大乘莊嚴經論 覺分品

The factors of awakening — the whole set of parts that lead to awakening

The road to awakening is not walked by a single surge of zeal pressing forward, but by a whole set of methods that can be followed step by step. This chapter is exactly the "toolshed" that lays them out, one piece at a time.

It sets out from a plain word — "conscience" (慚), the mind that knows how to feel abashed; only one who has conscience is willing to turn back. The treatise raises several similes for it: conscience is like a garment that gathers no filth, like a loving mother guarding her child. From this it builds up, layer upon layer, all the way to the thirty-seven "factors of awakening" transmitted in common across Buddhism — like the seven treasures that clear the way ahead when a wheel-turning king sets out, leading the mind on toward awakening.

With the tools in hand, the chapter turns to its arguments on impermanence and the no-self of persons, then returns to self-benefit and benefit of others. The lamp-flame belongs to the treatise; waterfall and whirlpool are only expository aids. This layer reports the argument without deciding on its behalf.

Now look upon this toolshed, and how it makes ready the whole provision for going toward awakening.

This is the longest chapter of the treatise, spanning fascicles ten and eleven. Its first half gathers the bodhisattva's virtues with the thirty-seven factors of awakening; its second half turns to sustained demonstrations of momentariness and the no-self of persons.

The bodhisattva has the mark of "conscience" (羞, 慚, hrī, moral self-respect that shrinks from wrong). This should now be explained.

Countering the obstruction and joined with knowledge, taking its object and ripening beings — the bodhisattva's mark of conscience has these four distinctions.

This verse shows that the bodhisattva's "conscience" has four marks: first its own-nature, second its associate-kind, third its object, fourth its function. Countering the obstruction means departing from shamelessness [non-conscience] — this is the own-nature of conscience. Joined with knowledge means being conjoined with non-conceptual knowledge (無分別智, nirvikalpa-jñāna) — this knowledge is the associate-kind of conscience. Taking its object means the bodhisattva takes "beings who are small and free of obstruction" (that is, the listeners and solitary awakeners, śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha) as an object worthy of conscience — "small," said in contrast to the great vehicle; "free of obstruction," because they have already broken the afflictive obstruction. Ripening beings means the bodhisattva's conscience takes the "establishing (ripening) of beings" as its function. These are the four marks of conscience. 〔Question:〕 In which practices does the bodhisattva's conscience arise?

Toward the six perfections, when the obstruction grows or its counter wanes, when one is slack or when one busily acts — here conscience arises.

The bodhisattva feels the pang of conscience over four matters: first, when the obstruction to the perfections grows; second, when the counter to the obstructions wanes; third, when he practices the perfections slothfully; fourth, when he busily acts in ways that follow the afflictions — that is, keeping the faculties ever open and unguarded. 〔Question:〕 What are the distinctions in the bodhisattva's kinds of conscience?

Six grades and two grades, the seven grounds and the two vehicles, and the "seeming" one as well — these are reckoned lower; reverse them, and know the higher.

Six grades: on the indeterminate grounds, the conscience of the first six grades is "lower." Two grades: on the determinate (concentrated) grounds, the conscience of the first two grades is "lower." The seven grounds: among the bodhisattva's ten grounds, the conscience of the first seven grounds is "lower." The two vehicles: this means beings of lowly mind, whose conscience is "lower" — because it carries overweening pride. The "seeming" one: this means the bodhisattva who has not yet attained the acceptance that dharmas are unborn (無生忍, anutpattika-dharma-kṣānti), whose conscience is also "lower." Reverse all these "lower" kinds of conscience, and one should know them to be the "higher" kinds of conscience. 〔Question:〕 What dharma is the obstruction to conscience? And how many faults does that obstruction have?

Non-conscience — the afflictions uncut, the three harms and the six reproaches, falling into hardship, backsliding, and suffering — twelve faults, as above.

Non-conscience is the obstruction to the bodhisattva's conscience. If this obstruction is present, the afflictions are not cut off; the afflictions uncut, there first arise three harms: first, self-harm — that is, wrong reflection, since one troubles oneself; second, harming others — that is, anger and indifference, since one troubles others. 〔Question:〕 That anger troubles beings is understandable, but how does "indifference" trouble beings? 〔Answer:〕 The bodhisattva ought to teach beings, yet "sets them aside and does not teach them" — this is called troubling them. Third, harming both — that is, breaking the moral discipline (尸羅, śīla), since one troubles both self and others. Having given rise to these three harms, one at once, in the present life, incurs six reproaches — through remorse, loss of gain, loss of protection, being cast off, being punished, and ill repute — incurring, in that order, six kinds of reproach, from "self-reproach" up to "the reproach of people in the ten directions." Thereafter, again, three faults arise: first, falling back into the various states of hardship; second, backsliding from the wholesome dharmas already gained and not yet gained; third, from this a great feeling of suffering is born. These are the twelve faults born of non-conscience. 〔Question:〕 Now that the obstruction and the faults are known, what is the merit of conscience?

All these evils — if the bodhisattva has conscience, know that they are wholly gone, for he arouses their counter. Born among gods and men, keen and wise, he swiftly fulfills the two stores; ripening beings, never turning back — freedom-from and non-separation are his fruit.

The first verse shows the merit of "conscience that departs from faults": the faults spoken of above, once the bodhisattva has conscience, are one and all absent (for conscience can arouse their counter). The second verse shows the merit of "conscience that gathers in [good]," complete with the gathering of five excellent fruits. "Born among gods and men, keen and wise" is the maturation-fruit — that is, ever born among gods and among men, always gaining keenness and wisdom. "Swiftly fulfills the two stores" is the augmenting-fruit — that is, gaining the two stores of merit and wisdom for great awakening. "Ripening beings, never turning back" is the fruit of the true man — for it is the deed of a great man. "Freedom-from" is the fruit of separation — being free of that obstruction. "Non-separation" is the supporting-fruit — for in every place of rebirth one is never separated from the counter to that obstruction.

With clothes, there is still filth — for the worldling has no conscience; the heavenly garment has no more filth — such is the bodhisattva's conscience. The bodhisattva's conscience is complete, like space that cannot be stained; wishing to surpass the [other] bodhisattvas, he too adorns himself with conscience. Just as a loving mother cherishes, so conscience protects beings; [protecting] those born and those transformed — this is done through conscience.

Here four similes show the virtue of conscience (慚, moral self-respect):

• Conscience is like clothing: the worldling, having no conscience, is like one who has clothes yet still has filth; the bodhisattva, having conscience, is like the heavenly garment that has no more filth — conscience can counter "abiding in the afflictions."
• Conscience is like space: the bodhisattva's conscience is complete, like space that cannot be stained — even meeting the eight worldly dharmas (gain and loss, blame and praise, honor and disgrace, pain and pleasure), he is not defiled.
• Conscience is like an adornment: adorned with conscience, he is upright and surpasses the other bodhisattvas — conscience can bring him into accord with his fellow practitioners.
• Conscience is like a loving mother: conscience protects beings as a loving mother cherishes [her child]; both the born (those undergoing rebirth) and the transformed arise through this — conscience can ripen beings.

Not enduring and not acting, and also enduring and also acting — know that these four are what is meant by the mark of practiced conscience.

The mark of practiced conscience has four kinds: not enduring [evil], not acting [evil], enduring [good], and acting [good].

Cultivating conscience, and arousing the five [modes of] own-intent, through faith in the Dharma and the rest — the supreme, known as before.

"Known as before" means: through giving rise to pure faith in the "place of conscience" taught in the great-vehicle scriptures; through cultivating it with the nine kinds of profound resolve; through cultivating it in reliance on the "concentrations like space" and the like; through its being embraced by non-conceptual knowledge; and through "entering all fruits by way of one fruit" — by these five, conscience attains the supreme.

(Having spoken of the bodhisattva's conscience, the text next speaks of the bodhisattva's fearlessness.)

The bodhisattvas' fearlessness — its essential mark and its distinctions, its firmness and its excellence — these shall now be explained in order.

Next, in order, the essential mark, distinctions, firmness, and excellence of the bodhisattva's "fearlessness" are explained.

Vigor, concentration, and wisdom — from these three it arises; bold, hale, diligent, and fierce in acting: this is called the mark of fearlessness, and it too displays its many names.

The mark of fearlessness: it arises from the three — vigor, concentration, and wisdom — and acts boldly, halely, diligently, and fiercely; this is fearlessness, and it is what its various other names display.

In all that is to be done, the low, the wavering, and the foolish take fright; free of these three by threefold certainty — this is called the ease of fearlessness.

In all that the bodhisattva has to do, if his mind is "low," or "wavering," or "foolish," he gives rise to fright. Why? The low mind does not vigorously cultivate that matter; the wavering mind is not settled upon that matter; the foolish mind has no skillful means for that matter. The counters to these three are, in order, precisely vigor (countering the low), concentration (countering the wavering), and wisdom (countering the foolish). Therefore, when the three — vigor and the rest — attain "certainty," this is called "fearlessness." 〔Question:〕 What counts as "certainty"? 〔Answer:〕 When these three counters manifest spontaneously (arising of themselves, without deliberate exertion), this is called certainty.

Own-nature and the great vow, disregard [of self] and non-retreat, hearing the profound and being able to transform, placing them in the Buddha's body, practicing too the various austerities, not forsaking birth-and-death, and birth-and-death unable to defile — these ten are the distinctions.

Fearlessness has ten distinctions: own-nature (fearlessness accomplished by nature); the great vow (arousing the mind of awakening); disregard (diligent in one's own benefit, disregarding body and life); non-retreat (diligent in others' benefit, not retreating when met with opposition); hearing the profound (unafraid on hearing the real meaning); able to transform (transforming hard-to-transform beings by supernormal power); placing them in the Buddha's body (establishing beings in great awakening); practicing austerities (all kinds of hard practice); not forsaking birth-and-death (deliberately taking rebirth); birth-and-death unable to defile (dwelling in defilement yet undefiled).

Bad friends and grave suffering, and hearing the profound cannot make him retreat — just as the wind from a cricket's wing cannot stir Sumeru or the ocean.

The bodhisattva's fearlessness stays unmoved by three conditions — meeting a bad friend, undergoing grave suffering, and hearing the profound Dharma. Just as the wind stirred up by the beating wings of a cricket cannot shake Mount Sumeru or the great ocean, so these three conditions cannot move the bodhisattva's mind; therefore his fearlessness is firm.

Among all that is called fearlessness, the bodhisattva's fearlessness is supreme, for by its differing mark, its firmness, and its excellence, it is unlike the rest.

By the three principles of a differing mark, firmness, and excellence, the bodhisattva's fearlessness is supreme among all that is called fearlessness, and unlike the others.

(Having spoken of fearlessness, the text next speaks of the bodhisattva's non-retreat.)

The non-retreating bodhisattvas — their kinds are three matters: in hearing, in vigor, and in suffering; conscience and boldness are their support. Delighting in great awakening — this is called the nature of non-retreat; the not-yet-accomplished, the accomplished, and the utterly accomplished — the distinctions the grounds display.

Non-retreat has three kinds — non-retreat in never wearying of hearing the Dharma, non-retreat in ever-great vigor, non-retreat amid the suffering and distress of birth-and-death; its support is twofold — conscience (for retreat would be shameful) and boldness (for retreat would be unmanly). Its "own-nature" is "delighting in great awakening" (if this delight turns back, one retreats). Its distinctions are three: the not-yet-accomplished (the ground of resolute practice), the accomplished (the first through the seventh ground), and the utterly accomplished (the eighth ground and above).

(Having spoken of non-retreat, the text next speaks of the bodhisattva's knowing the Dharma.)

Knowing the Dharma and the function of knowing the Dharma, knowing its mark and knowing its inexhaustibility, gaining the fruit and the two gates, ripening beings and also abiding in the Dharma.

Knowing the Dharma means knowing the "five domains of learning" (五明處, the five sciences) — first inner learning [Buddhist doctrine], second logical learning, third linguistic learning, fourth medical learning, fifth technical learning; knowing these five treatises is called knowing the Dharma. The function of knowing the Dharma means taking "benefiting self and others" as one's function: knowing inner learning is for one's own cultivation and for teaching others; knowing logical learning is for setting forth one's own doctrine and refuting others' doctrine; knowing linguistic learning is for one's own fine speech that leads others to accept it in faith; knowing medical learning is for curing others' illnesses; knowing technical learning is for making others understand. Knowing the mark of the treatises means: knowing that these five treatises are gained through five causes — this is the bodhisattva's mark of knowing the treatises — namely, first gaining by hearing, second by retaining, third by reciting, fourth by reflecting, fifth by penetrating: the bodhisattva first "hears" the treatise, having heard he "retains" it, having retained he "recites" it, having recited he rightly "reflects" on it, having reflected he "penetrates" it; and to penetrate is to know "this is a merit, this is a fault, this is good speech, this is bad speech." Knowing inexhaustibility means: knowing thus, without end, even until the nirvāṇa without remainder. Gaining the fruit means: knowing oneself to have gained all-kinds-of-knowledge (一切種智, sarvajñatā). The two gates means: first the gate of concentration, second the gate of retention (陀羅尼, dhāraṇī) — the bodhisattva who knows the treatises ripens beings by the gate of concentration (transforming and gathering them according to each), and ripens the Buddha-Dharma by the gate of retention (upholding whatever Dharma he has gained).

(Having spoken of knowing the Dharma, the text next speaks of the bodhisattva's knowing the world.)

Knowing by body and knowing by speech, and knowing by the real truth — the bodhisattva knows the world, supreme and without equal.

The bodhisattva knows the world — by knowing through the body, knowing through speech, and knowing through the real truth — supreme and without equal.

Knowing by body, he brightens his face; knowing by speech, he speaks first; so as to make [beings] into fit vessels, they practice in accord with the true Dharma.

Knowing by body, he brightens and gladdens his face (kindly and warm); knowing by speech, he takes the initiative to inquire and speak — so as to make beings into "vessels of the Dharma" and to have them practice in accord with the true Dharma.

Two knowings know the world's arising, two knowings know the world's ceasing; for the sake of quelling and for the sake of gaining, he knows the truths and diligently practices.

