清淨道論 白話全本 · 冊11Visuddhimagga · Complete Vernacular · Vol. 11

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Four Nutriments and the List of Ten Modes 〔CSCD §294〕

Eleven: Exposition of Concentration

Discussion of the Development of Perception of Repulsiveness in Food

Now, after the immaterial states, the explanation has reached the development of the “one perception” that was announced: perception of repulsiveness in food. Here, because it brings about [its own result], it is “nutriment.” It is fourfold: physical nutriment¹, contact as nutriment, volition as nutriment, and consciousness as nutriment.

What, then, does each bring about here? Physical nutriment brings about materiality with nutritive essence as the eighth constituent.² Contact as nutriment brings about the three feelings. Volition as nutriment brings about rebirth-linking in the three kinds of becoming. Consciousness as nutriment brings about name-and-form at the moment of rebirth-linking.

Among them, with physical nutriment there is the danger of longing; with contact as nutriment, the danger of approach; with volition as nutriment, the danger of arising; and with consciousness as nutriment, the danger of rebirth-linking. Among these four, each fraught with danger, physical nutriment should be illustrated by the simile of a son’s flesh,³ contact as nutriment by the simile of the flayed cow, volition as nutriment by the simile of the pit of glowing coals, and consciousness as nutriment by the simile of the hundred spears. Yet of these four nutriments, the “food” intended here is physical nutriment alone, divided into what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted. The perception that arises with respect to that food by apprehending the aspect of repulsiveness is “perception of repulsiveness in food.”

One who wishes to develop this perception of repulsiveness in food should receive the meditation subject, omit not even a single sentence of what was received, go to a secluded place, dwell alone in retreat, and examine the repulsiveness of physical nutriment—divided into what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted—by ten modes. These are: by going, by seeking, by use, by abode, by storage, by what is undigested, by what is digested, by fruit, by outflow, and by smearing.

§2 One: By Going 〔CSCD §295〕

Here, “by going” means this. One who has gone forth in a teaching of such great power spends the whole night reciting the Buddha’s word or practicing the ascetic’s practice. Rising early, he performs his duties in the stūpa courtyard and the Bodhi-tree courtyard,⁴ sets out drinking water and water for washing, sweeps the dwelling clean, tends to his body, then takes his seat and attends to the meditation subject twenty or thirty times. He rises, takes his bowl and robe, and leaves behind that austere forest, free of crowded people, delightful in seclusion, furnished with shade and water, pure, cool, and lovely in terrain. Without regard even for the noble delight of seclusion, like a jackal heading toward the charnel ground, he must head toward the village for food—there is no avoiding the journey.

As he goes, beginning with getting down from his bed or chair, he has to step upon bedding covered in foot dust, gecko droppings, and the like. Next, he sometimes has to see a porch fouled by rat and bat droppings and more repulsive than the interior. Next comes the lower story, daubed with the droppings of owls, pigeons, and the like and more repulsive than the upper story. Next comes the monastery dwelling, more repulsive than the lower story, soiled by old grass and decaying leaves constantly blown in by the wind, by the urine, feces, saliva, and snot of sick novices, and by rainwater, mud, and the like during the rainy season. He also has to see the lanes within the monastery, more repulsive than the dwelling.

Then, after paying homage in turn to the Bodhi tree and the stūpa, he stands on the reflection platform. Yet he does not look back even once at the stūpa like a heap of pearls, the pleasing Bodhi tree like a bundle of peacock-tail feathers, or the radiant lodgings like a celestial palace brought to perfection. Thinking, “Such a lovely place must be left behind; for the sake of food, I cannot but go,” he sets out upon the road to the village. There he has to see roads with stumps and thorns and roads washed out by water, uneven and broken.

Next, he puts on his lower robe as though covering a boil, fastens his belt as though binding a cloth over a sore, puts on his upper robe as though covering a framework of bones, and takes out his bowl as though taking out a medicine vessel. On reaching the vicinity of the village gate, he has to see the carcasses of elephants, horses, cattle, buffaloes, humans, snakes, dogs, and the like. Nor does he merely have to see them: he must endure the stench that strikes his nose. Then, standing at the village gate, he must inspect the village lanes to avoid the dangers of fierce elephants, vicious horses, and the like.

Thus, for the sake of food, he cannot avoid stepping upon, seeing, and smelling all these repulsive things, beginning with the bedding and ending with the various carcasses. “Alas, friend, how repulsive food is!” In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by going.

§3 Two: By Seeking 〔CSCD §296〕

How is it “by seeking”? After enduring the repulsiveness of going and entering the village in this way, he must still put on his outer robe⁵ and walk along the village streets from house to house, like a poor man holding a bowl. There, in the rainy season, wherever he steps both feet sink into water and mud as far as the calves; he has to carry the bowl in one hand and lift his robe with the other. In the hot season, he must walk with his body covered in dust and bits of grass raised by the force of the wind. At the doors of one house after another he has to see—and even step upon—drains and cesspools in which water used to wash fish, meat, and rice is mixed with saliva, snot, dog feces, pig feces, and the like, swarming with worms and circled by bluebottle flies. The flies rise from there and settle on his outer robe, bowl, and head.

