul winds, the body is unstable, ugly, and distorted. After leaving the womb and eating the five grains, eighty thousand households of worms arise within the body.

Third, the one line beginning with entry into a dense forest of deviant views explains the turbidity of views. The five views intersect like a dense and flourishing forest. Attachment to existence is the view of permanence; attachment to nonexistence is the view of annihilation. From these two fundamental views arise the sixty-two views.

Another explanation says that non-Buddhists have four attachments concerning the self. First, form itself is self. Second, there is a separate self apart from form. Third, form is large and self small, with self dwelling in form. Fourth, self is large and form small, with form dwelling in self. They make the same four attachments concerning each of the four aggregates of feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness, making twenty. Correlating the twenty with past, present, and future makes sixty; adding the two fundamental views of annihilation and permanence makes sixty-two. They may also be understood according to the Large Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra.

Fourth, the one line beginning with deep attachment to false dharmas restates the turbidity of afflictions and can be understood from the scripture. Fifth, the one line beginning with thousands of myriads of koṭis of eons restates the turbidity of the eon. A long time without the Buddha-Dharma is the turbidity of the eon. It is also so called because the preceding four turbidities all gather within a period of time. The scripture says such people are difficult to transform because the five turbidities form obstructions that prevent them from believing and receiving the one vehicle, making them difficult to liberate.

Interpreted through contemplating the mind, unwholesome perceptions arise thought after thought, and from beginning to end there is no correct contemplation capable of awakening oneself; this is not seeing a buddha within the mind. The absence of the noble eightfold path within the mind is not hearing the Dharma. Such a mind is difficult to transform.

The one line beginning with the Buddha telling Śāriputra, “Therefore I establish skillful means,” is the third level: skillfully teaching a Lesser Dharma to living beings, as can be understood from the scripture.

The one and a half lines beginning with “Although I teach nirvāṇa, this is not true extinction” are the fourth level: ultimately causing living beings to enter the great Dharma. If one exhaustively analyzes the falsity of the three realms, extinguishes form, and clings to the principle of emptiness, the root treatise judges this not to be true extinction. If one can realize that ignorance is originally without intrinsic nature and constantly quiescent, only then is it true extinction. Yet even though original nonexistence is quiescent, without cultivating the path there remains no way to accord with it. The scripture therefore says that when children of the Buddha have completed cultivating the path, they will become buddhas in a future age.

The two lines beginning with the buddhas' power of skillful means are the fifth passage, restating the preceding absence of falsehood in the Buddha's words. The prose says that the assembly should believe that the Buddha's words are not false. The exhortation to believe has already been restated above; absence of falsehood is restated here. The first two phrases say that Śākyamuni Buddha first opens and shows the three vehicles; the next two phrases say that the buddhas later reveal the real, with each showing the other. The final line positively states absence of falsehood. The provisional teaching before and real teaching afterward are both truthful words and should not give rise to doubt.

VIII. Past Buddhas: From Opening Three to Revealing the One through the Five Vehicles

Beginning with immeasurable eons in the past is the second major gateway, with twenty-seven and a half lines restating the past-buddha chapter and divided into two parts. The first two lines restate the opening of three vehicles, as can be understood from the scripture. The twenty-five and a half lines beginning with the several World-Honored Ones restate the revelation of the one vehicle. The revelation of the real in the preceding prose contains the four ones of principle, persons, teaching, and practice; all are restated in this verse.

Revealing the one is further divided into two levels. First, one line briefly restates the first three ones: the buddhas all teaching the one-vehicle Dharma is one teaching; transforming immeasurable living beings is one class of persons; and causing living beings to enter the buddha path is one principle, while also including one practice.

Second, the twenty-four and a half lines beginning with the several great noble lords broadly restate revealing the one in terms of the five vehicles. This level first explains generally and then separately. The first one and a half lines generally reveal the one in terms of the five vehicles: gods, humans, and the various living beings raise the persons of each vehicle and explain one class of persons. The Buddha further transforms them through different skillful means, raising the various practices and revealing one practice, while also including one teaching. Ultimate meaning is one principle.

Different skillful means must be distinguished in two cases. Buddha-nature as direct cause is itself the principle of ultimate meaning. When one contemplates it through perfect and wondrous correct contemplation, that is itself a skillful means of the true mark and is not called a different skillful means. Only when the contemplations of the seven provisional means help disclose ultimate meaning are they called different skillful means in relative terms.

The twenty-three lines beginning with “If there are living beings...” separately reveal the real through the five vehicles and are further divided into three passages. First, two lines open and reveal the bodhisattva vehicle. Second, one line opens and reveals the two vehicles of śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas. Third, twenty lines open and reveal the two vehicles of gods and humans.

First, the two lines beginning with the classes of living beings open and reveal the bodhisattva vehicle. Explained through the five vehicles, this is only the Tripiṭaka bodhisattva vehicle that cultivates the six perfections. Explained through the seven provisional means, it also includes the bodhisattva vehicles of the Shared and Separate teachings. Why? Because the Great Vehicles of all three teachings cultivate the six perfections; only their orientation of mind differs. Cultivating the six perfections through a mind with marks belongs to Tripiṭaka bodhisattvas. Cultivating them through a markless mind belongs to Shared-teaching bodhisattvas. Cultivating them sequentially through what is neither marked nor markless belongs to Separate-teaching bodhisattvas. The scripture here lists only the six perfections and cannot yet be definitively assigned to any one of these.

Examining the preceding statement that they further use different skillful means shows that it does not refer only to bodhisattvas of the six perfections, but also includes the skillful means of bodhisattvas in all three teachings. Dharmas heard in the past have all been opened into one teaching. The six perfections cultivated in the past have all been opened into one practice. These persons have all been opened into one class of persons. Their all having accomplished the buddha path is one principle.

Second, the one line beginning with those of wholesome and pliant minds after the extinction of the buddhas opens and reveals that śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas all enter the one vehicle. How does one know that the two vehicles are both included? The Large Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra praises the pliant minds of arhats, while the Vimalakīrti Sūtra says that abiding in a disciplined mind is the practice of worthies and noble persons; this makes it knowable. Wholesome and pliant minds in the past have all been opened into one practice, these people are one class of persons, and accomplishing the buddha path is one principle.

Third, the twenty lines beginning with making offerings to relics open and reveal the vehicles of gods and humans. The scripture does not directly label heavenly and human vehicles but speaks of making images and raising stūpas with concentrated or distracted minds. From this the root treatise knows that these are wholesome karmas of gods and humans.

The Masters of the Grounds give another interpretation. They say that the child is at the stage of childlike truth and lacks the desirous mind of the two vehicles and ordinary beings that inclines toward either extreme. Gathering sand to make a stūpa means that sand represents nonattachment and the stūpa the accumulation of many practices, containing within it the mind of perfect awakening. The Masters of the Grounds regard this integration into nonarising as a profound understanding.

The root treatise considers this interpretation contrary to the wording and too narrow in its vertical stages. Why? It is only proper that a bodhisattva who has entered the grounds become a buddha, like an asura crossing the sea; nothing about it is unusual. The scripture is now precisely speaking of children at play gathering sand and singing with distracted minds, showing that the slightest goodness contains a conspicuous cause of buddhahood, which is as inconceivable as an ordinary being crossing the sea. The Buddha clearly gathers the five vehicles broadly, omitting not even a hair's breadth of goodness. The Masters of the Grounds abandon this broad inclusion and directly take only nonarising. On that reading, it might fail to include even the two vehicles, much less ordinary beings. In terms of profound meaning, the destination may be the same; in terms of broad inclusion, it contradicts the scripture.

IX. Slight Human and Heavenly Goodness, the Three Buddha-Natures, and Ten Categories of Conditioning Causes

Someone asks: Slight goodness among humans and gods should remain within its corresponding recompense. Why does the scripture say that all these people have accomplished the buddha path?

The answer is that this should be explained through the three buddha-natures. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says that there is one kind of buddha-nature possessed by persons with roots of goodness and absent in icchantikas. The root treatise assigns this to slight human and heavenly goodness. Bowing one's head or raising one's hand is the first basket of earth laid down when building a mountain. A tree that two arms can encircle also begins with the first minute tender shoot. Before provisional means were opened and revealed, these wholesome acts were said only to remain within retribution. Now that provisional practices are opened and revealed, one knows that they are precisely buddha-nature as conditioning cause, capable of proceeding toward awakening and accomplishing the meaning of revealing the real.