Knowing the two truths of suffering and its origin, he knows "the world's arising" (through birth, and the means of birth); knowing the two truths of cessation and the path, he knows "the world can cease" (through cessation, and the means of cessation). 〔Question:〕 And knowing the truths of the world — for the sake of what? 〔Answer:〕 For the sake of "quelling" and for the sake of "gaining," he diligently practices with the knowledge of the truths — "quelling" means quelling the truths of suffering and its origin; "gaining" means gaining the truths of cessation and the path. The bodhisattvas, for the sake of quelling the truths of suffering and origin and of gaining the truths of cessation and path, contemplate the truths and cultivate knowledge to fullness. To know the world thus is precisely to know the function of the world.

(Having spoken of knowing the world, the text next speaks of the bodhisattva's cultivating the four reliances.)

The expressing [word] and the intended meaning, the definitive meaning and the wordless — know that these four are what is meant by the mark of the four reliances.

The mark of the "four reliances" (四量, 四依, the four things to rely on): relying on "the expressing Dharma" (rely on the Dharma, not on the person); relying on "the intended meaning" (rely on the meaning, not on the wording); relying on "the definitive meaning" (rely on the definitive meaning, not on the provisional); relying on "wordless knowledge" (rely on knowledge, not on ordinary cognition).

Slandering the Dharma and departing from meaning, wrong reflection and clinging to words — to block these four matters, the four reliances are taught in order.

The four reliances are set up, in order, to block four matters: to block slandering the Dharma; to block departing from meaning; to block wrong reflection; to block "clinging to words."

Faith and inner reflection, right hearing and realizing knowledge — the bodhisattva is unbreakable: such is the merit of relying on the reliances.

The merit of relying on the four reliances: by the first, one's faith becomes unbreakable; by the second, one's right reflection becomes unbreakable; by the third, one's right hearing becomes unbreakable; by the fourth, one's worldly knowledge becomes unbreakable.

(Having spoken of the four reliances, the text next speaks of the four unobstructed understandings.)

In gate, in mark, in speech, and in knowledge, penetrating without compare — this is precisely the bodhisattva's four kinds of unobstructed understanding.

The first is the knowledge of gates — able to know the distinctions among all the "name-gates" within a single meaning; the second is the knowledge of marks — able to know that this meaning belongs to this name (name and meaning corresponding); the third is the knowledge of speech — able to know the languages and sounds of different regions and lands; the fourth is the knowledge of knowledge — able to know one's own capacity to teach the Dharma (the knowledge of teaching at will). To know these four is the four unobstructed understandings.

The one who speaks, what is spoken, and the means of speaking — these three matters combine; four, two, and again two kinds — in order, the causes of the three matters.

"The one who speaks, what is spoken, and the means of speaking" — these three matters each have their causes. The one who speaks has four causes: first the knowledge of instructing, second the knowledge of ripening, third the knowledge of full accumulation, fourth the knowledge of awakening [others]. What is spoken has two causes: first Dharma, second meaning — those four knowledges have their function upon these two, Dharma and meaning. The means of speaking has two causes: first speech, second knowledge — by these two, speech and knowledge, speaking is accomplished.

Presenting the Dharma and explaining the Dharma, causing understanding and averting attack — the four unobstructed [understandings] are established; know it by this principle.

Presenting the Dharma is by "gates" (the unobstructed understanding of Dharma); explaining the Dharma is by "marks" (the unobstructed understanding of meaning); causing understanding is by "speech" (the unobstructed understanding of expression); averting attack is by "knowledge" (the unobstructed understanding of eloquence). Know that here, by "the Dharma and meaning that are spoken" and "the speech and knowledge that are the means," the four unobstructed understandings are established in order. 〔Question:〕 Why are they called "unobstructed understandings"? And what is their function?

Inwardly realizing and outwardly awakening — hence they are called unobstructed understanding; able to cut off every doubt — this is precisely their function.

This verse establishes the name in its first half and displays the function in its second. Establishing the name: the bodhisattvas first "inwardly realize the dharmas and gain the understanding of their equal suchness" by supramundane knowledge, and afterward "outwardly awaken to the distinctions among the Dharma-gates of the dharmas" by the subsequently-attained worldly knowledge; by this principle they are called "unobstructed understandings." Displaying the function: again, by this understanding they can cut off every doubt-net of all beings — this is called their function.

(Having spoken of the four unobstructed understandings, the text next speaks of the merit of the two stores.)

Merit and wisdom are the two stores, the excellent reward too undefiled; for all bodhisattvas, the excellent mark is just like this. The first two are the substance of merit, the sixth is precisely wisdom; the other three are the cause of both stores, and the fifth too becomes the store of wisdom.

The two stores are the store of merit and the store of wisdom. "The excellent reward too undefiled": by the store of merit, the bodhisattvas make, within birth-and-death, the cause for accomplishing an excellent reward; by the store of wisdom, they make, upon that excellent reward, the cause for its being undefiled. Therefore the bodhisattvas' excellent mark is beyond compare. As for how the six perfections are gathered into the two stores: the first two perfections (giving and discipline) are the substance of the store of merit; the sixth perfection (wisdom) is the substance of the store of wisdom; the other three perfections (patience, vigor, meditation) are the cause of both stores together (for they have their function on both the merit and the wisdom side); and because wisdom can "dedicate," all the perfections likewise become the store of wisdom (hence "the fifth too becomes the store of wisdom").

Right cultivating and repeated cultivating, nourishing the good — this is called a "store"; benefiting self and benefiting others, accomplishing — this is called its function.

This verse explains the name in its first half and displays the function in its second. Explaining the name: "sambhāra" is called a "store" — "sam" means "right cultivating," "bhāra" means "repeated cultivating"; by right cultivating and repeated cultivating, the wholesome dharmas are nourished and grow, and because they are nourished and grow it is called a "store." Displaying the function: by this store, one can accomplish the twofold benefit of self and others — this is called its function.

Entering the grounds, entering marklessness, and entering effortlessness, receiving the consecration and the ultimate — the two stores are, in order, their cause.

Here are the kinds of distinction: the store on the ground of resolute practice is the cause for "entering the grounds"; the store on the six grounds is the cause for "entering marklessness" — "marklessness" being the store included in the seventh ground, since then marks do not arise; the store on the seventh ground is the cause for "entering effortlessness"; the store on the eighth and ninth grounds is the cause for "entering the receiving of consecration"; the store on the tenth ground is the cause for "entering the ultimate" — "the ultimate" being what is included in the Buddha-ground.

(Having spoken of the two stores, the text next speaks of the four foundations of mindfulness.)

Support and counter, entering the truths and taking the object as object, attention and attainment, according and turning [with it], awakening to the object and taking rebirth, the utmost limit and the supreme, the long duration and the later realization — the excellent cultivation, fourteen kinds.

The bodhisattva's four foundations of mindfulness (四念處, the fourfold mindfulness of body, feeling, mind, and dharmas) have "fourteen kinds of excellent cultivation":

1. Excellent cultivation by support: taking as its own substance the three wisdoms of hearing, reflecting, and cultivating, aroused in reliance on the great-vehicle scriptures.
2. Excellent cultivation by counter: able to counter the four inversions — the notions of "impurity, suffering, impermanence, no-self" as [misapplied] dharma-notions — by entering the no-self of dharmas in the body and the rest.
3. Excellent cultivation by entering the truths: entering, in order, the four truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path — entering for oneself and entering for others, as stated in the Treatise on Distinguishing the Middle from the Extremes (《中邊分別論》, the sister-treatise.
4. Excellent cultivation by taking the object as object: taking the bodies and the rest of all beings as its field of objects.
5. Excellent cultivation by attention: [attending that] the body and the rest cannot be [ultimately] found.
6. Excellent cultivation by attainment: [seeing that] the body and the rest are neither separate from nor conjoined with [the true nature].
7. Excellent cultivation by according: gaining the counter to the various obstructions, able to counter that obstruction.
8. Excellent cultivation by turning [with it]: the mindfulnesses cultivated by ordinary beings and the two vehicles are also included under "turning with it," for the sake of teaching them.
9. Excellent cultivation by awakening to the object.
10. Excellent cultivation by taking rebirth: deliberately taking rebirth and accomplishing the most excellent body, such as that of a wheel-turning king, while body, feeling, mind, and dharmas are yet undefiled.
11. Excellent cultivation by the utmost limit: even his cultivation of the lowest-grade mindfulness surpasses others' cultivation of the highest grade, by its keenness of own-nature.
12. Excellent cultivation by the supreme: able to cultivate the four foundations of mindfulness effortlessly, in their general and specific marks.
13. Excellent cultivation by long duration: cultivating even until the nirvāṇa without remainder, without end.
14. Excellent cultivation by later realization: attainable on the ten grounds and on the Buddha-ground alike.

Among these, the excellent cultivation by awakening to the object is shown especially through four similes: knowing the body as an illusion (for its forms are but seeming), knowing feeling as a dream (for all is deluded cognition), knowing mind as space (for its own-nature is pure), and knowing dharmas as a guest (the "guest" being the entangling defilement, as space has smoke, cloud, dust, and mist).

(Having spoken of the four foundations of mindfulness, the text next speaks of the four right exertions.)

The three relinquishings and entering the grounds, abiding in quiescence and gaining the prediction, ripening beings and receiving the consecration, the pure land and consummation.

The bodhisattva cultivates the four right exertions (四正勤) so as to counter the "obstruction to the four foundations of mindfulness"; if this counter is stated at length, it has ten distinctions, since it counters ten "practice-obstructions." The ten practices are: first, the practice of relinquishing attachment (enjoying the excellent reward within existence yet unattached to it); second, the practice of relinquishing hindrances (departing from all obstructive hindrances); third, the practice of relinquishing the low (departing from the mental orientation of the two vehicles); fourth, the practice of entering the grounds (entering the first through the sixth ground); fifth, the practice of abiding in quiescence (entering the seventh ground); sixth, the practice of gaining the prediction (entering the eighth ground); seventh, the practice of ripening beings (entering the ninth ground); eighth, the practice of receiving the consecration (entering the tenth ground); ninth, the practice of the pure land (namely the eighth, ninth, and tenth grounds); tenth, the practice of consummation (entering the Buddha-ground). The bodhisattva cultivates the four right exertions so as to counter the obstructions to these ten practices — this is the distinction stated at length. 〔Question:〕 What is the meaning of "cultivation" in these ten distinctions?

Relying on aspiration, one arouses diligence and arouses vigor, gathering the mind and rightly upholding — thus is the tenfold counter cultivated.

The meaning of "cultivation": relying on "aspiration" one arouses diligence, relying on diligence one arouses vigor, gathers the mind, and rightly upholds — this is called the meaning of cultivation. Herein there is "even cultivation," "cultivation with marks," and "vigorous cultivation." Even cultivation: by right exertion one makes tranquillity and insight even. Cultivation with marks: by cultivating the three marks of "stopping, uplifting, and equanimity" together. Vigorous cultivation: arousing vigor so as to cut off the two obstructions of sinking and agitation within tranquillity and insight. 〔Question:〕 How does one arouse vigor? 〔Answer:〕 By "gathering the mind" and "rightly upholding" — "gathering the mind" is tranquillity (śamatha), "rightly upholding" is: when the mind is even, so to abide and so to uphold it. Cultivating the foregoing "ten practices" by these three cultivations is called cultivating right exertion.

(Having spoken of the four right exertions, the text next speaks of the four bases of supernormal power.)

Distinguishing the four bases of supernormal power, one explains them in brief by three matters: support and means, and accomplishment — this should be known. Concentration is the support; the distinctions are the four bases: first aspiration, second vigor, third mind, fourth investigation.

The four bases of supernormal power (四神足) are distinguished by three matters: support, means, and accomplishment. Their support is the four bases — aspiration, vigor, mind, and investigation (four kinds of concentration).

Setting in motion and gathering along, binding and countering — in order, the eight abandoning-practices form them: three, one, two, and two.

The means also has four kinds: first the means of setting in motion, second the means of gathering along, third the means of binding, fourth the means of countering. 〔Question:〕 By which "practices" is each of these four means formed? 〔Answer:〕 By "the eight abandoning-practices, in order, forming them: three, one, two, and two." The eight abandoning-practices are: first faith, second aspiration, third diligence, fourth pliancy (輕安, mental-and-bodily ease), fifth mindfulness, sixth knowledge, seventh volition, eighth equanimity. Herein, in order: by the three practices of "faith, aspiration, diligence" the means of setting in motion is established — by faith one arouses aspiration, by aspiration one arouses diligence, in this order; by the one practice of "pliancy" the means of gathering along is established — for once pliancy has stilled [distraction], concentration is born; by the two practices of "mindfulness and knowledge" the means of binding is established — by right mindfulness the mind, within concentration, does not depart from its object, and by right knowledge the mind, when it has departed from its object, is drawn back once awareness has noticed; by the two practices of "volition and equanimity" the means of countering is established — by volition one counters the entanglement of sinking, and by equanimity one counters the entanglement of agitation, these two being the counters to the afflictions.

Able to see and able to bestow, sporting and coursing in vows, mastery and gaining the Dharma — these six are accomplished.

The accomplishment has six kinds: first the accomplishment of being able to see, second of being able to bestow, third of sporting, fourth of coursing in vows, fifth of mastery, sixth of gaining the Dharma. The accomplishment of being able to see is the five eyes — the fleshly eye, the divine eye, the wisdom eye, the Dharma eye, the Buddha eye — accomplished by this. The accomplishment of being able to bestow is the six supernormal powers, by which one can teach beings — in order: by the power of [bodily] transformation going to where they are; by the divine ear hearing their sounds and teaching them the Dharma; by the knowledge of others' minds knowing whether their obstruction is present or absent and cutting it off for them; by the knowledge of former abodes knowing their past deeds, and by this power making them know it too so that faith is born; by the divine eye knowing that they die here and are born there, and making them give rise to weariness; by the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows teaching them the Dharma so that they gain liberation. The accomplishment of sporting is of many kinds — namely, transformations and the various concentrations. The accomplishment of coursing in vows is entering the power of vows and coursing in the fruits of vows — namely, emitting light, sending forth sound, and the like; these are beyond counting, as set forth at length in the Sūtra of the Ten Grounds (《十地經》). The accomplishment of mastery is the ten masteries, as also set forth in the Sūtra of the Ten Grounds. The accomplishment of gaining the Dharma is gaining the [ten] powers, the [four] fearlessnesses, and the [eighteen] distinctive dharmas.