Once he enters a household, some give and some do not. Of those who give, some offer rice cooked the day before, stale chewable food, or cakes made from sour curds. Of those who do not give, some say, “Venerable sir, please go elsewhere”; some remain silent as if they had not seen him; some turn their faces away; and some meet him with coarse words such as, “Go away, baldhead!” Only after begging through the village like a poor man can he leave it.

Thus, beginning with entering the village and ending with leaving it, for the sake of food he cannot avoid stepping upon, seeing, and enduring repulsive things such as water and mud. “Alas, friend, how repulsive food is!” In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by seeking.

§4 Three: By Use 〔CSCD §297〕

How is it “by use”? Having obtained food in this way, he sits down in a comfortable place outside the village. So long as he has not yet put his hand into it, when he sees a bhikkhu worthy of reverence or a conscientious person, he can invite him to share the meal. But once he has put his hand in because he wants to eat, he would feel embarrassed to say, “Please take some.” As he puts his hand in and kneads the food, sweat runs down his five fingers and moistens and softens even hard, dry rice.

Then the food loses its appearance merely by being kneaded. He forms it into a lump and puts it into his mouth: the lower teeth do the work of a mortar, the upper teeth the work of a pestle, and the tongue the work of a hand. There it is pounded by the tooth-pestles and turned over by the tongue like a lump of dog food in a dog’s trough. Thin, clear saliva from the tip of the tongue soils it; thick saliva rising from the middle of the tongue soils it; and dental grime from places the tooth stick cannot reach soils it. Thus crushed and smeared, in that very instant its distinction of color, odor, and shape disappears. Like a dog’s vomit in a dog’s trough, it reaches a state of extreme repulsiveness. Even after becoming like this, because it has passed beyond the range of vision, it still must be swallowed. In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by use.

§5 Four: By Abode, and Five: By Storage 〔CSCD §298–299〕

How is it “by abode”? When the food, used in this way, enters inside, it is invariably lodged in one of four places—the place of bile, phlegm, pus, or blood—even for Buddhas, paccekabuddhas, and wheel-turning monarchs, while a person of little merit has all four. Thus, in one with an abundance of the place of bile, [the food] becomes extremely repulsive, as though smeared with thick madhuka oil;⁶ in one with an abundance of the place of phlegm, as though smeared with the juice of nāgabala leaves; in one with an abundance of the place of pus, as though smeared with sour-curd whey; and in one with an abundance of the place of blood, as though smeared with dye. In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by abode.

How is it “by storage”? Smeared by one of these four places, it enters the belly, but is stored neither in a gold vessel nor in a jewel, silver, or other such vessel. If swallowed by a ten-year-old, it remains in a place like a cesspit unwashed for ten years. If swallowed by someone twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, or ninety years old—or by someone one hundred years old—it remains in a place like a cesspit unwashed for one hundred years. In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by storage.

§6 Six: By What Is Undigested; Seven: By What Is Digested; Eight: By Fruit 〔CSCD §300–302〕

How is it “by what is undigested”? Stored in such a place, so long as this food is not digested, it remains in the place described above: utterly dark, permeated by air scented with the stench of various carcasses, foul and repulsive. It is like grass, leaves, fragments of matting, and the carcasses of snakes, dogs, humans, and the like that have fallen into a pit at the gate of an outcaste village, been rained upon by an untimely cloud in the hot season, heated by the sun, and remained there covered in foam and bubbles. In just the same way, everything swallowed today, yesterday, and even the day before yesterday combines into one mass, is wrapped in a membrane of phlegm, boils in the heat of the bodily fire, and remains there covered in the foam thereby produced, having reached a state of extreme repulsiveness. In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by what is undigested.

How is it “by what is digested”? Once digested by that bodily fire, it does not become gold, silver, or the like as ores of gold and silver do. Instead, releasing foam as it goes, it becomes excrement and fills the receptacle for digested food, like yellow clay ground fine on a grinding stone and placed in a tube; it becomes urine and fills the bladder. In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by what is digested.

How is it “by fruit”? When it is digested properly, it produces such various unclean things as head hair, body hair, nails, and teeth. When it is not digested properly, it produces a hundred kinds of illness, beginning with ringworm, itching, scabs, leprosy, vitiligo, consumption, cough, and diarrhea. This is its fruit. In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by fruit.

§7 Nine: By Outflow, and Ten: By Smearing 〔CSCD §303–304〕

How is it “by outflow”? When swallowed, it enters through one door; when flowing out, it flows out through many doors, according to such expressions as “eye grime through the eye, ear grime through the ear,” and so on. When swallowed, moreover, it is swallowed with a great retinue of companions; but when it flows out, having become excrement, urine, and the like, it is discharged by one person alone. On the first day, when consuming it, a person is exultant and elated, and rapture and gladness arise.⁹ On the second day, when discharging it, he covers his nose, grimaces, and loses color in utter disgust. On the first day, when swallowing it, he is lustful, greedy, infatuated, and intoxicated. On the second day, merely because it has been stored for one night, he becomes dispassionate and, distressed, ashamed, and disgusted, discharges it. Therefore the Ancients¹⁰ said:

Rice, drink, chewable food, and costly fare Enter through one door and flow out through nine.