The twenty lines on gods and humans are further divided into two levels. The first nineteen lines explain revealing the real through slight human and heavenly goodness becoming seeds of conditioning cause; the last line explains revealing the real through seeds of revealing cause. The first nineteen lines are further divided into ten categories.

First, the first three and a half lines explain the heavenly vehicle through building stūpas. In the causal ground, builders of stūpas can be single-minded and sincere, exhausting their wealth and relinquishing jewels. When retribution matures, they naturally receive pleasure, and the root treatise therefore assigns this to the heavenly vehicle. Mi is a kind of timber in Chang'an and can also be used to make images. The Golden Light Sūtra says that placing buddha-relics the size of a mustard seed in a small stūpa naturally yields retribution in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, directly illustrating this meaning.

Second, the one line beginning with children at play says that children making stūpas from sand is human karma. In the causal ground the goodness is performed casually and at ease; when its fruit is experienced, intentional effort is still required to seek pleasure, and it is therefore assigned to human karma.

Third, the four lines beginning with someone establishing an image for the Buddha explain heavenly karma through making an image with a single-minded resolve. The Sūtra on the Precepts for Lay Bodhisattvas does not permit glue, and a violator incurs an offense of faulty intention, while the Lotus Sūtra here says that glue may be used. An ancient master explains that foreign lands use tree resin. Guangzhai says that in some places making an image truly requires oxhide glue and its use is then permitted; if another material is available, it should not be used. Someone else says that soybean liquid can replace clear glue. The three positions are listed separately.

The root treatise nevertheless says that oxhide is ultimately an impure substance and will later elicit impure retribution. Impure wealth is not suitable for direct use in making an image, but can be exchanged for lawful and pure wealth, which can then be used. The Treatise on the Bodhisattva Grounds does not permit orpiment and other foul-smelling materials. A precept scripture does not permit making a half-body buddha-image; otherwise one incurs an offense of faulty intention, wholesome marks cannot arise, and one falls within birth-and-death.

Each image has a posture it is meant to represent. If making a buddha teaching the Dharma in a hall, it must be a seated image. If making a buddha displaying final repose, it can be seated or reclining. If making a buddha in motion, it should be a standing image. As for disciples, one may not sit before a standing buddha-image within a stūpa or hall, because that is definitively a place occupied by the Buddha. In the home of a layperson or elsewhere, if someone before a seated buddha-image cannot remain standing long and asks to sit, permission can be given; one may not sit before a standing buddha-image. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Fourth, the one line beginning with children at play drawing images explains human karma. Fifth, the one and a half lines beginning with these people conclude revealing the real: these people all become one class of persons. Gradually accumulating merit and perfecting a mind of great compassion is one practice. Accomplishing the buddha path is one principle. Once they become buddhas, they can transform through the four ones and teach only bodhisattvas; this is one teaching. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Sixth, the three and a half lines beginning with making offerings in stūpas and temples explain heavenly karma through offerings of form, sound, and other sense objects. In Chang'an, a dew-catching basin is called a copper cymbal. Since the scripture was translated there, it uses the local term.

Seventh, the one line beginning with someone making offerings with a distracted mind explains human karma through a distracted offering of one flower or another sense object. Eighth, the one line beginning with someone bowing explains heavenly and human karma through bodily reverence. The superior bow of prostrating with the five limbs is heavenly karma; the middling bow of joining palms and bowing the head is human karma.

Ninth, the one and a half lines beginning with these offerings give another conclusion. This does not only reveal practitioners' own accomplishment of the buddha path through revealing the real. Through opening and revealing skillful means, they can also display nirvāṇa when their transformative conditions, like fuel, have been exhausted. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Tenth, the one line beginning with someone entering a stūpa or temple with a distracted mind and uttering “Namo Buddha” once explains verbal karma. According to the preceding categories, both heavenly and human karma should be present here; only human karma is stated. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The two syllables namo have many transmitted explanations. Someone explains them as “liberate me, liberate me; liberation can be bestowed upon living beings.” But if the Buddha replied, “The buddhas liberate me,” the meaning would be unsuitable, and the root treatise therefore does not adopt this explanation.

The Sūtra of the Five Precepts explains namo as fear. Fear can properly be applied to the Buddha here: the dangers of birth-and-death truly are fearful. Immediate liberation through the great Dharma cannot yet succeed, and now the Buddha, in accord with the other buddhas, first rescues living beings through a Lesser Dharma. Applying fear to the Buddha can therefore accord with principle. The scripture consequently speaks of joyfully uttering “Namo Buddha”; the joy is delight at having found a way to liberate living beings.

The Sūtra of the Five Precepts further says that namo means entrusting one's life, giving one's whole life to living beings. At death Devadatta uttered namo but fell into hell before he could pronounce “Buddha.” The Buddha predicted that after emerging from hell he would become a pratyekabuddha named Namo.

In a foreign land there is a story concerning service to an image of a god. Someone made the head of the divine image from gold. When a thief came to steal it, at first it could not be removed. He then uttered “Namo Buddha” and immediately obtained the image's head. The next day people gathered and said that since the divine image had lost its head, no god must be dwelling in it; if a god truly dwelled there, how could the head be lost? A god then possessed a person and said that when the thief took the head he uttered “Namo Buddha,” all the gods were startled, and the thief therefore gained his opportunity and the image lost its head.

The people then said: Is the god not equal to the Buddha? Since it is not, why not turn to serve the Buddha? If a thief uttering “Namo Buddha” could obtain the head of the divine image, how much more a worthy person who utters “Namo Buddha”? None of the gods revered by people throughout the ten directions dares accept this utterance of the name. One should only be diligent and never lax.

The Nāgasena Sūtra says that someone who utters “Namo Buddha” at death is spared rebirth in niraya. Why? If one stone is placed in water, it necessarily sinks. If one hundred stones are placed on a boat, they do not sink. If a person simply dies, that person necessarily enters niraya, like a stone placed directly in water. If one utters “Namo Buddha” at death, the Buddha's power prevents entry into niraya, as a boat's power keeps stones from sinking. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The Embryo Sūtra and Sūtra of Requiting Kindness further say that the nine billion two hundred million people at the third great assembly in the Flower Grove were those who had uttered “Namo Buddha” only once during Śākyamuni Buddha's residual teaching and thereby came to see Maitreya Buddha.

X. Seeds of the Revealing Cause and Evidentiary Force of the Past Buddhas

The one line beginning with being before buddhas in the past is the second level and explains seeds of revealing cause. Following the explanation above, it should contain seeds of the five vehicles in the forms of marked, markless, neither marked nor markless, wholehearted, and distracted practice. All are now opened and revealed and enter the single reality. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕 Hearing one phrase wholeheartedly is heavenly karma; hearing one phrase with a distracted mind is human karma. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Someone asks: Why is the five-vehicle explanation given extensively specifically in the past-buddha gateway?

The answer is that the buddhas of the past, future, and present all have transformative teachings that open and reveal provisional means. The future buddhas' transformation has not yet occurred, however, while that of the present buddhas has only just begun, so their power to prove this meaning is weaker. The past buddhas opened and revealed provisional means long ago. The persons transformed have all accomplished the four ones of principle, persons, teaching, and practice and can in turn establish skillful means and reveal the real throughout the worlds of the ten directions. The factual proof is therefore stronger. Constructing a claim in the abstract is inferior to verifying it through accomplished events, and the five vehicles are therefore explained extensively in the past-buddha gateway.

XI. Future Buddhas: The Four Ones and Three Causes

Beginning with the future World-Honored Ones is the third major gateway, with six and a half lines restating the future-buddha chapter and divided into two parts. The first one and a half lines restate the opening of three vehicles; the following five lines restate the revelation of the one vehicle.

The line concerning liberating living beings and causing them to enter the Buddha's uncontaminated wisdom restates one class of persons. The line concerning the buddhas' original vows and the buddha path they themselves practice restates one practice: the buddhas vow that living beings will also attain the path they practice; how could this not be one practice? The two lines beginning with the buddhas in future ages restate one teaching.

Knowing that all dharmas constantly lack intrinsic nature means that the true mark constantly abides without intrinsic nature, and that even the “absence of a causeless nature” cannot be grasped. Absence of nature itself also lacks intrinsic nature; only this is called absence of nature.