(Having spoken of the four bases of supernormal power, the text next speaks of the five faculties.)

Awakening, practice, hearing, tranquillity, and insight — the objects of the faculties of faith and the rest; being augmenting is the meaning of "faculty," for it accomplishes benefit.

Each of the five faculties (五根) has its object: the faculty of faith takes "awakening" (菩提) as its object; the faculty of vigor takes "the bodhisattva's practice" as its object; the faculty of mindfulness takes "hearing the great-vehicle Dharma" as its object; the faculty of concentration takes "tranquillity" (奢摩他, śamatha) as its object; the faculty of wisdom takes "the knowledge of things as they really are" as its object. These, faith and the rest, have an "augmenting" force upon their objects, and so are called "faculties" (for they accomplish benefit).

(Having spoken of the five faculties, the text next speaks of the five powers.)

Know that the faculties of faith and the rest, as they draw near to entering the first ground, can enfeeble the obstructions to the five faculties spoken of above — hence they are called "powers."

These faculties of faith and the rest, as they draw near to entering the first ground, can enfeeble the obstructions to the foregoing five faculties (no-faith, sloth, forgetfulness, distracted mind, and no-knowledge), and so are called "powers."

(Having spoken of the five powers, the text next speaks of the seven factors of awakening.)

The bodhisattva enters the first ground and establishes the factors of awakening; toward dharmas and toward beings, herein he attains equality.

When the bodhisattvas enter the first ground, having awakened to that "Dharma," they establish the seven factors of awakening. 〔Question:〕 What is meant by "awakening"? 〔Answer:〕 Attaining the "understanding of equality" toward all dharmas and toward the bodies of self and others — this is called awakening — namely, in order, the no-self of dharmas and the no-self of persons.

Just as the wheel-king travels with the seven treasures leading the way, the bodhisattva goes toward right awakening, the seven factors ever complete.

This shows that the bodhisattvas' seven factors of awakening resemble the seven treasures of the wheel-turning sage-king: just as the wheel-king travels with the seven treasures leading the way, so the bodhisattva goes toward right awakening with the seven factors of awakening ever complete before him. 〔Question:〕 Which factor resembles which treasure?

Mindfulness subdues all objects; investigation-of-dharmas breaks discrimination; vigor swiftly awakens without remainder; brightening increases, joy pervades the body; obstruction exhausted, pliancy brings bliss; every deed is born from concentration; abiding wherever it wishes at any time; whether relinquishing or taking, all is by equanimity.

The first, the factor of mindfulness, resembles the "wheel-treasure": as the wheel-treasure can subdue lands not yet subdued, mindfulness can subdue objects not yet subdued. The second, the factor of investigation-of-dharmas, resembles the "elephant-treasure": as the elephant-treasure can crush the powerful foes of every land, investigation-of-dharmas can break the superior enemy of "discrimination." The third, the factor of vigor, resembles the "horse-treasure": as the horse-treasure can swiftly reach the far bounds of the great earth, vigor can swiftly awaken to the utmost reach of suchness. The fourth, the factor of joy, resembles the "jewel-treasure": as the jewel's light illumines the dark and gladdens the king utterly, the brightness of the Dharma breaks the dark and gladdens the mind to fullness. The fifth, the factor of pliancy, resembles the "woman-treasure": as the woman-treasure gives the king bliss by her touch, pliancy frees knowledge from obstruction and distress and stills the evils. The sixth, the factor of concentration, resembles the "treasury-minister-treasure": as whatever the king needs comes forth from the treasury-minister, whatever knowledge is to be used comes forth from concentration. The seventh, the factor of equanimity, resembles the "army-general-treasure": as the army-general reviews the troops, casting off the weak and taking the strong, following the wheel-turning sage-king wherever he abides without wearying, so the bodhisattva in his practice casts off evil and takes the good, following wherever non-conceptual knowledge abides, effortlessly. Thus the seven factors of awakening are established as resembling the seven treasures — such is the meaning.

Support and own-nature, going forth and merit, the fifth is said to be the undefiled — this factor [-set] has three kinds.

The classification of the seven factors of awakening: mindfulness is the support-portion (all the factors of awakening proceed in reliance on it); investigation is the own-nature-portion (the very substance of awakening); vigor is the going-forth-portion (bringing one to the ultimate); joy is the merit-portion (bringing the mind to full delight); pliancy, concentration, and equanimity, these three, are the undefiled-portion (pliancy being the cause of the undefiled, concentration the support of the undefiled, equanimity the own-nature of the undefiled).

(Having spoken of the seven factors of awakening, the text next speaks of the eight branches of the right path.)

The one, turning as [after] the earlier awakening; the establishing branch, the second, is likewise; the next three purify the three [kinds of] action; the last three cut off the three obstructions.

"The one, turning as [after] the earlier awakening": the first branch is what, after the "awakening of things as they really are" on the earlier stage, turns along with it — this is called right view. "The establishing branch, the second, is likewise": the second branch is to understand the portion one established for oneself on the earlier stage, and, entering into the Buddha's scriptures, to distinguish it for others as the Buddha established it — this is called right intention. "The next three purify the three [kinds of] action": the middle three branches, namely right speech, right action, and right livelihood; the three [kinds of] action being verbal action, bodily action, and combined action (verbal and bodily together) — in order, these middle three "rights" gather in these three [kinds of] action (purifying them). "The last three cut off the three obstructions": the last three branches, namely right vigor, right mindfulness, and right concentration; the three obstructions being the obstruction to knowledge, the obstruction to concentration, and the obstruction to mastery — in order, these last three "rights" counter these three obstructions: by cultivating right vigor and not backsliding over a long time, the obstruction to knowledge is cut off; by cultivating right mindfulness, so that agitation and sinking are without substance, the obstruction to concentration is cut off; by cultivating right concentration, so that excellent virtues are accomplished, the obstruction to mastery is cut off. Thus the eight branches of the right path are established; this should be known.

〔Fascicle 11〕

(Having spoken of the branches of the path, the text next speaks of tranquillity and insight.)

Settling the mind on right concentration — this is called tranquillity; rightly abiding and distinguishing dharmas — this is called the mark of insight.

"Settling the mind on right concentration — this is called tranquillity": that is, the mind relies on right concentration and "does not see a mind" (does not further posit a separate mind that does the stopping) — it is not that a separate "tranquillity" is set up apart from right concentration; this is called the mark of tranquillity. "Rightly abiding and distinguishing dharmas is called the mark of insight": that is, relying on right abiding one distinguishes the substance of dharmas; this is called the mark of insight. 〔Question:〕 How are these two practices, tranquillity and insight, cultivated?

Universally wishing all merits, both of these should be cultivated; the one-portion and the not-one-portion, for cultivation is single or double.

"Universally wishing all merits, both of these should be cultivated": if a person universally seeks all merits, that person should cultivate both practices of tranquillity and insight. As the scripture says, the Buddha told the monks: "If there is something you seek, how is it to be gained? Monks, be free of desire, free of the unwholesome dharmas," and so on at length; and again, "Monks, there are two dharmas that must be cultivated, namely tranquillity and insight." "The one-portion and the not-one-portion": "one-portion" means either tranquillity or insight (taking one side singly), "not-one-portion" means cultivating tranquillity and insight together. 〔Question:〕 Why is it put this way? 〔Answer:〕 Because cultivation is of two kinds, single and double: "single cultivation" is the "one-portion," cultivating either tranquillity or insight; "double cultivation" is the "not-one-portion," namely cultivating tranquillity and insight together. 〔Question:〕 What are the kinds of distinction of these two practices, tranquillity and insight? And what is their function?

Able to penetrate and able to go forth, markless and unconditioned, the pure land and the pure fruit — these two are precisely its function.

This verse shows the kinds of distinction in its first half and the function in its second. These two dharmas, tranquillity and insight, on the ground of resolute practice are called "reliance-cultivation." Once one enters the great grounds, there are, further, four kinds of distinction: first, penetrating cultivation (entering the first ground); second, going-forth cultivation (entering up to the sixth ground, the means of going forth from "having marks" on those six grounds); third, markless cultivation (entering the seventh ground); fourth, unconditioned cultivation (entering the last three grounds). Cultivation that requires deliberate effort is called "conditioned"; the last three grounds do not require deliberate effort, and so are called "unconditioned." These five are the kinds of distinction. "The pure land": relying on the last three grounds, one cultivates the practice of purifying the land; "the pure fruit": one performs the practice of the transformation of the basis (轉依, āśraya-parāvṛtti, the root turning of the defiled into the pure). These two "purities" are precisely its function.

(Having spoken of tranquillity and insight, the text next speaks of the five kinds of skillful means.)

Ripening oneself and ripening beings, the swift fruit and accomplishing the work, the path of birth-and-death unbroken — these are called the five skillful means.

The five kinds of skillful means: first, ripening the Buddha-Dharma in oneself — with non-conceptual knowledge as the skillful means; second, ripening beings — with the four means of gathering (四攝) as the skillful means; third, swiftly gaining awakening — with repentance, rejoicing, requesting the turning of the Dharma-wheel, and arousing excellent vows as the skillful means; fourth, accomplishing the work — with the two gates as the skillful means, the two gates being the gate of retention (陀羅尼) and the gate of concentration, since by these two one can accomplish the work of benefiting beings; fifth, keeping the path of birth-and-death unbroken — with the non-abiding nirvāṇa (無住處涅槃, apratiṣṭhita-nirvāṇa) as the skillful means. 〔Question:〕 What are the distinctions of skillful means? What is the function of skillful means?

The bodhisattva's skill is without equal, its distinctions rest on the grounds; able to accomplish the benefit of self and others — this is called its function.

This verse shows the distinctions of skill in its first half and the function of skill in its second. The distinctions: these five means are supreme and without equal among the bodhisattvas. Why? Because they are not shared with the two vehicles on the grounds — this is their distinction. The function: they can accomplish every benefit for one's own body and for others' bodies — this is called their function.

(Having spoken of skillful means, the text next speaks of the retentions.)

By karmic reward and by hearing-and-habit, and with concentration as its cause, relying on these three practices, the kinds of retention are three.

The kinds of retention (陀羅尼, dhāraṇī) are three: first, gained by reward — gained by the force of karma from a former life; second, gained by habit — gained by the force of hearing and upholding in the present; third, gained by cultivation — gained by relying on the force of concentration. 〔Question:〕 What are the kinds of distinction?

Two are minor and one is great; the one great again has three kinds, pre-ground and on-the-grounds, the impure and the pure.

"Two are minor and one is great": among those three kinds, "gained by reward" and "gained by habit," these two, should be known as "minor"; "gained by cultivation," this one, should be known as "great." "The one great again has three kinds": within that "great" kind, know that there are again three grades — soft, middling, and superior: what the bodhisattva who has not yet entered the grounds possesses is "soft"; what the bodhisattva who has entered the "impure grounds" possesses is "middling" (namely the first through the seventh ground); what the bodhisattva who has entered the "pure grounds" possesses is "superior" (namely the last three grounds). 〔Question:〕 What is the function?

Know that the bodhisattvas ever rely on the retentions, to reveal the Dharma and to uphold the Dharma — their work is all like this.

Here, know that the bodhisattvas rely on the retentions ever to reveal the wondrous Dharma and ever to uphold it — taking this as their function.

(Having spoken of the retentions, the text next speaks of the vows.)

Volition and aspiration together are its substance; knowledge alone is their cause; the several grounds are precisely their ground; the two fruits too are their fruit. Know that the distinctions are three — the manifold, the great, the pure; their function is of two kinds — benefiting self and benefiting others.

These two verses distinguish the vows by six principles: first own-nature, second cause, third ground, fourth fruit, fifth distinctions, sixth function. Own-nature: that "volition" conjoined with "aspiration" is together its own-nature. Cause: it takes "knowledge" as its cause. Ground: it takes the several grounds as its ground. Fruit: it takes two fruits as its fruit, namely the "present fruit" and the "future fruit" — with the vows as cause, the mind attains its wish; "the mind attains its wish" means all that the mind desires is accomplished; and again, by the force of the vows one courses in the fruits of the vows, namely the body emitting light, the mouth sending forth sound, and so on at length. Distinctions are three kinds: first the manifold, namely the vow on the ground of resolute practice that "wishes to gain thus and thus"; second the great, namely the ten great vows of the bodhisattva who has entered the grounds; third the pure, namely the successive purity of ground after ground, up to the utmost purity of the Buddha-ground — these are called the distinctions. Function is of two kinds: first the accomplishing of self-benefit, second the accomplishing of others' benefit — this is called the function.

(Having spoken of the vows, the text next speaks of the three concentrations.)

Know the twofold no-self, and the support of the two selves, the support ever quiescent and ceased — the fields coursed in by the three concentrations.

The three concentrations (三三昧) have three fields of coursing: first, "the twofold no-self of persons and dharmas," which is the field coursed in by the concentration on emptiness; second, "the five appropriated aggregates that are the support of those two graspings," which is the field coursed in by the concentration of wishlessness; third, "the ultimate quiescence-and-cessation of that support," which is the field coursed in by the concentration of marklessness. These three grasped substances are three fields, and those three grasping substances are three concentrations — these are called the three concentrations. 〔Question:〕 What is the meaning of the names of the three concentrations?

The concentration on emptiness is non-discrimination; wishlessness gives birth to aversion-and-turning-away; marklessness is the ever-delighting-in-gaining — its support ever quiescent and ceased.