Rice, drink, chewable food, and costly fare Are eaten amid companions but discharged in hiding.

Rice, drink, chewable food, and costly fare Are eaten with a joyful heart but discharged in disgust.

Rice, drink, chewable food, and costly fare, Stored for only a single night, all become putrid.

In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by outflow.

How is it “by smearing”? While being consumed, it smears the hands, lips, tongue, and palate. These places, made repulsive by its smearing, must be washed repeatedly after they have already been washed, in order to remove the smell. After it has been consumed, just as husks, broken grains, bran, and the like overflow while rice is cooking and smear the mouth, rim, and lid of the pot, so too, cooked by the bodily fire pervading the whole body, the food boils and foams, overflows, and smears the teeth in the form of dental grime; the tongue, palate, and other places in the form of saliva, phlegm, and the like; and the eyes, ears, nose, lower passages, and other places in the form of eye grime, ear grime, snot, urine, excrement, and the like. Even when these doors smeared by it are washed every day, they become neither clean nor pleasing. After some of them have been washed, the hand must be washed once more with water. After some have been washed, they must still be washed two or three times with cow dung, earth, and scented powder before their repulsiveness disappears. In this way its repulsiveness should be examined by smearing.

§8 Accomplishment in Development and Its Fruit 〔CSCD §305〕

When, in this way, he examines its repulsiveness by the ten modes, repeatedly striking it with thought and applied thought, physical nutriment becomes manifest to him under the aspect of repulsiveness. He repeatedly practices, develops, and cultivates that sign. As he does so, the hindrances are suppressed. Because physical nutriment is an intrinsic-nature dhamma and profound, the mind does not reach absorption; it becomes concentrated only by access concentration.¹¹ Here it is “perception” that becomes manifest through apprehending the aspect of repulsiveness. Therefore this meditation subject acquires the name “perception of repulsiveness in food.”

For the bhikkhu devoted to developing this perception of repulsiveness in food, the mind recoils, shrinks back, and turns away from craving for flavors. Like a person wishing to cross a wilderness who eats the flesh of his own son, he consumes food without conceit and solely in order to cross over suffering. Then, without great difficulty, through the gateway of fully understanding physical nutriment, craving for the five cords of sensual pleasure is fully understood; and through the gateway of fully understanding the five cords of sensual pleasure, he fully understands the form aggregate. Through repulsiveness in what is undigested and the other modes, his development of mindfulness of the body¹² also reaches fulfillment, and he becomes one who has entered the way conforming to perception of foulness.¹³ Following this mode of progress, even if he does not reach the deathless as his culmination in this very life, his destination will be a good destination.

　　This is the detailed discussion of the development of perception of repulsiveness in food.

Notes

¹ Physical nutriment (kabaḷīkārāhāra): material food made into morsels and consumed; the first of the four nutriments. Only this nutriment is contemplated through the ten modes in this division; the other three are named but not developed.

² Materiality with nutritive essence as the eighth constituent (ojaṭṭhamakaṃ rūpaṃ): the octad in which nutritive essence is the eighth—earth, water, fire, and air as the four great elements, together with color, odor, flavor, and nutritive essence. This is what physical nutriment directly produces.

³ The simile of a son’s flesh and the other three similes (puttamaṃsūpama, and so forth): four similes established by the Blessed One for the four nutriments—physical nutriment is like being compelled to eat a son’s flesh in the wilderness; contact as nutriment is like a flayed cow; volition as nutriment is like a pit of glowing coals; consciousness as nutriment is like being pierced by a hundred spears. The treatise gives only the names of the similes, not their passages; the passages occur in a discourse in the Saṃyutta Nikāya.

⁴ The stūpa courtyard and the Bodhi-tree courtyard (cetiyaṅgaṇa・bodhiyaṅgaṇa): the grounds around the relic stūpa and Bodhi tree within a monastery. Sweeping, sprinkling, and tending these grounds at dawn are among a bhikkhu’s daily duties.

⁵ Outer robe (saṅghāṭi): the heavy robe among the three robes, worn when entering a village for alms.

⁶ Madhuka oil and juice of nāgabala leaves (madhukatela・nāgabalapaṇṇarasa): oil and juice from two Indian plants, both thick and viscous in color; this division uses them to illustrate food smeared by the place of bile and the place of phlegm.

⁷ Outcaste (caṇḍāla): a class outside the four social classes of ancient India; the pit outside the gate of their village was a place for discarding carcasses and filth.

⁸ Receptacle for digested food (pakkāsaya): the place in the abdomen that contains digested food, as opposed to the receptacle for undigested food.

⁹ Rapture and gladness (pīti・somanassa): the former is an exhilaration of body and mind; the latter is a pleasant mental feeling. In its fivefold classification of feeling, this work likewise uses “gladness” for somanassa, distinguishing it from “pleasure,” the pleasant bodily feeling.