The buddha-seed arising from conditions means that the middle path's absence of nature is precisely the buddha-seed. Those deluded about this principle take ignorance as condition, and living beings then arise. Those who understand this principle take teaching and practice as conditions, and right awakening then arises. For the buddha-seed to arise, one must rely on the one-vehicle teaching, and this sentence therefore still restates one teaching.

It can also be explained through the three buddha-natures: absence of nature is buddha-nature as direct cause, while the buddha-seed's arising from conditions is conditioning and revealing cause. The conditioning cause supports the revealing cause, and the seed of direct cause can then arise. When one cause arises, all three arise together. These three natures—direct, conditioning, and revealing—are called the one vehicle.

The scriptural statement that dharmas abide in their Dharma-positions and that the marks of the world constantly abide restates one principle. Living beings and right awakening are the same thusness, without two thusnesses. None departs from the principle of thusness, and all take the Dharma of thusness as their position.

The marks of the world constantly abiding means that transcendent right awakening takes thusness as both position and mark, and that position and mark constantly abide. Worldly living beings likewise take thusness as position and mark; how could these not constantly abide? This is precisely one principle. “World” can also be understood as aggregates, elements, and sense-fields, while “constantly abiding” is understood as direct cause. The direct cause is not simply these six dharmas, yet conditioning and revealing causes do not depart from them. Because the direct cause constantly abides, the conditioning and revealing causes also constantly abide; hence the marks of the world constantly abide.

The scripture says that the Buddha already knew this principle at the place of awakening, raising the fruit of buddhahood to explain why he first opened the provisional and later revealed the real. When the Buddha attained the path at the place of awakening, he had long clearly comprehended this principle; it was only because living beings' attachments and obstructions were severe that he established three vehicles as skillful means. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

XII. Present Buddhas: Revealing First and Opening Afterward to Bring Peace

Beginning with those worshiped by gods and humans is the fourth major gateway, with four and a half lines restating the present-buddha chapter. The preceding prose has four passages; only three are restated here, and the final conclusion is not restated.

The first passage, one and a half lines, restates the intent of present buddhas in transforming living beings: precisely to cause living beings to attain peace.

The second passage, the one line beginning with the buddhas' knowing the foremost quiescence, restates the preceding revelation of the real. Knowing the foremost quiescence restates one principle. Concerning the scripture's statement that this is actually for the buddha vehicle, the root treatise preserves two readings: it may be said to restate one teaching, or it may be said to restate one practice. Neither is selected here.

The third passage, the two lines beginning with the buddhas' knowing living beings' various practices and the thoughts deep in their minds, restates opening the provisional, as can be understood from the scripture. The four-buddha chapter concludes here; the Śākyamuni Buddha chapter begins in the next unit.

I. First Establishing the Foundation of the Parable

Beginning with “I too am now like this” are forty-three and a half lines of verse restating the chapter on Śākyamuni Buddha's teaching. The preceding prose does not praise the rarity of the Buddha-Dharma, but the verse includes all six meanings. In the old explanation of this chapter, the doctrinal meaning on which the later parable depends was first identified here and then pointed back to when the parable itself was reached. Dharma and parable interweave above and below, easily dazzling readers of the commentary, confusing those who hear it taught, and further bewildering those of dull faculties. The private recorder therefore first arranged the relevant material here and attached it again in the later passage, so that he could use it to illuminate what precedes and follows.

The verse of the Śākyamuni chapter has two functions: first, it restates what precedes; second, it establishes the foundation for what follows. Those of sharp faculties have already understood, while those of middling faculties have not, and so a parable is still required to enable people to understand the preceding Dharma-teaching through simile. A parable does not arise in isolation; it must have grounds that continue from the preceding text. These grounds are called the “foundation of the parable.”

An old explanation divides the passage into five parables: first, the elder; second, deliberating how to rescue; third, inducing through the provisional; fourth, bestowing equally; and fifth, absence of falsehood. The first item, however, is actually a general parable and not merely the single meaning of the elder. The second reaches only the inability to rescue the children and lacks the meaning of seeing the fire. The root treatise therefore does not use this division.

Master Yao divides the prose of the Skillful Means chapter into four chapters. From the buddhas' teaching according to what is appropriate through the end of the prose, it positively reveals the reality of the one vehicle. The four chapters are: first, opening the four and three taught in the past to accomplish the four ones revealed now; second, explaining that because of the five turbidities the one vehicle could not initially be taught directly; third, beginning with the disciples' claim that they had attained, explaining which persons could not attain; and fourth, beginning with the exhortation to single-minded belief and understanding, explaining that the Buddha's words are not false. Though their opening and closing expressions differ, in meaning all concern the real. The following parable of the burning house illustrates only three of the chapters. From “Suppose there were an elder” through the children's wish that their father give the carts promptly illustrates the chapter on the five turbidities. From the equal gift to each child of one great cart through the children's attainment of the unprecedented illustrates the chapter on the real. From the elder's equal gift of carts through the question whether he spoke falsely illustrates the chapter on absence of falsehood.

Master Xuanchang divides it into six parables. First is the condition of the many disasters within the house. Second, because only the Buddha is awakened, the thought of teaching the one vehicle arises. Third, living beings cannot receive it, and so frightening matters are first described. Fourth, the pleasures of the three vehicles are taught. Fifth, the one-vehicle teaching is taught in return. Sixth, the Buddha's words are concluded to be free of falsehood.

Master Long also divides it into six parables. First, the father and children in the house illustrate the Buddha transforming living beings within the three realms. Second, the elder sees the fire arise, illustrating the Buddha seeing living beings in the six destinies through the buddha-eye. Third, the elder devises a way to rescue them from the fire, illustrating the Buddha's wish to liberate living beings during three seven-day periods while being unable to use the Great Vehicle. Fourth, the elder skillfully induces them through three carts, illustrating the Buddha's establishment of the three-vehicle teaching. Fifth, the elder gives one great cart, illustrating the Buddha's teaching of the Sūtra of the Lotus Blossom of the Wondrous Dharma. Sixth is the parable of absence of falsehood.

Another explanation has ten parables of the burning house. First, the two lines beginning with “I too am now like this” generally restate the provisional and real above and establish the foundation of the general parable below. Second, the four lines beginning with Śāriputra being told that he should know restate the five turbidities above and establish the foundation of the parable of seeing the fire below. Third, the six and a half lines beginning with the Buddha first sitting at the place of awakening explain that transformation through the Great Vehicle could not succeed and establish the foundation of the parable of the inability to rescue the children below. Fourth, the eleven lines beginning with recollecting the buddhas of the past explain that transformation through the three vehicles could succeed and establish the foundation of the parable of the children's successful rescue below. Fifth, the one line beginning with the Buddha seeing children of the Buddha explains the arousal of the Great Vehicle capacity and establishes the foundation of the parable of seeing the children escape disaster below. Sixth, the one line beginning with everyone coming with reverent minds explains practitioners of the three vehicles seeking their fruits and establishes the foundation of the parable of the children's seeking the carts below. Seventh, the two lines and one phrase beginning with the Buddha immediately forming this thought explain the Tathāgata's rejoicing and establish the foundation of the parable of the elder's rejoicing below. Eighth, the three phrases beginning with the Buddha among the bodhisattvas explain his revelation of the Great Vehicle to the assembly and establish the foundation of the parable of the equal gift of the great cart below. Ninth, the one line beginning with the bodhisattvas hearing this Dharma explains living beings' rejoicing and establishes the foundation of the parable of the children's rejoicing after obtaining the cart below. Tenth, the one and a half lines beginning with the exhortation not to doubt explain the Buddha's absence of falsehood and establish the foundation of the parable of the elder's absence of falsehood below.

Someone criticizes the ten-parable explanation: divided by sentences, there should be nineteen; divided by meaning, there are only six—general explanation, seeing the fire, unsuccessful transformation through the one vehicle, successful transformation through the three vehicles, renewed teaching of the one vehicle, and absence of falsehood—while all remaining material can be included within these six. Further, the ten-parable explanation disrupts the order of Dharma-teaching and parable. The Dharma-teaching has seeking the carts before the father's rejoicing, whereas the parable has the father's rejoicing before seeking the carts. Even if forcibly reconciled, the result remains circuitous. The Great and Lesser sides also contradict each other. In the Dharma-teaching, the Buddha rejoices upon seeing the Great Vehicle capacity aroused; in the parable, the father rejoices upon seeing the Lesser Vehicle capacity escape disaster. The Dharma-teaching concerns a Great Vehicle cause, while the parable narrates a Lesser Vehicle effect. The Dharma-teaching says that Great Vehicle obstructions are about to be removed, while the parable says that Lesser Vehicle disaster has already been escaped. The movement of meaning on the two sides does not agree. There is also a difference of presence and absence. The Dharma-teaching describes those of sharp faculties awakening easily and therefore has no seeking of the carts; the parable describes those of middling faculties still in doubt and therefore has the seeking. To interpret their reverent arrival as seeking the carts entirely misses the scripture's original intent. The division adopted by the root treatise has none of these four faults.