"The concentration on emptiness is non-discrimination": the meaning of "non-discrimination" is the meaning of the concentration on emptiness, since one does not discriminate the twofold self of persons and dharmas. "Wishlessness gives birth to aversion-and-turning-away": the meaning of "aversion-and-turning-away" is the meaning of the concentration of wishlessness, since one turns away in aversion from "the support of self-grasping." "Marklessness is the ever-delighting-in-gaining, its support ever quiescent and ceased": the meaning of "delighting-in-gaining" is the meaning of the concentration of marklessness, since one delights in gaining "the ultimate quiescence-and-cessation of that support." 〔Question:〕 How does one set about cultivating the three concentrations?

What is to be known and what is to be cut off, and what is to be realized — in order, the concentrations of emptiness and the rest have three kinds of cultivation.

"What is to be known, what is to be cut off, and what is to be realized": "what is to be known" is the twofold no-self of persons and dharmas; "what is to be cut off" is the support of the two self-graspings; "what is to be realized" is the ultimate quiescence-and-cessation of that support. "In order, the concentrations of emptiness and the rest have three kinds of cultivation": here, in order to know "the twofold no-self of persons and dharmas" one cultivates the concentration on emptiness; in order to cut off "the support of those two graspings" one cultivates the concentration of wishlessness; in order to realize "the ultimate quiescence-and-cessation of that support" one cultivates the concentration of marklessness.

(Having spoken of the three concentrations, the text next speaks of the four Dharma-seals — the four udāna.)

As with the three concentrations before, the four seals are their support; the bodhisattva teaches them thus, for the sake of benefiting the host of beings.

The four Dharma-seals (四法印): first, the seal that all conditioned activities are impermanent; second, the seal that all conditioned activities are suffering; third, the seal that all dharmas are without self; fourth, the seal that nirvāṇa is quiescence-and-cessation. Here, know that the seal of impermanence and the seal of suffering are the support for accomplishing the "concentration of wishlessness"; the seal of no-self is the support for accomplishing the "concentration on emptiness"; the seal of quiescence-and-cessation is the support for accomplishing the "concentration of marklessness." The bodhisattva teaches these four seals as the support for the three concentrations, all for the sake of benefiting the many beings. 〔Question:〕 What is the meaning of "impermanence," and so on up to the meaning of "quiescence-and-cessation"?

The meaning of no-object, the meaning of discrimination, the meaning of stilling all discrimination — these are called the meaning of the four seals.

Here the bodhisattvas [understand]: "no-object" as the meaning of impermanence — because the "mark of discrimination" is ultimately and ever non-existent; "discrimination" as the meaning of no-self — because the "mark of discrimination" is only discrimination (these two [the wholly-imagined self of persons and of dharmas] are both the mark of discrimination, having no substance, and so are the meaning of no-self); "unreal discrimination" as the meaning of suffering — because the mind and mental factors of the three realms are the substance of suffering (this is the "other-dependent mark"); "stilling all discrimination" as the meaning of quiescence-and-cessation — this is the "true mark." Next, again, one should know that the "other-dependent mark" can further, by "perishing moment after moment," serve as the meaning of impermanence. 〔Question:〕 How is this "momentary perishing" established?

(What follows is the establishing of the deep import of "impermanence" — momentariness.)

〔On Momentariness〕 In what follows, the commentary establishes at length the principle that "the conditioned activities perish moment by moment" (establishing the deep import of "impermanence"). It proceeds through a long back-and-forth: "Objection" marks the opponent's position and "Answer" the reply.

By arising and by the cause, by contradiction and by non-abiding, by no-substance and by the fixed mark, by turning-with and by exhaustion, by alteration, by cause and also fruit, by grasping-and-holding and by dominance, by according with purity and according with birth — the meaning is established, fifteen [ways].

These two verses establish "the conditioned activities perish moment by moment" by fifteen principles: first by arising, second by the cause, third by contradiction, fourth by non-abiding, fifth by no-substance, sixth by the fixed mark, seventh by turning-with, eighth by exhaustion, ninth by alteration, tenth by cause, eleventh by fruit, twelfth by grasping-and-holding, thirteenth by dominance, fourteenth by according with purity, fifteenth by according with birth. By these fifteen principles, the meaning of "momentary perishing" can be established.

One — By arising: the conditioned activities flow on in continuity, and this is called "arising." If there were no such thing as "moment-by-moment perishing," yet one said there were conditioned activities flowing on in continuity, called "arising," this would not hold. 〔Objection:〕 A thing does abide for a while; at a later time the earlier one perishes and the later one arises — this is called continuity. — 〔Answer:〕 On the contrary, that leaves no continuity: for during the span of "temporary abiding," the later one has not arisen (the earlier one still abiding and not perishing, the later one has nothing to succeed to), so the continuity is broken.

Two — By the cause: whenever a thing "perishes before and arises after," it must depend on causes and conditions; apart from causes and conditions it has no substance. 〔Objection:〕 That first cause can give rise to the many fruits of later times. — 〔Answer:〕 Not so: the first cause, the moment it performs its act, at once perishes away — how could it still serve as cause for the later fruits? 〔Objection:〕 The first cause, once arisen, does not arise again (abiding permanently as cause). — 〔Answer:〕 Then this "cause," neither arising nor perishing — what use is it to posit it? 〔Objection:〕 The first cause, once arisen, does not perish at once but perishes only at a later time. — 〔Answer:〕 Then when it comes to that later time, who serves as the cause of its perishing?

Three — By contradiction: 〔Objection:〕 Then let it be said that "the cause that can produce is also the cause that can destroy." — 〔Answer:〕 Not so: "arising" and "perishing" contradict each other; that they share one and the same cause has no such principle — just as light and dark cannot coexist, cold and heat cannot be together; the cause of arising is not the very cause of perishing. If, as you hold, "the conditioned activities, once arisen, do not perish at once," this contradicts both the scriptural transmission and reason. It contradicts the scriptural transmission: the Buddha told the monks, "The conditioned activities are like an illusion, they are dharmas that decay and perish, they are temporary dharmas, momentary and non-abiding." It contradicts reason: the practitioner, amid the arising and perishing of the conditioned activities, contemplates "moment-by-moment perishing"; were it not so, then at the time of death, seeing the mark of perishing, he would give rise to no aversion, dispassion, or liberation — and would be just like any ordinary worldling.

Four — By non-abiding: 〔Objection:〕 The conditioned activities, once arisen, do have an "abiding." — 〔Answer:〕 Then this "abiding" — does the activity abide by itself, or does it abide in reliance on another cause? If it abides by itself, why can it not abide forever? If it abides in reliance on another, that "abiding" has no substance of its own — so what could it take as the cause it relies on? Neither holds; therefore moment-by-moment perishing is established.

Five — By no-substance: 〔Objection:〕 Though the "abiding-cause" is absent, the "destroying-cause" has not yet come, and so [the thing] gets to abide for a while; when the destroying-cause comes, it perishes at a later time — not the way fire changes black iron [gradually]. — 〔Answer:〕 Not so: the "destroying-cause" ultimately has no substance. As for the analogy of fire changing iron, there is no such principle in my [account]: when iron and fire are joined, the "seeming-black mark" perishes and the "seeming-red mark" arises; what draws forth the arising of the red mark is the fire's capacity — it is not that fire "changes" black iron into [red iron] (it is still the momentary arising and perishing in continuity). Again, as when water is boiled down to its last little, the later water no longer arises — this too is not that "fire joins with water and the water thereupon becomes substanceless" (rather, the water perishes moment by moment to exhaustion).

Six — By the fixed mark: the Buddha said the conditioned mark of conditioned dharmas is "wholly fixed," namely impermanence. Yet you hold that "the conditioned activities, once arisen, do not perish at once" — then conditioned dharmas would, for a little span, not be impermanent, which falls into the mark of "not-wholly [impermanent]," contradicting the Buddha's word.

Seven — By turning-with: 〔Objection:〕 If a thing is newly born moment by moment, how is it that we take it to be an "old thing" (the very same thing)? — 〔Answer:〕 Know that this is a cognition made through "resemblant continuity," just as, the flame of a lamp arising in resemblance moment after moment, one gives rise to the cognition "this is that same old lamp," when in fact there is a difference before and after, the substance of the earlier moment being already gone.

Eight — By exhaustion: 〔Objection:〕 And how does one know the later thing is not the earlier thing? — 〔Answer:〕 By "exhaustion." If it abided without perishing, then the "abiding" of the last moment would not differ from the "abiding" of the very first moment; just because there is a difference, one knows the later thing is not the earlier thing.

Nine — By alteration: 〔Objection:〕 A thing, at the very first when it arises, has no "alteration." — 〔Answer:〕 Not so, for the substance of inner and outer dharmas cannot be found at their later edge (they are altering throughout). Because it alters from the moment it arises, gradually reaching the manifest — just as milk altering to the stage of curds, only then does the mark of curds appear, while the substance of the altering is subtle and hard to know, and through "resemblant continuity" one mistakes it for the same earlier thing. For this reason, moment-by-moment perishing is established.

Ten — By cause: 〔Objection:〕 You do grant that "mind is momentarily perishing." — 〔Answer:〕 Then the cause that gives rise to that mind (namely the eye, forms, and the other activities), since its fruit (the mind) is momentarily perishing, must itself be momentary too — because one cannot give rise to an impermanent fruit by means of a permanent cause.

Eleven — By fruit: those activities of the eye and the rest are, conversely, also the fruit of "mind," and so moment-by-moment perishing is established — because one cannot give rise to a permanent fruit by means of an impermanent cause.

Twelve — By grasping-and-holding: 〔Objection:〕 How does one know that the activities of the eye and the rest are also the fruit of mind? — 〔Answer:〕 Because "mind grasps and holds" them and makes them grow.

Thirteen — By dominance: again, as the Buddha said, "Mind draws the world along, mind draws the world hither" — by the mind's mastery, the world turns along with it. The saying "consciousness conditions name-and-form" states just this meaning; hence one knows that the activities are the fruit of mind.

Fourteen — By according with purity: "purity" is the mind of one who cultivates meditative concentration; that person's activities turn along with his pure mind. As the scripture says, "A meditating monk complete in supernormal powers, his mind attaining mastery, if he wishes to make wood become gold, can do so at will." Hence one knows that all the activities are the fruit of mind.

Fifteen — By according with birth: as the outer things gained by beings who make transgressions are one and all inferior, and the outer things gained by beings who make merit are one and all fine, hence one knows that all the activities are the fruit of mind. That "the cause is momentary while the fruit is not momentary" has no such principle, because the "cause" is masterful (it determines the fruit; the fruit being momentary, the cause too is momentary).

Thus, having established in general that "all inner and outer activities are momentary," the text next establishes severally that "inner dharmas are momentary."

Initial arising and continued arising, augmented arising and dependent arising, altered arising and matured arising, inferior arising and superior arising, bright arising and unillumined arising, and arising in another place, seeded arising and seedless arising, and image-arising — fourteen arisings.

These two verses establish that the inner dharma-activities are momentary by "fourteen kinds of arising":

1. Initial arising: the arising of the very first self-substance.
2. Continued arising: the arising of the remaining moments, apart from the first moment.
3. Augmented arising: arising nourished by sleep, food, celibate conduct, and meditative absorption.
4. Dependent arising: the consciousnesses of the eye and the rest arise in reliance on the faculties of the eye and the rest.
5. Altered arising: arising with form and the rest altered by the defilements of greed and the rest.
6. Matured arising: the arising of the stages of forming in the womb, infant, child, youth-and-prime, middle age, old age, and so on.
7. Inferior arising: arising in the evil destinies.
8. Superior arising: arising in the good destinies.
9. Bright arising: arising in the upper two heavens of the desire realm, and among all the gods of the form and formless realms.
10. Unillumined arising: arising in the remaining places, apart from the foregoing "bright" places.
11. Arising in another place: dying here and being born there.
12. Seeded arising: arising apart from the last five aggregates of the arhat (that is, arising that still has a later seed).
13. Seedless arising: the arising of the "last five aggregates of the arhat" set aside above, because thereafter there is no more seed for taking rebirth.
14. Image-arising: for one who has entered the meditative concentration of liberation, by the force of mastery in concentration, the arising of the "images" of the activities [he manifests].

〔Question:〕 And by what cause are these fourteen kinds of arising established?

Difference-in-continuity and difference-in-cutting-off, according-with-augmenting and according-with-reliance, the fault-in-abiding and the fault-in-going, the no-abiding and the no-no-death, and there is also the "according-with-mind" mark — the practitioner should know: such are the nine kinds of cause that establish the foregoing fourteen arisings.