¹⁰ The Ancients (Porāṇā): the general designation in this treatise for teachers of earlier generations; the four verses cited here are theirs.

¹¹ Access concentration (upacāra-samādhi): the level of concentration at which the hindrances have been suppressed but the mind has not yet entered absorption. In absorption concentration (appanā-samādhi), the mind enters its object completely and remains unwavering. Because the object of this meditation subject—physical nutriment—is an intrinsic-nature dhamma, it reaches only access and not absorption.

¹² Mindfulness of the body (kāyagatāsati): attending to the thirty-two parts of the body as repulsive; its development is treated in Chapter 8, “Recollection Meditation Subjects.”

¹³ Perception of foulness (asubhasaññā): development of the ten kinds of foulness beginning with the bloated; it is set forth in Chapter 6, “Foulness Meditation Subjects.”

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Meaning of the Name, Two Scriptural Presentations, and the Simile of the Butcher 〔CSCD §306〕

Discussion of the Development of the Defining of the Four Elements

Now, after perception of repulsiveness in food, the explanation has reached the “one defining” that was announced: development of the defining of the four elements.¹ Here “defining” is a determination made by observing intrinsic nature. “Defining of the four elements” is the defining of four elements. Attention to the elements, the meditation subject of the elements, and defining of the four elements are one in meaning. This [meditation subject] has come down in two ways: in brief and in detail. The brief presentation comes down in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta; the detailed presentation in the Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta, the Mahārāhulovāda Sutta, and the Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta.² For it is said:

“Bhikkhus, just as a skilled cattle butcher or the butcher’s apprentice, having slaughtered a cow, might sit at a crossroads after dividing it into portions; so too, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu reviews this body, however it is positioned or disposed, according to the elements: ‘In this body there are the earth element, water element, fire element, and air element.’”

Thus, [defining of the four elements] comes down in brief in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta for one of keen wisdom who uses the meditation subject of the elements.

Its meaning is this. A skilled cattle butcher, or his apprentice hired for a wage of food, slaughters a cow, cuts it open, divides it into portions, and sits at the place in the middle of the great roads leading in four directions called a crossroads. In the same way, because a bhikkhu dwells in any one of the four postures, the body is “however positioned”; precisely because it is so positioned, it is “however disposed.” He reviews this body according to the elements: “In this body there is the earth element … and so on as before … the air element.”

What does this mean? So long as that cattle butcher has not cut open the cow and divided it portion by portion—whether while raising it, leading it to the slaughter place, bringing it there and tying it, slaughtering it, or seeing it slaughtered and dead—the perception “cow” does not disappear. But when he sits down after dividing it, the perception “cow” disappears and the perception “meat” occurs. He does not think, “I am selling a cow and these people are buying a cow.” What he thinks is precisely, “I am selling meat, and these people too are buying meat.” In the same way, so long as this bhikkhu, formerly an ordinary foolish person—whether a householder or one gone forth—has not analyzed the compact³ in this body, however positioned and disposed, and reviewed it according to the elements, his perception of a “being,” a “person,” or an “individual” does not disappear. Once he reviews it according to the elements, the perception “being” disappears and his mind settles upon elements alone. Therefore the Blessed One said: “Bhikkhus, just as a skilled cattle butcher … and so on as before … might sit; so too, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu … and so on as before … the air element.”

§2 Scriptural Source for the Detailed Method and Explanation of Its Difficult Phrases 〔CSCD §307〕

In the Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta, however, it is said: “Friend, what is the internal earth element? Whatever is internal, individually one’s own, hard, become rough, and appropriated, namely: head hairs, body hairs … and so on as before … stomach contents and excrement, or whatever else is internal, individually one’s own, hard, become rough, and appropriated—friend, this is called the internal earth element.”

“Friend, what is the internal water element? Whatever is internal, individually one’s own, watery, become water, and appropriated, namely: bile … and so on as before … urine, or whatever else is internal, individually one’s own, watery, become water, and appropriated—friend, this is called the internal water element.”

“Friend, what is the internal fire element? Whatever is internal, individually one’s own, fiery, become fire, and appropriated, namely: that by which one is heated, by which one ages, by which one is burned, and by which what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted is properly digested, or whatever else is internal, individually one’s own, fiery, become fire, and appropriated—friend, this is called the internal fire element.”

“Friend, what is the internal air element? Whatever is internal, individually one’s own, airy, become air, and appropriated, namely: up-going winds, down-going winds, winds in the belly, winds in the bowels, winds coursing through the limbs, in-breath and out-breath, or whatever else is internal, individually one’s own, airy, become air, and appropriated—friend, this is called the internal air element.”

Thus, [defining of the four elements] comes down in detail for one not of very keen wisdom who uses the meditation subject of the elements. As here, so too in the Mahārāhulovāda Sutta and the Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta.