Comparing presence and absence in prose and verse, the prose has five items: opening three, revealing one, the five turbidities, true and false, and absence of falsehood. The verse likewise has five. The prose has true and false but no praise of the Dharma, while the verse has praise of the Dharma but no true and false; each manifests what is absent from the other. Comparing their order, the prose first opens three and later reveals one, while the verse first reveals one and later opens three. Comparing combination and separation, opening three and revealing one combine as the foundation of the general parable, taught together within two lines rather than separated. The passage on the five turbidities is separated into the foundations of four specific parables: opened and not combined. Absence of falsehood establishes the foundation of the parable of absence of falsehood and is neither separately opened nor combined with another item. In terms of inclusion and exclusion, all four passages establish the foundations of six parables and are therefore entirely included; the chapter praising the Dharma is not among those six and is therefore excluded. In terms of general and specific, the initial opening of the three to reveal the one generally narrates Śākyamuni Buddha's entire work of transformation, while everything after the five turbidities belongs to the specific parables. In terms of origin and trace, the general narration of the Buddha's teaching collectively contains both origin and trace, while the passage after the five turbidities separately explains them. The chapter on the five turbidities properly explains the origin in which the Buddha dwells in the Dharma-body and generates great compassion upon seeing living beings suffer. From the unsuccessful one-vehicle transformation onward, it explains the trace manifested in teaching and transformation. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The root treatise's judgment is that the center of this passage is precisely opening the three to reveal the one. The preceding Dharma-teaching states this meaning directly, and those of sharp faculties awaken and understand immediately. Those of middling and dull faculties do not, and the Buddha therefore proceeds to give a parable, explaining three and one through simile so that they understand. Just as the preceding Dharma-teaching has a brief and an extensive opening of the three to reveal the one, the following parable should have a brief and an extensive promising of three carts and bestowing of one; the teaching through causes and conditions should likewise reveal the guiding of three into one. Divisions into three, six, or ten parables cannot accord with the complete text of the three rounds of teaching and also conflict with the understanding of the four great disciples. The root treatise therefore adopts none of them.

II. Brief and Extensive Verse

The root treatise broadly divides the verse of the Śākyamuni chapter in two. First, the two lines beginning with “I too am now like this” briefly restate the provisional and real above and establish the foundation of the general parable below. Second, the forty-one and a half lines beginning with “I observe through the buddha-eye” extensively restate the six meanings above and establish the foundations of the individual parables below.

Though the general verse is short, it already contains the six meanings and can therefore establish the foundations of the six meanings in the general parable. The “I” in “I too am now like this” is Śākyamuni Buddha, the agent of an entire lifetime's teaching and transformation, and establishes the foundation of the great elder below. “Peace” is the dwelling place of great nirvāṇa's permanence and bliss. It is quiescent and free of the obstructions of the five turbidities and is therefore called peaceful. Peace is opposed to lack of peace. Birth-and-death in the three realms is where the Buddha carries out teaching and transformation, and the obstructions of the five turbidities make it unpeaceful; this establishes the foundation of the burning house below. Living beings are the persons throughout the five destinies who receive transformation, establishing the foundation of the five hundred people below. Peace can also mean the peaceful Dharma, opposed to the unpeaceful Dharma of the five turbidities and establishing the foundation of the fire's arising below. Manifold Dharma gateways are opposed to what is not manifold and establish the foundation of the single gateway below. The Buddha's knowledge of living beings' natures and desires means that he knows the faculties and natures of beings in the five destinies to have the differences of three vehicles, establishing the foundation of the thirty children below. Viewed upward, these two lines are a brief verse; viewed downward, they are the foundation of the general parable. Foundation and branch follow each other before and after, making the textual meaning complete. When the parable is explained, the preceding passage will again be cited to prove what follows. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The extensive verse of the six meanings is further divided into four passages, each establishing the foundation of a specific parable below. First, the four lines beginning with the Buddha's observation through the buddha-eye extensively restate the five turbidities and establish the foundation of the parable of seeing the fire. Second, the seventeen and a half lines beginning with the Buddha's first sitting at the place of awakening extensively restate the opening of three within the one vehicle and establish the foundation of the parable of suspending the Great and establishing the Lesser. Third, the six lines beginning with the Buddha's seeing children of the Buddha extensively restate revealing the real and establish the foundation of the parable of equally bestowing the great cart. Fourth, the five and a half lines beginning with the buddhas of the three times extensively restate praise of the Dharma's rarity; the following two and a half lines directly restate absence of falsehood; and the next six lines restate exhortation to believe. These three meanings together establish the foundation of the parable of absence of falsehood, within which the two and a half lines directly restating absence of falsehood are principally taken.

Dividing the first passage more finely, the verse on the five turbidities has three meanings. The first half-line and one character concern observation through the buddha-eye and establish the foundation of the elder's ability to see. The next two lines, three phrases, and four characters concern the five turbidities seen by the Buddha and establish the foundation of the fire seen by the elder. The final half-line concerns the Buddha's generation of great compassion and establishes the foundation of the elder's alarmed entry into the burning house. The second passage, beginning with the Buddha's first sitting at the place of awakening, can again be divided in two according to opening three. The first six and a half lines explain the wish to transform through the Great Vehicle and its failure, establishing the foundation of the parable in which the elder has bodily and manual strength yet temporarily suspends the Great Vehicle. The eleven lines beginning with recollecting the buddhas of the past explain following the other buddhas in transforming through three vehicles and establish the foundation of the parable in which three carts are established and Lesser Vehicle skillful means employed. The third passage, restating the revelation of the real, has four meanings. First, two lines explain the arousal of Great Vehicle capacity and establish the foundation of the parable of seeking the carts. Second, two lines and one phrase explain the Buddha's rejoicing and establish the foundation of the elder's rejoicing upon seeing the children escape disaster. Third, three phrases directly reveal the real and establish the foundation of the parable of equally bestowing one great cart. Fourth, one line explains reception, practice, awakening, and entry and establishes the foundation of the parable of the children's rejoicing upon receiving one great cart. The verse on absence of falsehood directly establishes the foundation of the parable of absence of falsehood and is not further divided.

Under one broader division there can be three parables. The first two lines are combined and not divided, establishing the foundation of the general parable. The passage beginning with observation through the buddha-eye is divided and not combined, establishing the foundations of the specific parables. The parable of absence of falsehood is neither divided nor combined and directly establishes that foundation. Following the brief and extensive verse that continues from above and establishes the text below, the three rounds of teaching and the meaning of the Faith and Understanding chapter remain complete. If the extensive verse is further opened into four meanings, restating the four meanings above and establishing the foundations of four parables below, the three rounds and Faith and Understanding likewise remain complete. If divided still more finely, the verse on the five turbidities opens into three, the verse on skillful means into two, the verse on revealing the real into four, and absence of falsehood stands as one, making ten meanings that can establish the foundations of ten parables below. Yet these ten meanings have corresponding text only in the rounds of Dharma-teaching and parable, while Faith and Understanding and the teaching through causes and conditions become incomplete. The root treatise therefore divides the chapter at three levels to continue from above and establish the text below, not to segment it arbitrarily without purpose.

The first line of the brief verse restates revealing the real; the second restates opening the provisional. Though the wording is narrow, it fully contains one principle, one class of persons, one practice, and one teaching. The Buddha's statement that he is like the other buddhas means that he likewise transforms living beings through the single reality and generally restates revealing the real. The peaceful place is the secret treasury of nirvāṇa. The Buddha himself dwells there and also places living beings within the secret treasury; the peaceful place therefore restates one principle. Living beings restates one class of persons. Entering the buddha path through manifold Dharma gateways restates one practice. The Buddha's proclamation restates one teaching. The power of wisdom is the power of provisional wisdom. Knowing living beings' natures and desires illuminates Lesser Vehicle capacities. Skillfully teaching the various dharmas is the actual establishment of provisional teaching. Causing living beings all to rejoice means that the teaching accords with what is appropriate and fits their capacities. Though brief, these two verses gather the entire beginning and end of opening the provisional to reveal the real throughout the Buddha's lifetime of teaching, omitting nothing from beginning to completion. They are therefore called the brief verse and establish the foundation of the general parable below.