These two verses establish the foregoing fourteen arisings by "nine kinds of cause": One — the cause of difference-in-continuity (establishing the first, "initial arising"): if, at the very first arising, the substance of the cause had no difference, then the activities that arise in continuity at later times should also have no difference (the cause-substance being without difference). Just because the "cause" has difference, the moment-by-moment continuity of the remaining later activities is established. Two — the cause of difference-in-cutting-off (establishing the second, "continued arising"): if in each and every moment there were no cause of difference, then the difference of "cutting off" at later times would also not be found. Just because "cutting off" has difference, this principle of the momentariness of the activities is established. Three — the cause of according-with-augmenting (establishing the third, "augmented arising"): what can bring the activities to fullness is called "augmenting." If there were no moments, yet one said the activities are nourished-and-augmented, this would not hold — because (you say) they abide. If the activities could truly abide, they would not gradually grow to fullness, and that would not be "nourishing-and-augmenting." Four — the cause of according-with-reliance (establishing the fourth, "dependent arising"): if one holds that "the reliant does not abide while the relied-upon does abide," this will not hold. Just as when a person rides a horse, if the person went while the horse did not go, there is no such principle. Likewise, consciousness relies on the faculty; that "consciousness has moments while the faculty it relies on has no moments" is untenable in the same way. Five — the cause of the fault-in-abiding (establishing six arisings: altered, matured, inferior, superior, bright, and unillumined arising): Establishing altered and matured arising: if one holds that "the activities, at their first arising, abide and do not perish," this will not hold, for then there would be no "altered arising" — since (if the first were unaltering) the altering of form by greed and the rest could never be found; the first being unaltering, the later too would not alter. And if the first did not alter, the later stages of "maturing" could not be found either, since only where there is prior altering is there later maturing. The establishing of inferior and superior arising is likewise. If one holds that "the activities abide, and yet there is a successive perfuming of good and evil and a giving of fruit," this will not hold; only if the activities do not abide but succeed one another in continuity can each severally give its fruit — this is the tenable principle. The establishing of bright and unillumined arising is likewise: if the activities could abide, then "bright arising" too would be gone; only in non-abiding is there [bright arising], since it is by the mind's turning; "unillumined arising" is likewise, for otherwise there would be no alteration at later times. Six — the cause of the fault-in-going (establishing the eleventh, "arising in another place"): if one holds that "the activities travel to another place, and this is called 'going,'" this will not hold. I now ask you: is it that the activities, "having already arisen," carry the activities to another place, or that, "not yet arisen," they carry the activities to another place? If "having arisen, they carry them along": then here they have already arisen while there they have not yet arisen — this is precisely "abiding," yet you call it "going," and the sense is self-contradictory. If "not yet arisen, they carry them along": since they are not yet arisen, there is fundamentally no "going" [to speak of], and to call it "going" is a meaningless word. Again, if one says "the activities' going is that they first abide in this place and, right in this place, perform the act that makes the activities go," this too will not hold — for abiding, they cannot reach another place. If one says "only on reaching another place do they perform that act," this too will not hold — for there is no such thing as "the activities reaching another place apart from the going." One sees, then, that whether one says "abiding here" or "abiding there," apart from the activities themselves the "act of going" ultimately cannot be found; therefore "going" is not other than the continuity of the activities. "Going" having no substance, the meaning of momentariness is established. 〔Objection:〕 If there really is no "going," why do worldly people all see "going"? — 〔Answer:〕 By "unbroken continuity" one provisionally speaks of "going," but in truth there is no substance of "going." 〔Objection:〕 Then by what cause do the activities continue on in "going"? — 〔Answer:〕 The causes and conditions are immeasurable: there is going by the mastery of mental power, such as the postures of walking, standing, and so on; going by the mastery of former karma, such as the going of the intermediate-state body; going by the mastery of hand-power, such as shooting an arrow or throwing a stone; going by the mastery of a support, such as riding a cart or a boat; going by the mastery of an impelling force, such as the wind blowing a thing along; going by the mastery of one's own nature, such as the wind-nature going sideways, the fire-nature going upward, the water-nature going downward; going by the mastery of technique, such as going through the air in reliance on spells or on drugs; the mastery of the magnet, which can make iron go; the mastery of supernormal power, such as going by riding the supernormal powers. Such immeasurable causes and conditions can make the activities continue on, and one provisionally speaks of "going." This principle should be known. Seven — the cause of no-abiding (establishing the twelfth, "seeded arising"): if the activities could abide, yet one said that at another time there is separately an arising of a seed, this will not hold, because apart from moment after moment there is no further cause. Only if the activities do not abide can the later seed arise — this is the tenable principle. Eight — the cause of there-being-death (establishing the thirteenth, "seedless arising"): if there were no moments, yet one said there is a "seedless arising at the time of death," this will not hold. To say "first there is a seeded arising, and only later, at the time when life ends, is there a seedless arising," this too will not hold — because the cause of each and every moment has no substance, and so "the mind of death abiding permanently for a span, and only then seedless" cannot be established as momentary. Nine — the cause of according-with-mind (establishing the fourteenth, "image-arising"): by the mind's mastery, moment by moment those images of concentration get to arise; if without moments the images could arise, there is no such principle.

〔Question:〕 Having thus established severally that "the inner conditioned dharmas are momentary," by what cause can one establish that the outer dharmas — the four great [elements] and the six kinds of derived form — are also momentary?

By moistening and by drying up, by nature-moving, augmenting, and also diminishing, the two arisings and the four alterations, the fuel's force and gradual faintness, and also, it is said, the according-with-mind arising, and by the challenge established — all the outer dharmas are, without exception, of momentary substance.

These two verses establish that the outer dharmas are momentary by "fourteen causes": Water has two causes — moistening and drying up. If there were no momentary water, then water's "moistening at one time and drying up at another" could not become manifest. If someone asked, "Since there is no momentary water, by what cause does it moisten? And by what cause does it dry up?" — he could give no answer. Now we plainly see that water has moistening and drying up; hence one knows that "momentariness" is precisely the cause of water's moistening and drying up. Wind has three causes — nature-moving, augmenting, and diminishing. If wind's nature were "abiding," there would be no time of "moving" (since the activity would have no substance); nor would there be "augmenting," nor "diminishing," by its abiding. Earth has six causes — namely the "two arisings" and the "four alterations." As for the "two arisings": by water and by wind, the arising of earth can be found — at the time of the eon's forming, that earth is the fruit of water and wind, and hence one knows that earth too is momentary. As for the "four alterations": by four kinds of doing, the alteration of earth can be found — first, what is done by the force of karma (through the differences in beings' karmic force); second, what is done by human labor (through digging, boring, and so on); third, what is done by the great [elements] (through fire, water, and wind); fourth, what is done by the seasons (through the seasons' shifting, so that different marks appear). If there were no moments, these four alterations could not be found (for they would have no substance). As earth, by six causes, is known to be momentary, the six causes of color, smell, taste, and touch are likewise, and so these too are momentary. Fire has one cause — namely the fuel's force. The fuel's force makes fire increase, and so fire gets to arise; fire having arisen together [with the fuel], the fuel at once does not get to abide; and having burned up the fuel, the fire too does not abide. If fire did not depend on fuel, then later, when there were no fuel, the fire ought to abide for a long time without perishing (by the principle that fire and fuel are born and perish together, one knows that fire is momentary). Sound has one cause (fire being treated before, sound after) — namely gradual faintness. Just as with the sound of a bell, at a later time it can be found growing gradually faint. If there were no moments, the "faint sound" at a later time could not be found. Form included in the dharma-base has one cause — namely according-with-mind arising. As when one receives the precepts, [the precept-substance] arises according with the mind's low, middling, and high [grade]; the mind, its cause, being momentary, its fruit too is momentary. Therefore the momentariness of the outer dharmas is also established.

Further, it is established in general "by the challenge": I now ask you: why are you willing to maintain "the activities are impermanent" yet unwilling to maintain "the activities perish moment by moment"? 〔Objection:〕 The perishing of each and every moment is unknowable. — 〔Answer:〕 Not so: just as with the flame of a lamp, even in a position where it "seems not to move," its moments are equally unknowable — so why are you unwilling to grant that the substance of that flame has moments? 〔Objection:〕 The substance of the lamp-flame has moments, but they are too subtle, and so unperceived. — 〔Answer:〕 The activities are likewise (subtle and unperceived), so why are you unwilling to grant that the activities have moments? 〔Objection:〕 The lamp-flame and the activities are not alike (and so cannot serve as an analogy). — 〔Answer:〕 Not so. "Not alike" is of two kinds: first, not alike in own-nature; second, not alike in time-phase. If you take "not alike in own-nature": this analogy still holds — because an analogy is precisely not made by "its own [same-kind] substance," not like "illustrating a lamp by a lamp, or an ox by an ox" (where same-kind would in fact fail as an analogy). If you take "not alike in time-phase": this analogy also holds — because the lamp-flame and the activities are alike in just this, that they are "momentary"; and were they not momentary, the analogy would in fact fail. Now I ask you again: as when a person rides a conveyance, at the time the conveyance abides [still], does the person go or not? 〔Answer:〕 He does not go. If that is so, then "the relied-upon faculty abiding while the reliant consciousness goes" is likewise without principle (the faculty abiding, the consciousness ought not go of itself). 〔Objection:〕 Then why do we plainly see the lamp-flame perishing thought after thought, while the lamp-wick seems to abide just so? — 〔Answer:〕 In that, you have "looked and yet not truly seen": that lamp-wick too is a continuity, perishing and arising moment by moment, only you do not know it as it really is, and so suppose it abides. 〔Objection:〕 If the activities are momentary like the lamp-flame, why do worldly people not know it? — 〔Answer:〕 Because the activities are "inverted" things, turning along in continuity moment by moment — this layer is unknowable — while in truth they arise severally, and worldly people suppose them to be the same earlier thing and give rise to inverted cognition. Were it not so (were the activities truly permanently abiding), there would be no inversion of "reckoning the impermanent as permanent"; and the substance of inversion being gone, defilement too would be gone — then from what place could there be any "liberation"? By this challenge, then, the momentariness of the activities is established.

Having established the meaning of "impermanence," the text next establishes the meaning of "no-self." 〔Question:〕 Can the "person" (self) be said to exist, or said not to exist?

〔On the No-Self of Persons〕 In what follows, the "no-self of persons" is established by refuting a "substantial self." The commentary again proceeds through questions, objections, and replies.

The person is provisional, not really existent; if said to be real, it cannot be found — because inversion and defilement, and the cause of defilement, are established.

"The person is a provisional designation, not a substantial existent" — put this way, it does not fall into "one-sidedness" (grasping it as real or as [utterly] non-existent), because it departs from both extremes, existence and non-existence. 〔Question:〕 The person is really existent — how do you know it does not [really] exist (is not real)? 〔Answer:〕 "It cannot be found" — because that "person" is not like form and the rest, which have a real substance that can be found; it is not something realized by the knowledge of awareness. 〔Question:〕 The person is not realized by the knowledge of awareness, yet the Buddha did say "my present self can be found"; your saying it cannot be found is wrong. 〔Answer:〕 This "can be found" is "found upon a provisional designation," not "really found," and this is precisely by inversion: the Buddha said, "to reckon a self where there is no self is called inversion." 〔Question:〕 How do you know this is inversion? 〔Answer:〕 By "defilement" — the view of self is a defilement, namely the so-called grasping of "I" and "mine"; were it not inversion, it would not be defilement. 〔Question:〕 How do you know the grasping of self is a defilement? 〔Answer:〕 Because it is the "cause of defilement" — with the grasping of self as cause, the defilements of greed and the rest get to arise; hence one knows it is a defilement. 〔Question:〕 As you grant, upon the five aggregates of form and the rest, "the person" is said to be provisionally existent; then are this "person" and the "aggregates" the same, or different?

The provisional person and the real aggregates cannot be said to be same or different; if said to be same or different, then two faults arise.

The provisional person and the aggregates cannot be said to be "the same," nor said to be "different"; if said to be same or different, then two faults arise. The two faults are: if one says "the person and the aggregates are the same," then the aggregates would be the person, and moreover the person would be really existent; if one says "the person and the aggregates are different," then, though the aggregates are not the person, the person would still be really existent. For this reason, "the person" is a set-up (provisionally posited) existent, and neither sameness nor difference can be said of it — and thus the Tathāgata's "reticent treatment" (止記論, setting such questions aside without a categorical answer) is established.

If one grasps the person as real, sameness or difference ought to be sayable; since sameness or difference cannot be said, this position has no reason.

If someone, going against the Great Teacher's (the Buddha's) instruction, grasps a "real person," then the sameness or difference of that real person with the aggregates ought to be sayable; yet [you] also grasp that "sameness or difference with the aggregates cannot be said" — this position, then, has no reason. 〔Objection:〕 The "person" is unsayable, just as fire and fuel are "neither different nor not different" (their sameness or difference cannot be said). 〔Answer:〕 Not so —

By the differing mark and by worldly seeing, and by the sages' teaching, it is not so; fire and fuel are not "unsayable," because the two can be found [severally].

As to the differing mark: fire is the "fire-element," fuel is "the remaining elements," each having a separate mark, and so fire and fuel are "different." As to worldly seeing: worldly people, apart from fire, can see fuel (such as wood that can be burned); and apart from fuel, can see fire (as when the wind blows a flame away elsewhere) — so fire and fuel are different. As to "the sages' teaching also is not so": the Buddha, the World-Honored One, nowhere taught that "the sameness or difference of fire and fuel cannot be said," and so your grasping that "the sameness or difference of fire and fuel cannot be said" has no reason. 〔Objection:〕 It is not that one sees fire apart from fuel; that "fire-and-wind" is precisely the fuel (fire and fuel not different). 〔Answer:〕 Not so, because "the two can be found [severally]" — since the marks of fire and of wind are separate (they are still different). Again —

The two being present, consciousness arises; "the person as condition" is then without sense; [that] the liked would cease and the disliked arise — to speak thus of arising is again unreasonable.

If someone grasps that "the person is really existent," saying the person is the seer, hearer, cognizer, knower, eater, understander, and speaker — if so, then when the consciousnesses of the eye and the rest arise, is it "with the person as condition" that the person is said to be the agent, or "with the person as master" that the person is said to be the agent? If "with the person as condition": it is "because the two, faculty and object, are complete, that consciousness arises," and so "the person as condition" is without sense — because in the arising of consciousness not the least force of a "person" can be seen. If "with the person as master": then "the already-arisen liked consciousness ought to be kept, once and for all, from ceasing, and not made to cease; the not-yet-arisen disliked consciousness ought to be kept, once and for all, from arising, and not made to arise" (if the person truly were master, so it should be); but in fact "the liked consciousness too ceases, and the disliked too arises," which shows the person cannot be master. For this reason, you ought not grasp that "the person is the seer, and so on down to the knower." Again —

In your grasped real person, what function can be established? To force the unreal to be real contradicts the Buddha's three [kinds of] awakening.

If the person is really existent, by what "function (efficacy)" can you establish it? Whatever is really existent must have a function that can be pointed to — as the pure form of the eye and the rest can be established as truly existing by the function of "seeing" and the rest. The "person" has no such function by which it can be established, and so the person is not really existent. Again: in the "unreal person" you insist on positing a "real person," and this contradicts the Tathāgata's three kinds of awakening — first, the profound awakening; second, the uncommon awakening; third, the supramundane awakening. If one held "there is a real person to be seen," then it would not be the "profound" awakening, not the awakening "uncommon with the outer paths," not the awakening "unpracticed-in-common by the world." Therefore this grasping of a "real person" is what the world clings to, the abode of the outer paths' attachment, and a thing habituated beginninglessly within birth-and-death. Again: if the person is the seer, and so on down to the knower, then the faculties of the eye and the rest — do they have a function, or do they have no function? If they have a function, does it "arise of itself," or "arise through the person"? 〔Question:〕 What is doubted here?