Here is the explanation of phrases that are not evident. “Internal” and “individually one’s own” are first of all both synonyms for “one’s own.” “One’s own” means born in oneself and included within one’s own continuity. Just as in the world a discussion whose subject is women is called a “discussion of women,” because it occurs within oneself it is called “internal”; because it occurs with reference to oneself individually, it is also called “individually one’s own.” “Hard” means firm. “Become rough” means coarse. Here the first is a word for the characteristic, the second a word for the mode; for the earth element has hardness as characteristic and its mode is rough, so it is called “become rough.” “Appropriated” means firmly taken; the meaning is firmly taking, grasping, and clinging as “I” and “mine.” “Namely” is an indeclinable meaning “What is that?” Then, to point it out, “head hairs, body hairs,” and so forth are stated. Here it should be understood that, with the brain included, the earth element is taught under twenty modes.⁵ By the phrase “or whatever else,” the earth element in the remaining three portions is also included.

Because it reaches this place and that through its nature of flowing and dispersing, it is “water.” Because it occurs among the various waters originated by kamma and so forth, it is “become water.” What is that? It is that within the water element whose characteristic is cohesion.

Because of the meaning of burning, it is “fire.” According to the method already stated, because it occurs among fires, it is “become fire.” What is that? It is that whose characteristic is heat. “That by which” means that when what occurs in the fire element is disturbed, this body grows hot, develops the heat of a quotidian fever, and so on. “That by which one ages” means that because of it this body ages and reaches the condition of impaired faculties, exhausted strength, wrinkles, gray hair, and so forth. “That by which one is burned” means that when it is disturbed this body burns, and that person cries, “I am burning! I am burning!” and seeks applications of ghee refined a hundred times, red sandalwood, and the like, together with the breeze of a palm-leaf fan. “That by which what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted is properly digested” means that through it, eaten rice and the like, drunk gruel and the like, chewed confections of meal and the like, and tasted ripe mangoes, honey, molasses, and the like are properly digested; the meaning is that they are separated and become flavor and the rest. Here the first three are originated by the fire element, while the last is originated solely by kamma.

Because of the meaning of blowing, it is “air.” According to the method already stated, because it occurs among winds, it is “become air.” What is that? It is that whose characteristic is supporting. “Up-going winds” are winds rising upward that produce belching, hiccups, and the like. “Down-going winds” are winds descending downward that expel feces, urine, and the like. “Winds in the belly” are winds outside the intestines. “Winds in the bowels” are winds inside the intestines. “Winds coursing through the limbs” travel throughout every limb of the body along the network of vessels and produce bending, stretching, and the like. “In-breath” is nasal wind entering inward; “out-breath” is nasal wind going outward.⁶ Here the first five have four origins,⁷ while in-breath and out-breath are originated solely by mind. In every case, the phrase “or whatever else” includes the water element and the others found in the remaining portions.

Thus the earth element is stated under twenty modes, the water element under twelve, the fire element under four, and the air element under six: the four elements are stated in detail under forty-two modes. This, first of all, is the explanation of the canonical passage here.

§3 Method of Development—the Brief Apprehension for One of Keen Wisdom 〔CSCD §308〕

As to the method of development, for a bhikkhu of keen wisdom the expanded apprehension of elements as “Head hairs are the earth element, body hairs are the earth element” appears prolix. When he attends in this way—“Whatever has hardness as characteristic is the earth element; whatever has cohesion as characteristic is the water element; whatever has digestion as characteristic is the fire element; whatever has supporting as characteristic is the air element”—the meditation subject becomes manifest. But when a person not of very keen wisdom attends in this way, it is obscure and unclear to him. Only when he attends in detail according to the preceding method does the meditation subject become manifest.

How so? Suppose two bhikkhus recite together a canonical passage containing many abbreviated passages. The bhikkhu of keen wisdom expands an abbreviated passage once or twice, and afterward recites onward using only the two endpoints. The one not of very keen wisdom then says, “What sort of recitation is this? You will not even let your lips move properly once. Reciting this way, when will the canonical passage ever become familiar?” He recites by expanding every abbreviated passage whenever it appears. The other then says to him, “What sort of recitation is this? You never reach the end. Reciting this way, when will the canonical passage ever be finished?” In the same way, for one of keen wisdom, the detailed apprehension of the elements by way of head hairs and the rest appears prolix; the meditation subject becomes manifest when he attends to it briefly by the method, “Whatever has hardness as characteristic is the earth element,” and so on. For the other, attending in that way is obscure and unclear; only when he attends in detail by way of head hairs and the rest does the meditation subject become manifest.

Therefore one who wishes to develop this meditation subject—first, one of keen wisdom—should go to a secluded place and dwell alone in retreat. Turning toward his entire material body, [he contemplates:] “Whatever in this body has the nature of hardness or roughness is the earth element; whatever has the nature of cohesion or flowing is the water element; whatever has the nature of digestion or heat is the fire element; whatever has the nature of supporting or motion is the air element.” Having thus apprehended the elements briefly, he should repeatedly turn toward, attend to, and review them as “earth element, water element,” taking them as elements alone, not a being, and lifeless. As he strives in this way, before long concentration arises that is embraced by wisdom illuminating the differentiation of elements and, because it takes intrinsic-nature dhammas as its object, does not reach absorption but is access only.