The extensive verse has forty-one and a half lines and extensively restates the six meanings above. An old explanation takes the final seven lines as the transmission section of the Dharma-teaching, but the root treatise does not adopt this and instead takes them as restating praise of the Dharma and exhortation to believe. The six passages are, in order: the first four lines restate opening three because of the five turbidities; the second passage's seventeen and a half lines restate establishing skillful means in teaching and transformation; the third passage's six lines restate revealing the real; the fourth passage's five and a half lines restate praise of the Dharma's rarity, an item absent from the prose of the Śākyamuni chapter but referable to the gateway of the buddhas in general; the fifth passage's two and a half lines restate absence of falsehood; and the sixth passage's six lines restate the exhortation to believe. In the first four lines on the five turbidities, the prose has four items—announcing the number, listing the names, giving their substance, and concluding the explanation—while the verse restates only the number, names, and substance. The prose says that the three vehicles are taught because of the five turbidities, whereas the verse says that the Buddha appears in the world because of them. The Buddha should have taught the Great Vehicle upon appearing, but because of obstructions he first teaches the Lesser as a last resort.

III. What the Buddha-Eye Sees and Where Great Compassion Responds

The first four lines are further divided into three passages. The first eleven characters say that the Buddha possesses the eye capable of seeing. The second, beginning with living beings in the six destinies, uses two lines, three phrases, and four characters to explain the five turbidities seen by the Buddha. The third, beginning with the Buddha's acting for these living beings, uses half a line to explain that he generates great compassion and responds by going to their aid.

The Buddha's observation through the buddha-eye corresponds to the later elder standing outside the gate. From this one knows that the Buddha dwells on the ground of the Dharma-body and completely illuminates all capacities through the constantly quiescent buddha-eye. If living beings have sharp faculties and light turbid obstructions, he manifests the body of Vairocana and teaches the one-vehicle Dharma. If they have dull faculties and heavy turbid obstructions, he removes his jeweled necklaces, manifests as an old monk, enters the burning house in alarm, and skillfully opens three. Here the passage only says that the Buddha then examined living beings' capacities and therefore calls it observation through the buddha-eye.

If observing forms, one should properly speak of the divine eye. If distinguishing faculties, one should properly speak of the Dharma-eye. Why does the passage instead speak of the buddha-eye? Because the buddha-eye perfectly interpenetrates and comprehends; raising what is highest and supreme includes what is lower. Moreover, the other four eyes merge into the buddha-eye and may all be called the buddha-eye. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The five turbidities seen by the Buddha occur at five places in the verse. Living beings' poverty and lack of merit and wisdom restate the turbidity of living beings. Their entry into the dangerous road of birth-and-death, with suffering continuing without interruption, restates the turbidity of life. Their deep attachment to the five desires restates the turbidity of afflictions. Their failure to seek the Buddha of great power or the Dharma that ends suffering restates the turbidity of the eon. Their deep entry into manifold deviant views and attempt to seek the abandonment of suffering through causes of suffering restates the turbidity of views.

There are two explanations of “seeking to abandon suffering through suffering.” One says that people burn their bodies with five kinds of heat and hope thereby to abandon suffering, but instead obtain painful retribution. Another says that the various deviant views belong to feeling and feeling itself is suffering; how could practicing such a cause of suffering in the hope of abandoning suffering possibly succeed?

The Sūtra of Universal Radiance explains the origins of the five destinies: observing the five precepts brings birth in the human destiny, cultivating the ten wholesome acts brings birth among gods, stinginess and greed lead to the hungry-ghost destiny, defiance and resistance lead to the animal destiny, and committing the ten unwholesome acts leads to hell. Without the five destinies, five aggregates, and six deteriorations there is nirvāṇa. Neither dwelling in birth-and-death nor abiding in nirvāṇa, one receives the prediction of awakening.

Fascicle Seven of the Abhidharma Vibhāṣā says that when beings are first born in hell they think: “Formerly I heard renunciants say that greed and desire are the fault leading to hell, a place greatly to be feared. I formerly failed to sever greed and desire, and now I undergo such intense torment.” This presents greed and desire as a cause of hell.

The treatise further says that each of the five destinies possesses phenomena natural to that destiny. The bodily form of hell beings arises again after being destroyed. Animals can fly through empty space. Hungry ghosts can come into the human realm when people give morsels of food. The human destiny possesses vigor, power of recollection, and brahmā-conduct. Vigor means broadly cultivating a cause before seeing its fruit. Power of recollection means being able to remember things done long ago. Brahmā-conduct means obtaining the shares conducive to liberation and proceeding to correct certainty. The heavenly destiny has the natural ability for things to accord with one's wishes: whatever is needed is immediately obtained. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

Hell beings also possess the afflictions, karma, and wholesome dharmas corresponding to the Heaven of Mastery over Others' Creations, but these are not presently active. Beings in that heaven likewise possess the afflictions, karma, and unwholesome dharmas corresponding to hell, but these are not presently active. By raising the highest and lowest extremes, the intervening destinies can be understood by analogy.

“Hell” is the name in this land. The foreign term niraya is translated “absence,” because there is no joy, fragrance, delight, or benefit there. Another explanation takes it to mean lowly. One takes it to mean fallen, because the intermediate-existence body hangs upside down and all its faculties are damaged. Another says that absence means there is no further place of pardon.

There are two classes of jailers. The jailers seen when offenders suffer are transformations produced by karma and are not counted among living beings. The jailers who first bind offenders and bring them before King Yama are counted among living beings. According to this explanation, offenders can still speak normal language when they first arrive; once they undergo suffering, the sounds they emit can no longer be distinguished.

One explanation says that animals receive their name because their bodily forms are horizontal and they also move horizontally. Another says that this destiny exists throughout all five destinies and is therefore called universally present. Animals are found in the heavens of the Four Great Kings and the Thirty-Three, but elephants, horses, and other mounts in the higher heavens are transformations of meritorious karma and are not counted among living beings. Another says that animals are called blind and dark because their ignorance is severe. At the beginning of the eon they could all understand noble speech. Later, as food differed and crooked minds arose, their language gradually changed and some could no longer speak.

The foreign term for a ghost is Sheliduo, translated here as “grandfather.” Beings first born in this destiny were called grandfathers, and those born there later continued to use the name. Because stinginess and greed cause descent into this destiny and its beings mostly suffer hunger and thirst, they are called hungry ghosts. Because they are driven by the gods and constantly hope to obtain food, they are likewise called hungry ghosts.

The foreign term for a human is Monushe, translated here as “intention.” When King Summit-Born first transformed his people in the past, he taught them to reflect well, deliberate well, and recollect well before doing anything. Following the king's teaching, people first deliberated and recollected before acting and were therefore called intention. Humans are also so called because they can quiet false intentions, cultivate the path, and attain shares conducive to penetration. Another explanation says that the name human means pride, because among the five destinies the human destiny has much self-pride.

The name asura has three explanations. First, sura means god and a is a negative, so because they are not gods they are called asuras. Second, sura means upright and beautiful; because beings in that destiny are not upright or beautiful, they are called asuras. Third, sura means wine and a means absence; because that destiny has no wine, they are called asuras.

God means supreme: they are natural and spontaneous, their pleasures and bodily forms are supreme, everything about them surpasses the other destinies, and they constantly illuminate through their own radiance. They are therefore called gods. Another explanation directly takes the term to mean natural and spontaneous.

An Āgama says that living being is only a provisional name, while realm is the Dharma. Living beings in the five destinies combine with differing Dharma realms. When living beings generate unwholesome minds, they accompany an unwholesome realm. When they generate wholesome minds, they accompany a wholesome realm. When they generate superior minds, they accompany a superior realm. When they generate inferior minds, they accompany an inferior realm. Monks should therefore train in the various wholesome realms. The long preceding passage explains the six destinies through causes and conditions, while this latter passage approximates an explanation through contemplating the mind.

The Buddha generates great compassion for these living beings. The passage first raised the buddha-eye capable of seeing, next explained the living beings seen by that eye, and now says that great compassion perfumes and arouses the Buddha's mind, causing him to respond by entering the three realms, establishing skillful means, and guiding living beings toward buddha-wisdom.