If the function arises of itself, then three faults arise; if the person is its condition, then the eye and the rest have no function.

If one says "the function of the eye and the rest arises of itself," then the person does no work upon the eye and the rest, and three faults arise. If one says "it is with the person as condition that the function gets to arise," then the faculties of the eye and the rest would, once and for all, have no function. 〔Question:〕 What are the three faults of "arising of itself"?

Because the person is not the agent, because the function would not arise constantly, because the arising would not be at one time — "arising of itself" then does not hold.

If the function of the eye and the rest arises of itself, not waiting on the person to do it, then "the person is not the agent" — how then could it be called the seer, and so on down to the knower? — this is the first fault. If the function of the eye and the rest arises of itself, then it ought to "arise constantly," and not sometimes arise and sometimes not — this is the second fault. If the function of the eye and the rest arose constantly, then it ought to "arise all at one time" — how is it, then, that the six faculties cannot arise all together? — this is the third fault. By these three faults, the position of "arising of itself" cannot be established. 〔Question:〕 And what fault has "with the person as condition"?

The person abiding, the function first was absent; the person perishing, then the person is cut off; that there is further a third substance to be the condition — there is no such sense.

If one says "the person abides, and is the condition for the function": since the person is permanently existent, why is the function "first absent and later present" (arising at times and not at others)? This does not hold. If one says "the person perishes, and is the condition for the function": then the moment the person perishes it falls into impermanence (the person is not permanent), and this too does not hold. If one says "there is a further third kind of person, neither abiding nor perishing, to be the condition": there is fundamentally no such thing. Thus, examining by reason, a "real person" cannot be found. Again —

The seal that dharmas are without self, and the teaching of the true emptiness; a self has five faults — therefore know there is no self.

By the scriptural transmission too a real person is seen to be unfindable: in the Sūtra of the Dharma-Seal (《法印經》) the Buddha said, "all dharmas are without self"; in the Sūtra of True Emptiness (《真實空經》) the Buddha said, "there is karma, there is retribution, yet an 'agent' cannot be found; casting off the earlier aggregates and giving rise to the later aggregates, what arises and ceases in between is only 'dharmas' [and no agent-person]"; the Sūtra of the Added Five (《增五經》) says, "if one grasps that there is a self, there are five faults: first, one falls into the abode of [wrong] views, giving rise to the view of self and the view of a living being; second, one is the same as the outer paths; third, one practices deviantly, in wrong practice; fourth, toward 'emptiness' one has no wish, no faith, and no settling; fifth, toward the noble Dharma one gains no purity." Thus, according to the scriptural transmission, a real person too cannot be found. 〔Question:〕 If there is no real person, why does the World-Honored One, in scripture after scripture, speak of "there being a person" — such as the "knower," the "bearer of the burden," and the establishing of persons like the "follower-by-faith" and the rest?

Because, relying on defiled and pure dharmas, the stations and cuttings are said to differ, the practices differ, the continuities differ — the unreal, provisionally-spoken person.

This is because: relying on "defiled dharmas" and "pure dharmas," there are all kinds of "differences of station" and "differences of cutting-off," and so the differences of a provisional "person" are established. Were there no differences of a provisional person, one could not speak of "differences of practice" and "differences of continuity." As the Sūtra of the Knower (《知經》) says: What are the "dharmas"? The defiled dharmas. What is the "knowing"? The pure dharmas. As the Sūtra of the Burden (《負擔經》) says: What is "the burden"? The defiled dharmas. What is "casting off the burden"? The pure dharmas. — Were there no difference of practice and difference of continuity, one could not speak of these two [sets of] dharmas as "the knower" and "the bearer of the burden." Again, the factors of awakening have many differences of station, namely the path of skillful means, the path of seeing, the path of cultivation, and the path of the ultimate; were there no difference of practice and of continuity, one could not speak of a difference of persons, "the follower-by-faith" and the rest, upon those factors of awakening. One sees, then, that it is "by there being no real person, and with respect to the differences of dharmas, that one can provisionally speak [of a person]." By this principle, one knows that the "persons" spoken of are all provisional persons. Had the Buddha's intent not been to speak of a "provisional person," to speak of a "real person" would be of no use — for it would only make beings give rise to the view of self.

Not to give rise to the view of self, since the view has already arisen; since it has been habituated beginninglessly, [it is] of no use — [as if] one ought [thereby] to be liberated.

The Buddha would not, "in order to make beings give rise to the view of self," speak of a real person, because beings' view of self has already arisen (needing no telling by the Buddha). Nor would he, "in order to make beings habituate the view of self again and again," speak of a real person, because beings' view of self has been habituated beginninglessly. Nor would he, "in order to make beings who have the view of self gain liberation," speak of a real person — because (if hearing of a real person could bring liberation) then all who make no effort at all ought to gain liberation of themselves. For just this reason, all who have not yet seen the truths have the view of self and yet no liberation (which shows that grasping a self, far from bringing liberation, becomes an obstruction). This is unlike the substance of "suffering," which is unseen at an earlier time and only later seen (the truth of suffering being cut off by being seen); the "person" is not like this — it is not unseen at an earlier time and only later seen (the self being non-existent all along, there is no "seeing it and then cutting it off"). Again, just as, were the substance of "suffering" unseen at an earlier time and unseen at a later time too, there would be no liberation; the substance of "the person" is likewise — were it seen [grasped] at an earlier time and seen [grasped] at a later time too, there would be no liberation. If there really were a self, there would definitely be "what belongs to self"; and from these two graspings there arise the love of self and the remaining afflictions — thus there would be no liberation. For this reason, one ought not wish to have a "real person," since the faults of the view of self and the rest all arise from it. Having thus severally expounded the factors of awakening, the text next sums up the foregoing meaning.

The virtues of conscience and the rest, the bodhisattva ever possesses complete; not forsaking his own benefit, he also brings others' benefit to accomplishment.

The virtues of conscience and the rest (all that this chapter has spoken of), the bodhisattva ever possesses complete; not forsaking his own benefit, he also brings others' benefit to accomplishment. This meaning is as displayed above; here it is only stated in brief.

(Here the chapter on the Factors of Awakening ends.)

This is the longest chapter in the whole treatise (spanning scrolls ten and eleven). Following the chapter's sequence, this exposition discusses its principal factors of the path and the two arguments in its latter half.

"Factors of awakening" means the provisions for awakening, the many gates of practice that turn toward enlightenment (bodhi). This chapter is like a vast storehouse of the factors of the path: the first half sets out, one item at a time, the tools the bodhisattva needs on the road to buddhahood (from "conscience" all the way through the thirty-seven factors of awakening, tranquillity-and-insight, the three samādhis, and the four seals of the Dharma); the second half then sets out the treatise's two arguments for impermanence (momentary cessation) and no-self (the no-self of persons). The first half lists the factors of the path, and the second develops those two arguments. This exposition reports their structure without independently adjudicating the theses. Within the treatise's own sequence, the reader may follow how the gates of practice lead into the later arguments for momentary cessation and no-self.

I. Setting out from "conscience": a robe, a stretch of space, a mother

The whole chapter sets out from a plain word — conscience (慚, the mind that feels abashed at wrong). Why should the storehouse of the factors of the path begin from conscience? Because conscience is the bedrock of practice: only one who has conscience is willing to cut off evil, willing to turn back. The prose commentary first takes the "character" of conscience apart into four aspects: its self-nature is "counteracting the obstacle" (counteracting that shamelessness which feels no such abashment at all); its kindred is that it operates together with non-conceptual knowledge (conscience is not a coarse self-reproach, but goes hand in hand with wisdom); its object-realm is "taking the two vehicles — narrow and free of obstacle — as an object of conscience" (when the bodhisattva sees the listeners (聲聞, śrāvaka) and solitary awakeners (緣覺, pratyekabuddha) seeking only their own release, a thought of conscience arises — "how could I stop here?"); and its function is "maturing sentient beings." One word, "conscience," and all four sides are lit up.

Then the prose commentary asks: where does this conscience arise? The answer is very down-to-earth — it arises upon the six perfections (六度, pāramitā): conscience stirs when the obstacle grows, conscience when the counteracting force wanes, conscience at slackness in cultivating the perfections, conscience when, following the afflictions, "the faculties are ever open and unguarded." The practitioner knows these four moments best: when the work has slipped, when bad habits have grown, when one has idled at the very time one should exert oneself, when the six faculties have run loose — a person with conscience can sit still at none of these four. Conversely, "non-conscience" is the obstacle to conscience, and the prose commentary counts out in detail the twelve faults it brings on in train: the afflictions are not cut off, so it first breeds three harms (harm to self, harm to others, harm to both — where even the bodhisattva's "abandoning beings and not converting them" counts as harm to others), then invites six reproaches, and finally falls back into hard places, loses wholesome dharmas, and gives rise to great suffering. Spreading out the ruin that non-conscience leads to is precisely a way of setting off, by contrast, how precious conscience is.

For the virtues of conscience the prose commentary sets four comparisons in a row, exceedingly fine:

• Conscience is like a robe — with conscience, filth cannot cling (it counteracts the afflictions that lodge upon the body);
• Conscience is like space — with conscience, the world's praise and blame, fame and slander, cannot stain (as space cannot be sullied, so, though one meets the eight worldly dharmas, one is not defiled);
• Conscience is like an adornment — with conscience, a person becomes upright and dignified (in keeping with one's fellow-travelers);
• Conscience is like a loving mother — with conscience, one cherishes sentient beings as a loving mother cherishes her child (maturing sentient beings).

A person with conscience wears a robe that takes no filth, has a heart like a stretch of space that cannot be sullied, bears himself as though adorned, and treats others as a loving mother. The starting point of practice turns out to be this warm and gentle. And the "character of conscience in action" is only four phrases: toward every evil, "not to bear it, not to do it"; toward every good, "to bear it, to do it" — conscience is not idle remorse, but really going and cutting off evil and cultivating good.

II. Fearlessness: what cannot be shaken, as the wind of a cricket's wing cannot move Sumeru

Having readied conscience, this underrobe, the bodhisattva still needs one more capacity — fearlessness (無畏). On the bodhisattva-path there are hard passes at every turn, and fear makes one unable to go on. Where does fearlessness come from? The prose commentary says it plainly: it arises from the three — vigor, concentration, and wisdom. (The ancient masters, in commenting on the Yogācārabhūmi, also cite this very verse of the present chapter, taking "arising from the three, vigor-concentration-wisdom" as the substance and character of fearlessness, in accord with what this treatise states.) Why does the bodhisattva grow afraid? Because the mind is "low, agitated, and dull" — when the mind sinks low (unwilling to exert itself), grows agitated (unable to settle), or turns dull (without skillful means), dread comes up. The counteragents to these three ills are exactly vigor (counters lowness), concentration (counters agitation), and wisdom (counters dullness). So "fearlessness" is not inborn boldness, but the fruit of training these three until they "operate of their own accord" (need no deliberate summoning, but are simply present) — this is called "the settled resolve," and once resolved, one is fearless.

Fearlessness has ten distinctions, from "fearlessness in its own nature" all the way to "dwelling amid defilement undefiled," a courage that deepens as the bodhisattva goes on: fearless in arousing the mind of awakening; diligent in his own benefit without regard for body or life; diligent in benefiting others and not retreating when met with adversity; unstartled on hearing the profound meaning; converting the hard-to-convert; establishing beings in great awakening; performing every kind of austerity; deliberately taking birth and not forsaking birth-and-death; dwelling amid birth-and-death yet undefiled by it. Most moving is its "firmness," for which the prose commentary gives a comparison full of vivid scene: the bodhisattva's fearlessness is like the little wind stirred up by a cricket beating its wings — it cannot move Mount Sumeru, cannot shake the great sea. Meeting an evil friend, undergoing heavy suffering, hearing the profound Dharma — these three cannot move the bodhisattva's mind, just as the wind of an insect's wing cannot move Sumeru. And so, among all the fearlessnesses spoken of, the bodhisattva's fearlessness is the most excellent.

III. Non-retreat: to retreat shames the conscience, and to retreat is not brave

Right after fearlessness comes non-retreat (不退) — which is almost the other face of fearlessness. The bodhisattva's non-retreat is of three kinds: not tiring of hearing the Dharma and so not retreating; ever exerting great vigor and so not retreating; not retreating amid the sufferings and troubles of birth-and-death. On what does it stand? The prose commentary points to two "supports," which loop neatly back to the two preceding sections: one is conscience, the other is bravery — "to retreat is a thing to be ashamed of (conscience); to retreat is not to be brave (bravery)." A person of conscience and bravery naturally cannot retreat. And the "self-nature" of non-retreat is that surge of aspiration, "desiring and delighting in great awakening" — should this aspiration once turn over, one retreats then and there. Plainly, the earlier conscience and fearlessness are here drawn together onto this one sinew of "non-retreat": the underrobe is conscience, the courage is fearlessness, and what holds one up so one does not turn back is non-retreat.

IV. Knowing the Dharma, knowing the world: mastering the five sciences, understanding human feeling

To deliver others the bodhisattva needs more than aspiration; he must also know the Dharma (知法). What does this "Dharma" refer to? The prose commentary answers concretely — the five sciences (五明): the inner science (the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma), the science of reasoning (debate), the science of language (speech and phonology), the science of medicine (prescriptions), and the science of crafts (skills and arts). Why must the bodhisattva learn even medicine and craft? Because their "function" is to benefit self and others: he knows the inner science both for his own cultivation and to teach others; the science of reasoning both to state his own meaning and to refute wrong meanings; the science of language to make people trust and accept; the science of medicine to cure people's ills; the science of crafts to make people understand. The bodhisattva's "knowing" is never for the sake of erudition, but so as to connect with sentient beings. And the sequence of this knowing is very down-to-earth: hearing, retaining, reciting, reflecting, penetrating — first to hear, then to hold in memory, then to recite in practice, then to reflect rightly, and finally to penetrate to where one can tell "this is a virtue, this a fault, this good speech, this evil speech."