Alternatively, to reveal the non-being nature of the four great elements, the General of the Dhamma⁸ stated four portions in this way: “The space enclosed in dependence on bones, sinews, flesh, and skin is designated simply as form.” Within these, with the hand of knowledge following each interval, he cuts them apart again and again and apprehends the elements according to the preceding method: “Among these, whatever has the nature of hardness or roughness is the earth element.” Then he repeatedly turns toward, attends to, and reviews them as “earth element, water element,” taking them as elements alone, not a being, and lifeless. As he strives in this way, before long concentration arises that is embraced by wisdom illuminating the differentiation of elements and, because it takes intrinsic-nature dhammas as its object, does not reach absorption but is access only. This is the method of development in defining of the four elements as it has come down in brief.

§4 Four Methods of the Detailed Presentation and the Brief Method with Constituents 〔CSCD §309〕

Defining of the four elements as it has come down in detail should be understood as follows. A meditator not of very keen wisdom who wishes to develop this meditation subject should learn the elements from a teacher in detail under forty-two modes, live in a lodging of the kind already stated, complete all duties, go to a secluded place, and dwell alone in retreat. He should then develop the meditation subject in four modes: in brief with constituents, by analysis with constituents, in brief by individual characteristics, and by analysis of individual characteristics.

Here, how does he develop it in brief with constituents? The bhikkhu defines the mode of hardness in the twenty bodily parts as the earth element; the juicy mode, called water and able to cohere, in the twelve bodily parts as the water element; the fire that can digest in the four bodily parts as the fire element; and the mode of supporting in the six bodily parts as the air element. As soon as he defines them in this way, the elements become manifest. He repeatedly turns toward and attends to them, and access concentration arises according to the method already stated.

§5 Analysis with Constituents—How It Differs from Mindfulness of the Body 〔CSCD §310〕

If someone develops the meditation subject in this way but still does not succeed, he should develop it by analysis with constituents. How? That bhikkhu should use the seven kinds of skill in apprehending and ten kinds of skill in attention⁹ stated in the explanation of the meditation subject of mindfulness of the body. First, among the thirty-two modes, all without omission, he should carry out every method stated there, beginning with forward and reverse recitation of the skin pentad¹⁰ and the rest. There is only this difference: there, even after attending to head hairs and the rest according to color, shape, direction, location, and delimitation, the mind is to be settled upon repulsiveness; here it is settled according to elements. Thus, after attending to head hairs and the rest in five ways each, by color and so forth, attention should finally occur as follows.

Notes

¹ Defining of the four elements (catudhātuvavatthāna): the name of a meditation subject in this treatise, which dismantles the perception of a being by defining this body according to the four elements of earth, water, fire, and air. The latter member, vavatthāna, is read as “differentiation” in the general sense of making a determination by observing intrinsic nature, while the fixed name of this meditation subject uses “defining”; one term has two readings according to its context.

² The Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta, Mahārāhulovāda Sutta, and Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta: the four scriptural sources for defining of the four elements. The first gives the brief method; the other three the detailed method. The detailed passage quoted in this division comes from the Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta; the treatise itself states that its explanation applies to the other two without repeating them.

³ Analysis of the compact (ghanavinibbhoga): breaking apart the perception of “one mass” to see it as a collection of dhammas. Without this analysis, the perception of a “being” does not disappear.

⁴ Appropriated (upādinna): appropriated by kamma; here the treatise further explains it in terms of firmly clinging as “I” and “mine.”

⁵ With the brain included, the earth element is stated under twenty modes: in the list of thirty-two bodily parts for mindfulness of the body, the brain is included under marrow rather than separately stated. This division states the brain separately, increasing the earth-element division from nineteen to twenty.

⁶ In-breath and out-breath (assāsa・passāsa): this division itself explains the in-breath as nasal wind entering inward and the out-breath as nasal wind going outward. The division on mindfulness of breathing in Chapter 8, “Recollection Meditation Subjects,” assigns them in the opposite way according to the Vinaya explanation—assāsa as the outward wind—and itself states that the discourse explanation reverses that assignment. The assignments in the two places are opposite; each is read according to its own division’s explanation.

⁷ Four origins (catusamuṭṭhāna): kamma, mind, temperature, and nutriment. Material phenomena are distinguished according to these causes of their origination.

⁸ General of the Dhamma (dhammasenāpati): an honorific used by this treatise; this division gives only the title, not the person’s name.

⁹ Seven kinds of skill in apprehending and ten kinds of skill in attention (sattadhā uggahakosalla・dasadhā manasikārakosalla): preliminaries to the development of mindfulness of the body. They are set out individually in the division on mindfulness of the body in Chapter 8, “Recollection Meditation Subjects.”