IV. Transformation through the Great Vehicle Temporarily Cannot Be Used

Beginning with the Buddha's first sitting at the place of awakening is the second passage, with seventeen and a half lines restating his establishment of skillful means in teaching and transformation. It is divided in two. The first six and a half lines explain that the Buddha considers living beings' capacities through the Great Vehicle but cannot accord with them. The second part, beginning with recollecting the buddhas of the past, has eleven lines and explains that he recollects how the buddhas all transform through three vehicles; only then does the teaching accord with what is suitable for living beings and succeed.

The initial wish to transform through the Great Vehicle is further divided into three passages. First, one and a half lines consider whether the Great Vehicle is suitable for living beings. Second, the three lines beginning with living beings' dull faculties explain that they lack the corresponding capacity. Third, the two lines beginning with the Buddha's own reflection explain his decision to suspend Great Vehicle transformation temporarily.

Regarding the Buddha's first sitting at the place of awakening, ultimate principle originally has no time, but divisions of time are provisionally established to transform living beings. Since this is the beginning of transformation, it is called first. Explained in terms of events, the Buddha initially cultivated at this place and attained the path, and it is therefore called the place of awakening. He sat beneath this tree and realized complete awakening, and it is therefore called the tree of awakening. He contemplates the tree to recollect the kindness of its shade, and walks in meditation to recollect the virtue of the great earth that bears him. While requiting kindness upon attaining the path, the Buddha considers through the great Dharma whether living beings are suitable.

Explained through contemplating the mind, the tree of awakening is the great tree of the twelve links of dependent arising. After deeply contemplating dependent arising and himself accomplishing awakening, the Buddha wishes to benefit living beings with the shade of the forest of uncontaminated Dharma, and so the text speaks of contemplating the tree. As for walking in meditation, the thirty-seven factors of the Great Vehicle are dharmas for practicing the path. The Buddha himself treads every ground through the factors of the path and accomplishes buddhahood, and he also wishes to teach and liberate living beings through this Dharma; he therefore rises and walks in meditation.

Trees and earth originally have no discriminating minds, so why must their kindness be repaid? The Sūtra of the Unprecedented says that simply transforming through supernormal powers and transmitting the Buddha-Dharma is called requiting kindness.

The Sūtra of Past Causes and Effects says that during the first seven days after attaining the path, the Buddha considered that the Dharma he had attained was wondrous and no one could receive it. During the second seven days, he considered that living beings had superior, middling, and inferior faculties. During the third seven days, he considered who should hear the Dharma first. He then went to Vārāṇasī and taught the four truths to five people. Chenru attained purity of the Dharma-eye, while Ebi Bati, Shili Jiaye, Mohenan, and Juli had not yet attained the path. The Buddha taught the four truths again, and the other four also attained purity of the Dharma-eye. The Buddha then taught that the five aggregates are impermanent, suffering, empty, and not-self, and all five became arhats. The Buddha is the Buddha Jewel, the four truths the Dharma Jewel, and the five men together with the Buddha make six arhats and constitute the Saṅgha Jewel.

The Xiaoyun commentary says that during the first three seven-day periods the Buddha was already teaching the Lotus Sūtra. Since the later text says that the Buddha King of Constellations and Flower Wisdom taught the Lotus Sūtra beneath a seven-jeweled bodhi tree, one can know that the present Buddha likewise taught the Lotus Sūtra beneath the bodhi tree. Living beings of dull faculties could not bear it, however, and so the Buddha followed the other buddhas in opening three vehicles for transformation and only later taught the one vehicle in the royal city.

If Zhiyi's intent is sought, it is that the Buddha first taught buddha-wisdom beneath the bodhi tree and later taught buddha-wisdom elsewhere, just as the present Buddha first taught the Flower Garland Sūtra and later the Lotus Sūtra. The scripture says that those who first saw the Buddha's body and heard his teaching entered the Tathāgata's wisdom, except only those who had previously cultivated a Lesser Vehicle; these people too are now guided into the Tathāgata's wisdom, precisely agreeing with this meaning.

The five monks also had a past connection. Once, after a group of women heard an immortal teach the Dharma, King Evil-Born became angry and cut off the immortal's arms, ears, nose, and other parts; the blood that flowed turned into milk. That King Evil-Born later became Julin, and that immortal later became the Buddha. The Buddha had vowed to cause him to attain the deathless nectar and therefore caused him to hear the sound of Dharma first after attaining the path.

Someone asks: Why did the Buddha first turn the Dharma wheel for five people? The root treatise answers: because humans first see truth; humans can see directly in their present bodies; humans can realize; the activities performed by the Buddha resemble those of humans; the gods obtain wholesome benefit from the human realm; and the complete fourfold assembly of monastic and lay people exists among humans. The Dharma wheel was therefore first turned among humans for five people.

The sound of a wheel-turning king's appearance reaches the Heaven of Mastery over Others' Creations; the sound of Kauṇḍinya's attainment of the path reaches the Brahmā heavens; and the sound of the Buddha's attainment reaches the Pure Abodes. Why do they differ in height? Because wholesome karma, karma of renown, and karma of praising parents, teachers, and elders have superior, middling, and inferior levels. If the Summit of Existence has auditory consciousness, the Buddha's sound also reaches there. A wheel-turning king cultivates the ten wholesome acts, which cause birth in the desire-realm heavens, and so those heavens rejoice that their retinue has increased. Kauṇḍinya has left desire, and his sound therefore reaches the Brahmā heavens. The Buddha is supreme, and his sound therefore reaches the Akaniṣṭha Heaven. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕 According to the Great Vehicle, the sound of the Buddha's attainment reaches a billion Akaniṣṭha heavens and then the Akaniṣṭha heavens throughout immeasurable and boundless worlds in the ten directions. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕

The place of the first turning of the Dharma wheel, the place of the bodhi tree, the place where the Buddha first descended from the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, and the place where he manifested great supernormal transformation are four fixed places shared by all buddhas; other locations are not fixed. Another explanation says that if the place of turning the Dharma wheel is excluded, the remaining three are fixed.

One old explanation says that the three seven-day periods concern contemplating principle, teaching, and related matters; another says they concern exhortation, admonition, and related matters. Master Yao says that event and principle are so profound that even the utmost sage must reflect before acting. During the first seven days, the Buddha considered the subtlety of buddha-wisdom. During the second, he considered the differences in living beings' faculties. During the third, he considered the ten thousand kinds of Dharma medicine. The meaning of the verse proves this: the wisdom attained by the Buddha is wondrous and foremost, while living beings' faculties are dull—how should they be liberated?

The root treatise instead says that the Buddha dwells on the ground of the Dharma-body, quiescent yet constantly illuminating, forever seeing all through the buddha-eye without the slightest omission. How could he only begin to consider this matter after remaining at the place of awakening for three seven-day periods? The three periods are expressive. They indicate that the Buddha initially intended to teach in three rounds and therefore provisionally speak of three seven-day periods: during the first, he considered teaching through Dharma; during the second, teaching through parable; and during the third, teaching through causes and conditions from former lives. None could be carried out because the corresponding capacity was absent, so he suspended the Great Vehicle and first established the Lesser. This is explained particularly in terms of the Great Vehicle of the Perfect teaching.

Explained generally in terms of the Great Vehicle, during the first seven days the Buddha considered teaching the Great Vehicle of the Perfect teaching; during the second, the Separate teaching; during the third, the Great Vehicle of the Shared teaching. None could be carried out because the corresponding capacity was absent, so he suspended the Great Vehicle and first taught the three vehicles of the Tripiṭaka teaching as skillful transformation. Explained through contemplating the mind, he first wished to contemplate the middle path, but the middle is wondrous and difficult to contemplate. Next he wished to contemplate the immediately provisional, but discriminating wisdom in that contemplation was difficult to generate. Finally he wished to contemplate the immediately empty, but its skillful liberation could not be accomplished. He therefore changed to the Lesser contemplation that analyzes dharmas as a skillful means.

The three lines beginning with living beings' dull faculties say that they lack the corresponding capacity and are further divided into three passages. The first half-line says that their obstructions are severe. The second half-line, beginning with people such as these, says that they cannot bear hearing the great Dharma. The final two lines, beginning with the Brahmā kings' request for the Dharma, say that although the Brahmā kings request the great Dharma, the Buddha knows that living beings lack the capacity and therefore does not teach it.