Mastering the five sciences still leaves one layer between; the bodhisattva must also know the world (知世間) — understand human feeling. The prose commentary puts this very warmly: to know with the body is to "ease the countenance" (to meet people with a mild, smiling face); to know with speech is to "speak first" (to be a step ahead in greeting and praising). A bodhisattva who would deliver others must first make people willing to draw near — so the face should be mild and the words should come first. This is not worldly guile but for the sake of "making them into vessels": first make people into vessels able to receive the Dharma, then lead the true Dharma in. A deeper layer, "truly knowing the world," is to view the world by the four truths: knowing suffering and its origin, one knows how the world "arises" (its cycling on); knowing cessation and the path, one knows how the world "ceases" (its return to stillness) — cultivating diligently in order to "still" suffering and its origin, and to "gain" cessation and the path. To understand human feeling without stopping at human feeling — the end is to lead people out of the world.

V. The four measures, the four unobstructed understandings: a standard that holds, an eloquence that gets through

To deliver others one needs a standard that will not be shaken, and this is the four measures (四量, i.e. the four reliances). The prose commentary sets up the four measures, each aimed at a particular tendency to go astray: relying on the teaching that expresses [the meaning] (rely on the Dharma, not on the person, blocking "slandering the Dharma and speaking of persons"); relying on the intended meaning (rely on the meaning, not on the words, blocking "clinging to the letter"); relying on the definitive meaning (rely on the definitive, not on the provisional, blocking "wrong thinking and inverted understanding"); relying on the wordless knowledge (rely on knowledge, not on consciousness, blocking "clinging to verbal expression"). These four reliances are not book-learning but the bodhisattva's four lines of defense: rely on them, and faith, right reflection, right hearing, and worldly knowledge all become "unbreakable" — however the situation turns over, however wrong views swarm, one who stands firm at these four will not be swept along.

With the standard set firm, one must also "get through," and this is the four unobstructed understandings (四無礙解, the four eloquences of unobstructed Dharma-teaching): unobstructed in Dharma (knowing the many "gates of designation" under one meaning); unobstructed in meaning (knowing that this name belongs to this meaning, name and reality answering to each other); unobstructed in expression (knowing the languages and sounds of different regions and lands); unobstructed in eloquence (the knowledge of teaching the Dharma freely). The prose commentary explains its provenance deeply: the bodhisattva first, with "supramundane knowledge," inwardly realizes all dharmas and gains that understanding of equal suchness, then, with "subsequently-attained worldly knowledge," outwardly awakens to the distinctions among the many gates of dharmas — first inner realization, then outer awakening, and only so is it called "unobstructed." (The ancient masters, in commenting on the Yogācārabhūmi, also cite the present chapter's verse on "the knowledge of gate, mark, expression," matching gate to Dharma, mark to meaning, expression to expression, and knowledge to eloquence — in accord with the four unobstructed understandings expounded here.) Its "function" is one phrase: it can cut off every net of doubt in every sentient being. Eloquence is not showing off the tongue but resolving doubt for sentient beings — this is the true intent of the four unobstructed understandings.

VI. The two stores: merit and wisdom, the two great provisions

Having set out the tools thus far, the prose commentary gathers them up a little and speaks of the two stores (二聚) — the store of merit and the store of wisdom, the two great provisions of the bodhisattva-path. How do these two stores divide their labor? Very clearly: by the store of merit, the bodhisattva makes, within birth-and-death, the cause of "excellent recompense" (drawing a superior recompense-body and good circumstances in which to deliver beings); by the store of wisdom, upon that excellent recompense he makes the cause of "non-defilement" (enjoying the excellent recompense yet not stuck to it). The one gives him the wherewithal to deliver others, the other keeps him from sinking as he delivers them — merit and wisdom carried together, and only so is the bodhisattva's excellence beyond compare.

How do they join with the six perfections? The prose commentary matches them neatly: giving and discipline, these two perfections, are the substance of the store of merit; wisdom is the substance of the store of wisdom; patience, vigor, and meditation, these three, run through as causes of both merit and wisdom (serviceable on either side); and because wisdom can "dedicate," all the perfections in the end become the store of wisdom as well. The word "store" itself carries a meaning — "right cultivation" plus "repeated cultivation," to cultivate correctly and also to cultivate again and again, so that the wholesome dharmas nourish and grow and pile up into a "store." Practice has no shortcut; it is capital gathered up just so, a little at a time.

VII. The thirty-seven factors of awakening: the full set of tools on the road to buddhahood

The main trunk of this chapter is the thirty-seven factors of awakening (三十七菩提分), transmitted in common across Buddhism — the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right exertions, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the eightfold path. The treatise sets them, limb by limb, into the Great Vehicle for exposition. They are opened up below one by one.

The four foundations of mindfulness — four similes breaking the grasping of body-and-mind as real

The four foundations of mindfulness (四念處) are basically the contemplation of body, sensation, mind, and dharmas. The prose commentary establishes for the bodhisattva's four foundations of mindfulness "fourteen kinds of excellent cultivation," cultivating them broad and deep (from the "excellence of support" — arising hearing, reflection, and cultivation upon the Great Vehicle scriptures — to the "excellence of long duration" — cultivating them without end even up to the nirvāṇa without remainder — and the "excellence of subsequent realization" — attainable at the ten grounds and the buddha-ground alike). Most moving among them is the "excellence of the field of awareness," which uses four similes to break our grasping of body-and-mind as real — the body is like an illusion (the form-mark is seemingly-existent; it looks solid but is in fact like an illusory man), sensation is like a dream (feelings are all misperception, like the pleasure and pain of a dream, empty on waking), the mind is like space (the mind's nature is originally pure, like space originally undefiled), and dharmas are like a guest (the afflictions are like a passing guest, like the smoke, cloud, dust, and mist in space, coming and going, not space itself). These four similes overturn all at once the four inverted notions of "permanence, pleasure, self, and purity": it turns out that body, sensation, mind, and dharmas are none of them the solid, real things we take them for.

The four right exertions — vigor arisen to counter the obstacles to the foundations of mindfulness

The four foundations of mindfulness meet with obstacles, and so one cultivates the four right exertions (四正勤) to counter them. The prose commentary unfolds this counteracting into "ten practices" (abandoning attachment, abandoning the coverings, abandoning what is low, entering the grounds, dwelling in stillness, receiving the prediction, maturing beings, receiving consecration, purifying the land, and fulfillment — from being undefiled by excellent recompense, to leaving the obstacle-coverings, to leaving the attention proper to the two vehicles, matched all the way up to the ten grounds and the buddha-ground). Its "cultivation" has clear stages: relying on aspiration one gives rise to exertion, relying on exertion one gives rise to vigor, gathers in the mind, and holds it rightly — only with the will to it is there diligent striving. Here "gathering in the mind" is tranquillity (止, śamatha), and "holding rightly" is the mind resting evenly and settled. Right exertion is not brute force but working within the evenness of tranquillity-and-insight, expressly cutting off the two ills of "sinking and scattering" within tranquillity-and-insight.

The four bases of spiritual power — aspiration, vigor, mind, and inquiry, with the eight formative practices

The four bases of spiritual power (四神足) the prose commentary treats under three matters: support, means, and accomplishment. Support is the four bases on which meditation rests — aspiration, vigor, mind, and inquiry (to gain concentration one must first have the will to it, have vigor, have a focused mind, and have discerning inquiry). Means matches the "eight formative practices" (faith, aspiration, exertion, pliancy, mindfulness, knowledge, intention, and equanimity): from faith arises aspiration, from aspiration exertion (the setting to work); from pliancy (tranquil ease) concentration is born (the gathering-in); by mindfulness the mind is kept from leaving its object, by knowledge one leaves distraction and gathers back again (the binding-in); by intention one counters sinking, by equanimity one counters scattering (the counteracting) — eight mental factors, and together they oversee every step of "how concentration is gained." Accomplishment is of six kinds, from the five eyes and the six supernormal powers, to transformation and sport, to roaming at will and emitting light, to the ten masteries, and to the attainment of the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, and the eighteen distinctive qualities — once the bases of spiritual power are gained, these excellent functions follow.

The five faculties, the five powers — the same five dharmas: before entering the grounds called "faculties," on the verge of the grounds called "powers"

The five faculties (五根) are faith, vigor, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom, each with its object: the faculty of faith takes awakening as object, the faculty of vigor the bodhisattva practices, the faculty of mindfulness the hearing of the Great Vehicle Dharma, the faculty of concentration tranquillity, and the faculty of wisdom the knowledge of things as they are. Why called "faculties"? Because they "have a strengthening force upon their objects" — like the roots of grass and trees, they can strike down and grow forth benefit. And the five powers (五力) are in fact these same five dharmas, only advanced one rung in position: on the verge of entering the first ground, these five dharmas have grown strong enough to render their counter-sides (unbelief, indolence, lapse of mindfulness, distraction, ignorance) frail and forceless — able to "weaken the other," and so renamed "powers." The same set of dharmas, before reaching the grounds called "faculties" and on the verge of the grounds called "powers" — plainly showing that practice moves from weak to strong.

The seven factors of awakening — matched to the seven treasures of the wheel-turning king

By the seven factors of awakening (七覺分: mindfulness, discernment of dharmas, vigor, joy, pliancy, concentration, equanimity), the bodhisattva has already entered the first ground, and "awakens" to that dharma, whereby the factors of awakening are established — this "awakening" being the gaining of an "equal understanding" toward all dharmas, self and other, which is precisely the no-self of dharmas and the no-self of persons. For these seven limbs the treatise sets a comparison of the utmost grandeur, matching them to the seven treasures of the wheel-turning king (轉輪王, the cakravartin): as the wheel-king goes forth and the seven treasures open the road before him, so, as the bodhisattva turns toward right awakening, these seven limbs are ever fully present, leading the way before him —

• Mindfulness is like the wheel-treasure (the wheel-treasure subdues the not-yet-subdued lands; mindfulness subdues the not-yet-subdued objects);
• Discernment of dharmas is like the elephant-treasure (the elephant crushes stout foes; discernment of dharmas breaks that mighty enemy, "discrimination");
• Vigor is like the horse-treasure (the horse swiftly reaches the ends of the great earth; vigor swiftly reaches the very verge of suchness);
• Joy is like the jewel-treasure (the jewel's light illumines the dark and greatly gladdens the king; the light of the Dharma breaks the darkness and fills the mind with joy);
• Pliancy (tranquil ease) is like the woman-treasure (the woman-treasure by her touch gives the king pleasure; pliancy frees knowledge from obstacle and vexation, and stills every evil);
• Concentration is like the treasury-minister-treasure (whatever the king requires comes from the treasury-minister; whatever knowledge uses is born of concentration);
• Equanimity is like the general-treasure (the general reviews the host, discarding the weak and taking the strong; equanimity discards the evil and takes the good, resting in accord with non-conceptual knowledge and needing no deliberate effort).

The prose commentary further gathers the seven limbs into three classes: mindfulness is the "support portion" (all the factors of awakening proceed in reliance on it); discernment is the "self-nature portion" (the very body of awakening); vigor is the "portion of going forth" (bringing it to the ultimate); joy is the "virtue portion" (filling the mind with delight); and pliancy, concentration, and equanimity, these three, are the "undefiled portion." One set of awakening-limbs, with a leader (mindfulness) and a chief (discernment of dharmas), a driving force (vigor), a nourishing (joy), and a bedrock that takes no defilement (pliancy, concentration, equanimity) — the bodhisattva goes toward awakening thus, walking with the seven treasures complete.

The eightfold path — one turning, establishing the portion, purifying the three karmas, cutting off the three obstacles

The eightfold path (八正道) the prose commentary gathers most concisely, matching it out in four phrases: right view is "the one turning, as the awakening before" (arising in train after the true realization of the prior stage); right thought is "establishing the portion" (having understood the portion of principle one has set up for oneself, one then discriminates it for others as the Buddha has set it up); right speech, right action, right livelihood, these middle three, purify the three karmas of "speech, body, and both"; right vigor, right mindfulness, right concentration, these last three, cut off the "cognitive obstacle, the concentration-obstacle, and the mastery-obstacle" — by right vigor, unretreating over long duration, the cognitive obstacle is cut off; by right mindfulness, rendering sinking and scattering bodiless, the concentration-obstacle is cut off; by right concentration, accomplishing excellent virtue, the mastery-obstacle is cut off. From "seeing truly" (right view) to "thinking rightly" (right thought), to "body, speech, and livelihood all purified" (the middle three), to "the last three obstacles all cut off" (the last three), the eightfold path is a complete road from seeing to practice, from practice to purity.

VIII. Tranquillity-and-insight, the five skillful means, the retentions, the vows: putting the factors of the path to use

〔from here, scroll eleven〕

The factors of the path now set out in full, the prose commentary goes on to speak of how they are "put to use."

Tranquillity-and-insight (止觀) — these are the two feet of all the factors of the path. The prose commentary gives "tranquillity" a most refined definition: "to settle the mind in right concentration and yet not see the mind" — the mind is settled upon right concentration, yet one no longer sets up a further "mind that stills" to look at it (once there is a mind of "I am stilling," it is no longer true stilling); "insight" is "to discriminate the substance of dharmas in reliance on right abiding." Who should cultivate them? "Whoever desires all the virtues should cultivate both" — anyone who would seek all virtues must cultivate tranquillity-and-insight. The prose commentary also cites the Buddha's word as witness: the Buddha told the monks that "there are two dharmas to be cultivated, namely tranquillity and insight." The method has a single and a paired form: single cultivation is "either tranquillity or insight," paired cultivation is "tranquillity and insight cultivated together" — this is the root of all the profound practices that follow.

The five skillful means (五種巧方便) — to put the factors of the path to skillful use, the prose commentary sets up five: maturing the Buddha-Dharma in oneself (by non-conceptual knowledge); maturing sentient beings (by the four means of gathering); swiftly gaining awakening (by repentance, rejoicing, requesting the turning of the Dharma-wheel, and making excellent vows); accomplishing the work (by the gate of the retentions and the gate of samādhi); not severing the road within birth-and-death (by the non-abiding nirvāṇa). The last is the most redolent of the Great Vehicle's spirit — the bodhisattva takes "non-abiding nirvāṇa" as his skillful means: not abiding in birth-and-death (for he has wisdom), not abiding in nirvāṇa (for he has compassion), and so this road of delivering beings is never severed.