¹⁰ Skin pentad (tacapañcaka): the first group among the thirty-two bodily parts—head hairs, body hairs, nails, teeth, and skin. The thirty-two parts are arranged in six groups in the sequence five, five, five, five, five, and five-plus-two.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Earth Element, Part One—Head Hairs, Body Hairs, Nails, Teeth, and Skin 〔CSCD §311–315〕

What are called “head hairs”¹ grow on the skin covering the skull. Here, just as when sparse grass grows atop an anthill, the top of the anthill does not know, “Sparse grass grows here on me,” nor does the sparse grass know, “We grow atop an anthill”; so too, the skin covering the skull does not know, “Head hairs grow here on me,” nor do the head hairs know, “We grow on the skin covering the skull.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing.² Thus, in this body, what are called “head hairs” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.³

“Body hairs” grow on the skin enveloping the body. Here, just as when thatching grass grows at the site of an empty village, the site of the empty village does not know, “Thatching grass grows here on me,” nor does the thatching grass know, “We grow at the site of an empty village”; so too, the skin enveloping the body does not know, “Body hairs grow here on me,” nor do the body hairs know, “We grow on the skin enveloping the body.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “body hairs” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Nails” grow at the ends of the fingers and toes. Here, just as when children play by piercing the kernels of madhuka fruits with little sticks, the sticks do not know, “The fruit kernels have been set upon us,” nor do the kernels know, “We have been set upon the sticks”; so too, the fingers and toes do not know, “Nails grow on our ends,” nor do the nails know, “We grow at the ends of the fingers and toes.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “nails” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Teeth” grow in the jawbones. Here, just as when carpenters use a kind of adhesive to bind posts and set them upright in stone mortars, the stone mortars do not know, “Posts stand upon us,” nor do the posts know, “We stand in stone mortars”; so too, the jawbones do not know, “Teeth grow upon us,” nor do the teeth know, “We grow in the jawbones.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “teeth” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Skin” remains enveloping the entire body. Here, just as when a great lute is covered with raw cowhide, the great lute does not know, “I am covered with raw cowhide,” nor does the raw cowhide know, “The great lute is covered by me”; so too, the body does not know, “I am covered with skin,” nor does the skin know, “The body is covered by me.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “skin” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

§2 Earth Element, Part Two—Flesh, Sinews, Bones, Marrow, and Kidneys 〔CSCD §316–320〕

“Flesh” remains plastered over the collection of bones. Here, just as when a wall is plastered with thick clay, the wall does not know, “I am plastered with thick clay,” nor does the thick clay know, “The wall is plastered with me”; so too, the collection of bones does not know, “I am plastered with flesh divided into nine hundred pieces,”⁴ nor does the flesh know, “The collection of bones is plastered with me.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “flesh” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Sinews” remain binding the bones within the body. Here, just as when wall timbers are bound by vines, the wall timbers do not know, “We are bound by vines,” nor do the vines know, “The wall timbers are bound by us”; so too, the bones do not know, “We are bound by sinews,” nor do the sinews know, “The bones are bound by us.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “sinews” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

Among the bones, the heel bones remain supporting the ankle bones. The ankle bones remain supporting the shin bones. The shin bones remain supporting the thigh bones. The thigh bones remain supporting the hip bones. The hip bones remain supporting the vertebrae,⁵ and the vertebrae remain supporting the neck bones. The neck bones remain supporting the skull. The skull stands upon the neck bones. The neck bones stand upon the vertebrae. The vertebrae stand upon the hip bones. The hip bones stand upon the thigh bones. The thigh bones stand upon the shin bones. The shin bones stand upon the ankle bones. The ankle bones stand upon the heel bones.

Here, just as in a pile of bricks, timber, cow dung, and so forth, what is below does not know, “We remain supporting what is above,” nor does what is above know, “We stand upon what is below”; so too, the heel bones do not know, “I remain supporting the ankle bones.” The ankle bones do not know, “I remain supporting the shin bones.” The shin bones do not know, “I remain supporting the thigh bones.” The thigh bones do not know, “I remain supporting the hip bones.” The hip bones do not know, “I remain supporting the vertebrae.” The vertebrae do not know, “I remain supporting the neck bones.” The neck bones do not know, “I remain supporting the skull.” The skull does not know, “I stand upon the neck bones.” The neck bones do not know, “I stand upon the vertebrae.” The vertebrae do not know, “I stand upon the hip bones.” The hip bones do not know, “I stand upon the thigh bones.” The thigh bones do not know, “I stand upon the shin bones.” The shin bones do not know, “I stand upon the ankle bones.” The ankle bones do not know, “I stand upon the heel bones.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “bones” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Marrow” remains inside the respective bones. Here, just as when cut ends of rattan and the like are put inside bamboo joints and the like, the bamboo joints do not know, “Rattan ends and the like have been put inside us,” nor do the rattan ends know, “We remain inside bamboo joints and the like”; so too, the bones do not know, “Marrow remains inside us,” nor does the marrow know, “I remain inside the bones.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “marrow” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Kidneys” are tied by the thick sinew that issues from the base of the throat, travels a short distance as one, and then divides into two; they remain surrounding the heart’s flesh. Here, just as two mangoes tied to one stalk, the stalk does not know, “Two mangoes are tied by me,” nor do the two mangoes know, “We are tied by the stalk”; so too, the thick sinew does not know, “The kidneys are tied by me,” nor do the kidneys know, “We are tied by the thick sinew.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “kidneys” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

§3 Earth Element, Part Three—Heart, Liver, Membranes, Spleen, and Lungs 〔CSCD §321–325〕