The two lines beginning with the Buddha's own reflection explain his wish to suspend transformation and are divided in two. The first one and a half lines say that because living beings lack the capacity, if the teaching is forced upon them the listeners will instead be harmed. The final half-line formally explains suspending Great Vehicle transformation.

V. Skillful Means of the Three Vehicles Can Rescue

The eleven lines beginning with recollecting the buddhas of the past restate the skillful teaching of three within the one buddha vehicle. The passage is divided in two. The first ten lines positively explain successful transformation; the last line resolves doubt. The first ten are further divided into four passages. First, one line considers living beings' capacities through the three vehicles. Second, the six and a half lines beginning with the formation of this thought say that living beings possess the corresponding capacity. Third, the one and a half lines beginning with having considered this matter explain the actual implementation of transformation. Fourth, the one line beginning with “This is called” explains living beings' reception and practice.

Recollection means that the Buddha considers that although these living beings lack Great Vehicle capacities, they can never be abandoned forever and still must be guided and rescued through skillful means. It does not mean that the Buddha previously knew nothing of opening three, but displays that he follows the same path as the other buddhas and therefore speaks of recollection.

The six and a half lines beginning with forming this thought say that living beings possess Lesser Vehicle capacities and are divided in two. The first four and a half lines concern the buddhas' praise; the latter two concern Śākyamuni Buddha's response and compliance. When he previously wished to transform through the Great Vehicle, living beings lacked the capacity and the buddhas therefore did not praise him. Now that he intends to teach the Lesser Vehicle, indirectly meeting the conditions of their faculties and ultimately enabling liberation, the buddhas praise him.

The buddhas' praise is further divided into five items. First, three phrases narrate their manifestation. Because Śākyamuni Buddha recollects the buddhas' power of skillful means, they appear; this manifestation possesses both the meanings of considering the teaching and meeting the capacity. Second, the one line and one phrase beginning with the praise “Excellent!” directly praise Śākyamuni Buddha's ability to conceal the real and establish the provisional, and so they say excellent. He establishes three for the sake of the one vehicle and guides living beings into buddha-wisdom, and is therefore the foremost guide. The unsurpassed Dharma attained is the subtle and foremost real wisdom attained; using the power of skillful means is following all buddhas in concealing the real and employing the provisional. Third, one line says that the buddhas all likewise conceal the real and employ the provisional. Fourth, one line gives a double explanation of concealing the real and establishing the provisional. Because living beings possess little wisdom and cannot hear the Great Vehicle, the real is concealed; because they delight in a Lesser Dharma, the provisional is established. Fifth, half a line gives a double conclusion: although three vehicles are taught, the final purpose remains revealing the real.

The latter two lines explain Śākyamuni Buddha's response and compliance. After hearing the buddhas' praise, he responds “Namo.” Here namo is translated reverent compliance and contains two levels: the first line verbally expresses reverent compliance, while the second expresses the mental thought of complying with living beings' capacities.

The one and a half lines beginning with having considered this matter concern the actual implementation of teaching. The marks of all dharmas are quiescent and originally cannot be proclaimed in words. This is the preceding principle of the middle path's absence of nature as the buddha-seed. This principle is not an enumerable dharma and cannot be spoken, yet it is now provisionally taught as three vehicles. This principle originally neither arises nor ceases, yet arising and ceasing are taught as skillful means. The principle of partial truth originally cannot be indicated or proclaimed either, yet it is opened provisionally and taught through four gateways. The initial teaching of impermanence to the five men is the gateway of existence.

The one line beginning with “This is called turning the Dharma wheel” explains living beings' reception, practice, awakening, and entry. Turning the Dharma within the Buddha's mind that transforms others into the minds of others is called turning the Dharma wheel. Chenru initially sees truth, severs the delusion of views, and partially realizes the truth of extinction, thereby partially attaining nirvāṇa with remainder; the vocal teaching of nirvāṇa begins from this point. He later becomes one beyond training and therefore receives the name arhat. One capable of teaching the three-vehicle Dharma is called Buddha, the three vehicles taught are called Dharma, and arhats who see truth and others are called Saṅgha. The Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha thereby appear in the world.

VI. Ripened from the Distant Past, the Real Is Revealed Now

The one line beginning with distant eons in the past resolves two doubts. The first concerns the Buddha: Was the Buddha initially unable to illuminate living beings' capacities and only learned their natures after recollecting the other buddhas? The answer is that the Buddha did not previously fail to know how to use skillful means. He recollects the buddhas only to display that he follows the same path, not because he began to know through this thought. Throughout distant eons he has long seen that living beings delight in a Lesser Dharma and has long praised and shown it to them, enabling them to extinguish all suffering. They can therefore attain liberation as soon as they hear the Lesser Vehicle now.

The second doubt concerns the disciples: How can living beings realize arhatship after hearing only briefly in one lifetime? The answer is that throughout distant eons the Buddha has already praised and shown the teaching to them. What is taught now accords precisely with their past habituation, and they can therefore attain the path swiftly.

An old explanation takes this verse as a concealed advance indication of the meaning of the Life Span of the Tathāgata chapter. In terms only of a secret meaning this may be possible; as an explicitly disclosed meaning it is incorrect. When the Life Span is about to be taught, even Maitreya still does not know this meaning. How could one verse have disclosed it in advance here? The root treatise therefore uses the verse only to resolve the two doubts above.

The six lines beginning with the Buddha's seeing children of the Buddha restate revealing the real and fully contain the four ones. The two lines beginning with seeing children of the Buddha restate one class of persons because practitioners of the three vehicles are all children of the Buddha, a meaning also included in the preceding passage. The one line beginning with the Buddha immediately forming this thought restates one principle because teaching buddha-wisdom to living beings is the comprehensive wisdom and Buddha's knowledge and vision spoken of above. The two lines beginning with Śāriputra being told that he should know restate one teaching because teaching only the unsurpassed path is one teaching. The one line beginning with the bodhisattvas hearing this Dharma restates one practice because all in the assembly will become buddhas.

These six lines can also be divided into four meanings. The first two lines explain arousal of the Great Vehicle capacity, also called seeking the fruit. The next two lines and one phrase explain the Buddha's rejoicing because living beings will obtain Great Vehicle benefit. The next three phrases directly reveal the real. The final line explains living beings' reception, practice, awakening, and entry.

Because living beings' Great Vehicle capacity is aroused, it is called seeking the fruit; seeking the fruit follows directly from the capacity's arousal. The removal of obstructions and arousal of the great capacity form four cases. First, obstructions have been removed but the great capacity has not arisen, as with arhats during the Tripiṭaka teaching: because they delight in the Lesser Dharma, although their turbid obstructions have been removed, their great faculties remain dull and the subtle capacity has not arisen. Second, the great capacity has arisen but obstructions have not been removed, as with ordinary beings in the Lotus Sūtra: although they have not severed the bonds of affliction, their great faculties are sharp and the capacity arises. Third, removal of obstructions and arousal of the great capacity occur together, as when people realize the fruits of the two vehicles during the teaching of the Sūtra of Immeasurable Meanings and the great capacity immediately arises in that very assembly. Fourth, obstructions have not been removed and the great capacity has not arisen, as with the five thousand who left the assembly.

Aspiring to the buddha path means seeking the Great Vehicle, not seeking a Lesser fruit. Seeking has three meanings. First, the Great Vehicle capacity inherently possesses the meaning of eliciting a fruit; this is seeking in terms of capacity. Second, silently asking in one's mind whether one can attain it is seeking in terms of feeling. Third, seeking through speech is the three earnest requests. Former teachings already contained seeking through capacity and feeling, but it had not yet been voiced. Only today are all three kinds of seeking complete.

Someone asks: After leaving the burning house in the past, the children sought three carts. If that was seeking through capacity and feeling, and the scripture says “as the father previously promised,” they were clearly seeking three carts. What relation does that have to seeking one? The answer is that when the children left the house and did not see the three carts, they necessarily knew that there was another way forward. They used the three carts promised in the past to inquire into that different true intent, and this too can be called seeking the one vehicle.

Concerning everyone's coming to the Buddha with a reverent mind, one explanation says that they were ashamed of the Lesser Vehicle and aspired to the Great, and their Great Vehicle capacity elicited the Buddha; this is therefore called coming to the Buddha. The root treatise says that not only did their capacities reach the Buddha, but their bodies actually came to the assembly, as in the Sūtra of Immeasurable Meanings, where the fourfold assembly surrounds the Buddha, joins palms reverently, and single-mindedly wishes to hear the complete path.