The retentions (陀羅尼, dhāraṇī, the total holding [of the Dharma]) — the capacity to retain the true Dharma, of three grades: won by recompense (the karmic force of past lives), won by cultivated habit (the power of hearing and retaining in this life), and won by cultivation (in reliance on the power of concentration). The first two are "lesser" and the retention won by cultivation "greater"; the greater is further divided into soft (before entering the grounds), middling (the impure grounds, the first seven grounds), and superior (the pure grounds, the last three grounds). In reliance on the retentions the bodhisattva "ever reveals the wondrous Dharma, and ever holds it fast" — with one hand passing the Dharma out, with the other holding the Dharma down: precisely the two faces of the total holding.

The vows (諸願) — the aspiration of the bodhisattva, which the prose commentary distinguishes by six aspects (self-nature, cause, ground, fruit, distinction, and function). The vow takes as its substance the concord of "intention and desire," and as its cause "knowledge" — plainly, the vow of the Great Vehicle is no momentary impulse but a will held and guided by wisdom. The distinctions of the vow are three: the manifold (in the grounds of faith-and-practice, vowing in accord with one's desire); the vast (the ten great vows of the bodhisattva who has entered the grounds); the pure (the later and later grounds cleansing them turn by turn, up to the utmost purity at the buddha-ground). The function of the vow, too, is two phrases: the accomplishment of one's own benefit, the accomplishment of others' benefit. When the practitioner makes vows, it is thus, grade upon grade, that they are nourished up — from scattered to vast, from vast to pure.

IX. The three samādhis and four seals of the Dharma: turning to impermanence and no-self

At the end of the storehouse of tools, the prose commentary uses the three samādhis and four seals of the Dharma to turn toward the arguments on impermanence and no-self.

The three samādhis (三三昧: emptiness, wishlessness, and marklessness) each have their object trained upon: the samādhi of emptiness takes as object "the twofold no-self of persons and dharmas" (not discriminating the two selves, hence called emptiness); the samādhi of wishlessness takes as object "the five appropriated aggregates on which the grasping of the two selves rests" (turning from them in aversion, hence called wishlessness); the samādhi of marklessness takes as object "the utter quiescence of that on which [they] rest" (delighting in gaining that quiescence, hence called marklessness). Their cultivation, too, has a sequence: to "know" the twofold no-self one cultivates emptiness; to "cut off" what the two graspings rest upon one cultivates wishlessness; to "realize" the utter quiescence one cultivates marklessness — knowing, cutting off, realizing, a single line running from seeing to realization.

The four seals of the Dharma (四法印: all formations are impermanent, all formations are suffering, all dharmas are without self, and nirvāṇa is quiescent) are the support of the three samādhis: the seals of impermanence and of suffering establish the samādhi of wishlessness, the seal of no-self establishes the samādhi of emptiness, and the seal of quiescence establishes the samādhi of marklessness. The prose commentary presses through the "meaning" of the four seals phrase by phrase — taking "the meaning-less" as the meaning of impermanence (the discriminated mark is utterly and always non-existent; this is impermanence spoken of the "wholly-imagined nature" — the wholly-imagined discriminated mark is originally non-existent, and so is said to be impermanent, and the ancient masters, in commenting on the Yogācārabhūmi, also cite this line of the present chapter as their ground), taking "the discriminated" as the meaning of no-self (the discriminated mark is nothing but discrimination, without substance), taking "the unreal discrimination" as the meaning of suffering (the mind and mental factors of the three realms are the substance of suffering — this is the other-dependent mark), and taking "the stilling of all discrimination" as the meaning of quiescence (this is the real mark). The prose commentary then turns to the chapter’s arguments on impermanence and no-self. What follows reports how the treatise establishes momentary cessation; the exposition does not add an independent adjudication.

X. Momentary cessation: everything is newly born from moment to moment, like a lamp-flame

By arising and from a cause, being contrary, also not abiding … the meaning is established in fifteen ways.

The factors of the path readied, the treatise turns to its claim that all formations arise and cease moment by moment and do not abide for an instant. This is the momentary-cessation thesis stated by the chapter. In the treatise’s distinction, impermanence means not only eventual decay but present non-abiding. The following exchange with an opponent develops that claim.

How does the prose commentary press this principle out step by step? It establishes it over and over by "fifteen meanings." Each meaning first lets the opponent say "a thing has temporary abiding," and then breaks it one by one. Look at a few of the most telling —

• You say "a thing has temporary abiding, the later succeeding the earlier, and this is called continuity"? The prose commentary says this on the contrary leaves no continuity: since the earlier abides without ceasing, the later has no way to succeed it, and continuity is severed then and there ("by arising").
• You say "the cause able to give rise is at the same time the cause able to cause ceasing"? The prose commentary says arising and ceasing are contrary and cannot share one cause, just as light and dark cannot coexist, cold and heat cannot be present together ("being contrary").
• Your subtlest question is: if a thing is newly born from moment to moment, how do I come to recognize it as "the same old thing"? The prose commentary answers most beautifully — it is "similar continuity" that has deceived you. It gives a fine comparison supplied by the treatise, the lamp-flame: the flame of a lamp looks like "one unmoving ball of fire," but is in fact a fire newly kindled at every instant; the prior flame has already ceased and the later flame just then born, only the succession is so tight that you come to cognize "this is that same old lamp" ("succeeding on").
• You say "when a thing first arises there is no change in it"? The prose commentary says the moment it arises it is already changing, only subtly and hard to perceive — as milk turns into curds, the change proceeding at every moment, noticed by you only when the mark of curds appears, though in truth it has been changing all along ("alteration").

The later of the fifteen meanings further clasp tight, layer upon layer, that "all formations are effects of the mind, and since the effect is momentary the cause too is momentary" (cause, effect, holding, dominance, following-purity, following-birth — even citing the Buddha's word "the mind draws the world to come and go" as witness). 〔exposition-borrowed simile〕A waterfall may help illustrate the treatise’s “continuous yet not abiding”: from afar it appears still, while its waters flow in succession. This image is only a reading aid, not independent proof of momentary cessation.

Having established the general meaning, the prose commentary again "separately establishes that inner dharmas are momentary" (matching the fourteen kinds of arising to the nine kinds of cause — from initial arising, continued arising, prolonged arising, and dependent arising, to arising in another place, arising from seed, arising as image — showing point by point that without momentariness none of them holds), and then "establishes that outer dharmas are momentary" (by the fourteen causes — the moistening and drying of water, the increase and decrease of the movement of wind, the two arisings and four alterations of earth, the force of firewood in fire, the gradual faintness of sound …). Two of the outer-dharma comparisons here are likewise the treatise's own: the tone of a bell growing gradually faint shows precisely that sound diminishes from moment to moment and never stops; fire arising in reliance on firewood, and, the firewood spent, the fire not abiding shows precisely that fire too is a momentary continuity. Finally the prose commentary closes with a "general challenge": since you are willing to say "impermanent," why are you unwilling to say "momentary cessation"? You say the moment cannot be known? But the lamp-flame is, at the point where it "looks unmoving," equally unknowable moment by moment, and yet you grant that it ceases from moment to moment — plainly then "all formations are momentary like a lamp-flame," and the worldly do not know it only because the formations are "inverted things," their continuity so tight that they are seen as a prior thing. This exposition only opens up the argument's skeleton and a few key comparisons — the reasoning belongs to the prose commentary itself, and it suffices to transmit it faithfully.

XI. The no-self of persons: "self" is a borrowed name, like a whirlpool

The person is provisional, not really existent; spoken of as real, it cannot be found.

After its argument on impermanence, the treatise argues for the no-self of persons. It states that the person exists as a provisional name rather than as a substance and describes this as avoiding the two extremes. The exposition below reports that line of argument without deciding on its behalf.

Before pressing the question of "self," it helps first to see clearly the five aggregates on which this "self" rests — the Saṃyukta Āgama, sutra 265, sets a simile for each of the five aggregates: "contemplate form as a mass of foam, sensation as a bubble on the water, perception as a spring mirage, the formations as a plantain trunk, and consciousness as an illusion" (Chinese T02n0099) — the form-body is like a lump of foam gathered on the water's surface (crushed at a touch, without solidity), sensation like a bubble on the water (ceasing the moment it arises), perception like a spring mirage (from afar seeming water, gone the moment one approaches), the formations like a plantain trunk (peeled layer by layer, no core within), and consciousness like an illusion (seemingly-existent yet not real). Each of the five aggregates is like foam, like mirage, like illusion, not one of them a solid thing; then, upon these five aggregates, where could one set a solid "self"? The breaking of self sets out precisely from this ground of "the five aggregates being originally without solidity."

The prose commentary presents the treatise’s replies to the opponent’s questions in sequence —

• First the question of "same or different": do you say "self" and the five aggregates (body-and-mind) are "the same"? Then the "self" becomes the aggregates that arise and cease, and the aggregates are just the self; do you say they are "different"? Then, apart from body-and-mind, no self is to be found. So "self" and body-and-mind can be spoken of neither as the same nor as different — yet whatever is real must admit of being spoken of as same or different; the treatise therefore concludes that “self” is not a substance (that the Tathāgata "sets aside and does not answer" this is precisely because the question itself is built upon a false "real self").
• The opponent brings out "self and body-and-mind are like fire and firewood, neither one nor different and not to be spoken of" to argue his case; the prose commentary breaks this too, point by point: fire is the fire-element, firewood the remaining elements, each with its own distinct mark (they differ in mark); worldly people plainly see firewood apart from fire, and fire apart from firewood (worldly seeing — as when the wind blows the flame off to another place); the Buddha never says fire and firewood are not to be spoken of as one or different (the sages' word) — since even fire and firewood may be spoken of as different, to take them as a shield for "the real self cannot be spoken of" does not hold.
• Then the question of "operation": if there were a real "self" that does the "seeing, the cognizing," yet the arising and ceasing of eye-consciousness comes about from faculty and object (the two that exist), what has "self" to do with it? If "self" truly held the mastery, why does an unwished-for consciousness arise all the same and a wished-for consciousness cease all the same? The treatise therefore rejects the claim that a substantial self exercises mastery.
• Again the question of "activity": whatever is really existent must have some activity to point to (as the eye-faculty is established as existent by "seeing"), yet "self" can produce no activity whatever — to be without substance and yet forcibly make it substantial runs precisely counter to the Buddha's three kinds of awakening (the profound, the uncommon, the supramundane); it is the outsiders' point of attachment, the constant habit of birth-and-death.
• Finally, confirmation from the sages' teaching: the Sutra of the Seal of the Dharma says "all dharmas are without self," the Sutra of True Emptiness says "there is action and there is recompense, but the doer cannot be found; there is only the arising and ceasing of dharmas," and the Sutra of the Added Five says "grasping a self has five faults" — according with the Āgamas, the real self likewise cannot be found.

Then how are we to take the "knower," the "bearer," and other such "persons" the sutras do so often speak of? The prose commentary answers most aptly: these are all "the provisional positing of a person by way of the distinction of dharmas" — in reliance on the various "positions" and "cuttings-off" that distinguish the defiled dharmas and the pure dharmas, the name "person" is borrowed to point them out expediently, with no substance behind it (as the Sutra of the Burden: the "burden" is the defiled dharmas, the "laying down of the burden" the pure dharmas — it speaks of the distinction of dharmas, not that there is a "person" who bears a burden).

This principle of "provisionally positing a person by the distinction of dharmas" has, in the Sutra of the Bhikṣu Nāgasena (那先比丘經), a simile entirely of one structure with this chapter's breaking of self, best held in mind first. The elder Nāgasena, taking apart a "chariot" for King Milinda, asks in turn: is the axle the chariot? No; is the hub the chariot? No; the spokes, the rim, the shaft, the yoke, the carriage-box, the canopy … asked of one by one, no single part is "the chariot"; then, gathering these timbers and heaping them in one place, is that the chariot? Still it is not. The king fell silent, and only then did Nāgasena declare the Buddha's meaning — "the sutra of the Buddha says: when the many timbers are combined, and put to use as a chariot, one gets the name 'chariot'" (Chinese T32n1670): there is no "chariot" existing independently apart from the parts; "chariot" is only a provisional name got when these timbers are so combined and give rise to the function of conveyance. "The person is likewise": the head and face, ears and nose, bones and flesh, hands and feet, heart, liver, gut and stomach, pain and pleasure, good and evil — when these are "combined," only then is the name "person" borrowed to point them out, and there is no "self" existing independently apart from the parts of body-and-mind. Here the chariot serves to explain the treatise’s two claims: a provisional name may still function, while no separate substantial self need be posited. It is a comparative aid, not a final ruling on every account of the person.

〔exposition-borrowed simile〕The same account may be illustrated through a whirlpool: a whirlpool on the surface of a river — you can give it a name and point and say "that whirlpool," but where is there a thing "whirlpool"? — it is nothing but water, turning in a certain shape; let the shape of the current alter, and the whirlpool is gone; there was never a "whirlpool itself" apart from the water. "Self" is just so: it is only a shape shown forth by the stream of body-and-mind, borrowed a name and called "self," and there is no substance of a 'self' apart from body-and-mind. The treatise's final charge: the reason the Buddha does not directly speak of a real self is precisely that sentient beings' self-view has "been habituated from beginningless time," and to speak of it would on the contrary foster the self-view and cut off the road of liberation — That is the conclusion of this passage, transmitted here without adjudication on its behalf; the whirlpool is only a reading aid and not independent proof.

Conclusion: readying the full set of tools, all to see clearly these two matters

Viewed as a whole, the first half presents the bodhisattva’s factors of practice; the second turns to the treatise’s arguments on impermanence and no-self; and the closing verse returns to self-benefit and benefit of others. The exposition reports this sequence and does not turn its borrowed waterfall and whirlpool images into independent proof.

In one phrase: the chapter first presents the bodhisattva’s factors of practice, then argues for impermanence and the no-self of persons, and finally returns to self-benefit and benefit of others; this exposition transmits that course without adjudicating through its borrowed similes.