That they had formerly heard the dharmas taught as skillful means from the buddhas means that, beginning with the initial single flavor of discipline, they had received and practiced the Tripiṭaka teaching, the six perfections, and such skillful means as the Shared and Separate teachings. Through ripening by these skillful means, their obstructions could be removed, the Great Vehicle capacity could arise, and they could seek the great Dharma.

The two lines and one phrase beginning with the Buddha immediately forming this thought explain that living beings' obstructions have been removed and the Buddha therefore rejoices. The Buddha originally appears in the world for buddha-wisdom. In the past, living beings' obstructions were severe and they lacked the capacity, so buddha-wisdom could not be taught immediately. During the intervening period their obstructions were gradually removed, but it still could not be proclaimed. Now the capacity is aroused, and this is precisely the time to teach. In the past, living beings had dull faculties and narrow wisdom, and the Buddha feared that they would slander the true Dharma and fall into evil destinies; it was therefore not the time to teach. Now their faculties are sharp and aspirations vast, and after hearing they will certainly believe and understand, so the Buddha rejoices. Fearlessness means no longer fearing that through attachment to the Lesser Vehicle they will slander the Great Vehicle, create offenses, and fall into evil destinies.

The three phrases beginning with the Buddha among the bodhisattva assembly directly reveal the real. The five vehicles are crooked and not a direct path, while the Shared and Separate teachings incline to one side and are not the correct path. All those partial and crooked paths are now relinquished, and only the one straightforward path is taught.

The one line beginning with the bodhisattvas hearing this Dharma explains reception, practice, awakening, and entry. The two kinds of bodhisattva in the teaching of the six perfections and the Shared teaching had their old attachments stirred and new doubts generated upon first hearing the brief explanation; now all have been removed. This does not concern only bodhisattvas: people of the two vehicles are likewise. One passage of the scripture says that all śrāvakas will become buddhas because earlier teachings did not say that the two vehicles become buddhas and only now are predictions bestowed on them. But how could predictions be limited to the two vehicles? How could the removal of doubt be limited to bodhisattvas? The scripture preserves one side in each place, and both meanings are thereby complete.

Someone asks: What doubt do bodhisattvas possess? The answer is that the Tripiṭaka teaching says bodhisattvas do not sever delusion even after three incalculable eons and that once they sever it they enter truth. The Shared teaching says bodhisattvas sever the primary afflictions while retaining habituation and become buddhas when the habituation is exhausted. Yet the brief explanation now says that all these are skillful means. Where, then, are the truth realized in the past and buddhahood accomplished in the past? Further, if all three vehicles cultivate one path together, why do their results still differ? Hearing the Lotus Sūtra now sweeps away all these doubts without leaving even a mustard seed's trace.

VII. Difficult to Encounter, Hear, and Believe

The five and a half lines beginning with the buddhas of the three times restate praise of the Dharma's rarity and do not directly establish the foundation of the later parable of absence of falsehood. This section is divided in two. The first line restates the wondrous Dharma above, namely the provisional and real. Citing the buddhas of the three times all using provisional teachings says that provisional teachings are means for guiding living beings. Citing the buddhas of the three times all revealing the real says that at the real the road of words is cut off—how could there be a fixed method? Moreover, provisional and real are originally without distinction and are distinguished only by people of dull faculties and lesser wisdom. Now, awakening to the nonduality of one and three, one knows that the three and one taught by the Buddha were originally without distinction. All buddhas are so, not only Śākyamuni Buddha.

The following four and a half lines restate that the teaching occurs only when the time is appropriate. The scripture lists four difficulties. A buddha appears in the world only after an extremely distant time; this is the difficulty of the person. Even when a buddha has appeared, the true Dharma remains difficult to teach: the present Buddha reveals the real only after more than forty years in the world. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕 This is the difficulty of the Dharma. Hearing this Dharma requires immeasurable and incalculable eons; this is the difficulty of hearing the Dharma. The five thousand who left the assembly had the Brahmā voice filling their ears, yet still rose and departed, showing that genuine hearing is not easy. Those able to hear and receive this Dharma are also difficult to find. At that time only Śāriputra within the assembly understood first; those of middling and dull faculties listened but still did not understand. This is the difficulty of belief and reception. The udumbara-flower simile generally illustrates all four difficulties. The wording explicitly states only the difficulty of hearing the Dharma; the other three can be understood by analogy.

VIII. Absence of Falsehood and the Old Explanation of the Final Seven Lines

The two and a half lines beginning with the exhortation not to doubt restate the preceding absence of falsehood and are divided in two. The first one and a half lines exhort people not to doubt the trustworthy person; the last line exhorts them not to doubt the trustworthy Dharma. Even the words of worldly kings are not double; how could the Buddha, the Dharma King, teach falsely? Although skillful means are temporary provisional establishments, how could the real they reveal be false speech? One therefore should not doubt when hearing the Dharma King teach.

An old explanation takes the seven lines beginning with Śāriputra being addressed again not as a further restatement of the exhortation to believe, but simply as the Śākyamuni chapter's intent to exhort belief in and transmission of this scripture. The seven lines are divided in two. The first five and a half instruct people to transmit the scripture and thereby cultivate the cause of buddhahood. The final one and a half briefly bestow a prediction.

The first five and a half lines can be divided more finely. The first instructs people to aspire to the buddha-fruit and cultivate its cause, and cultivating the cause requires transmitting the scripture. The Buddha held this Dharma concealed in his mind for more than forty years, unknown to others, and it is therefore called secret. The direct path of the one vehicle collectively encompasses the myriad roads and is therefore called essential. The one line beginning with the evil world of the five turbidities explains secret and essential. People with severe obstructions ultimately cannot understand, so the Tathāgata secretly stores this Dharma and does not teach it casually. The two lines beginning with future ages explain the people for whom the scripture is transmitted. The first says it should not be taught to unwholesome people; the latter says it should be taught to good people. The one and a half lines beginning with Śāriputra being addressed again give a double conclusion. The first line concludes secret and essential, saying that this Dharma is originally so: innumerable skillful means are first used and only later is the real opened and shown. The latter half-line concludes the people for whom the scripture is transmitted, saying that those who do not train and study cannot understand; this concludes that it should not be taught to unwholesome people. Conversely, those who train and study can understand and are people to whom it may be taught.

The final one and a half lines briefly bestow a prediction. The first three phrases say that this person already possesses understanding, the middle phrase that this person is already free of doubt, and the final half-verse that this person receives a prediction. Possessing understanding and being free of doubt, one should naturally rejoice in one's future buddhahood. The prediction here establishes the foundation for the later predictions bestowed on Śāriputra and others. The transmission of the scripture here establishes the foundation for the later instruction that Śāriputra circulate it. This is the old explanation.

IX. The Root Treatise's Judgment: Distinguishing the Assembly and Then Exhorting Belief

The root treatise considers the six lines beginning after the five turbidities to restate distinguishing the listening assembly and exhorting belief. Since the preceding prose clearly has this passage immediately before one's eyes, how could one instead say that it is not restated?

The six lines are divided in two: the first three restate distinguishing the assembly, and the latter three restate exhorting belief. The initial one line on the five turbidities restates the preceding distinction and exclusion of those who are not genuine disciples of the Buddha. People attached to various sensual pleasures perform Māra's work and must therefore be distinguished and excluded. The preceding passage says that even those attached to nirvāṇa are not genuine disciples of the Buddha; how could those attached to birth-and-death here be genuine disciples? The two passages each distinguish and exclude from one side.

The one line saying that these people ultimately do not seek the buddha path restates the preceding distinction and exclusion of people of overweening pride. Those of overweening pride have not attained the superior Dharma yet think they have and therefore no longer seek the buddha path.

The one line on evil people in future ages restates the preceding point that people who genuinely understand the scripture after the Tathāgata's extinction are difficult to encounter. The one line on those with a sense of shame and purified body and mind restates the preceding point that if they can encounter other buddhas, they will attain decisive understanding.

The final three lines restate exhortation to believe: there is no reason for anyone not to believe this Dharma. The first one and a half lines exhort the assembly to believe the provisional; the latter one and a half exhort them to believe the real. Free of doubt about both provisional and real, they will themselves know that they will certainly become buddhas in the future. 〔The remainder is abbreviated.〕