“Heart” remains inside the body, supported in the middle of the rib cage.⁶ Here, just as a piece of flesh set upon the framework of an old cart, the inside of the cart’s framework does not know, “The piece of flesh remains supported by me,” nor does the piece of flesh know, “I remain supported by the framework of an old cart”; so too, the inside of the rib cage does not know, “The heart remains supported by me,” nor does the heart know, “I remain supported by the rib cage.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “heart” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Liver” remains inside the body, supported on the right side between the two breasts. Here, just as two lumps of flesh stuck to the side of a potsherd, the side of the potsherd does not know, “Two lumps of flesh are stuck to me,” nor do the two lumps know, “We are stuck to the side of a potsherd”; so too, the right side between the breasts does not know, “The liver remains supported by me,” nor does the liver know, “I remain supported by the right side between the breasts.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “liver” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

Among the membranes, the enclosing membrane remains surrounding the heart and kidneys; the non-enclosing membrane remains under the skin throughout the body, covering the flesh. Here, just as meat wrapped in an old cloth, the meat does not know, “I am wrapped in an old cloth,” nor does the old cloth know, “The meat is wrapped by me”; so too, the kidneys, heart, and flesh throughout the body do not know, “We are covered by membranes,” nor do the membranes know, “The kidneys, heart, and flesh throughout the body are covered by us.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “membranes” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Spleen” remains to the left of the heart, supported against the upper side of the stomach membrane.⁷ Here, just as a lump of cow dung supported against the upper side of a granary, the upper side of the granary does not know, “A lump of cow dung remains supported by me,” nor does the lump know, “I remain supported against the upper side of a granary”; so too, the upper side of the stomach membrane does not know, “The spleen remains supported by me,” nor does the spleen know, “I remain supported by the upper side of the stomach membrane.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “spleen” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Lungs” remain inside the body, hanging over the heart and liver between the two breasts. Here, just as a bird’s nest hanging inside an old granary, the inside of the old granary does not know, “A bird’s nest remains hanging within me,” nor does the bird’s nest know, “I remain hanging inside an old granary”; so too, the inside of that body does not know, “The lungs remain hanging within me,” nor do the lungs know, “We remain hanging inside such a body.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “lungs” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

§4 Earth Element, Part Four—Intestines, Mesentery, Stomach Contents, Excrement, and Brain 〔CSCD §326–330〕

“Intestines” remain inside the body, bounded by the base of the throat and the end of the excrement. Here, just as the decapitated carcass of a snake coiled and placed in a trough of blood, the trough of blood does not know, “A snake carcass remains inside me,” nor does the snake carcass know, “I remain in a trough of blood”; so too, the inside of the body does not know, “The intestines remain inside me,” nor do the intestines know, “We remain inside the body.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “intestines” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Mesentery” remains between the coils of the intestines, binding the twenty-one coils. Here, just as a ring of rope for wiping the feet is stitched together by strands of rope, the ring does not know, “The strands remain stitching me together,” nor do the strands know, “We remain stitching together the ring for wiping the feet”; so too, the intestines do not know, “The mesentery remains binding me,” nor does the mesentery know, “I remain binding the intestines.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “mesentery” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Stomach contents” are what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted and remains in the stomach. Here, just as a dog’s vomit remaining in a dog’s trough, the trough does not know, “A dog’s vomit remains inside me,” nor does the vomit know, “I remain in a dog’s trough”; so too, the stomach does not know, “Stomach contents remain inside me,” nor do the stomach contents know, “I remain in the stomach.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “stomach contents” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Excrement” remains at the end of the intestine called the receptacle for digested food,⁸ which is like a bamboo joint eight fingerbreadths long. Here, just as fine yellow clay pounded and put into a bamboo joint, the bamboo joint does not know, “Yellow clay remains inside me,” nor does the yellow clay know, “I remain in a bamboo joint”; so too, the receptacle for digested food does not know, “Excrement remains inside me,” nor does the excrement know, “I remain in the receptacle for digested food.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “excrement” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

“Brain” remains inside the skull. Here, just as a lump of dough put inside an old gourd shell, the gourd shell does not know, “A lump of dough remains inside me,” nor does the dough know, “I remain in a gourd shell”; so too, the inside of the skull does not know, “The brain remains inside me,” nor does the brain know, “I remain inside the skull.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “brain” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, hard, and the earth element.

§5 Water Element, Part One—Bile, Phlegm, Pus, Blood, Sweat, and Fat 〔CSCD §331–336〕

Among bile, unbound bile is connected with the life faculty and remains pervading the entire body; bound bile remains in the gallbladder. Here, just as when oil remains pervading a cake, the cake does not know, “Oil remains pervading me,” nor does the oil know, “I remain pervading the cake”; so too, the body does not know, “Unbound bile remains pervading me,” nor does unbound bile know, “I remain pervading the body.” Again, just as when a loofah shell is filled with rainwater, the loofah shell does not know, “Rainwater remains inside me,” nor does the rainwater know, “I remain inside the loofah shell”; so too, the gallbladder does not know, “Bound bile remains inside me,” nor does bound bile know, “I remain in the gallbladder.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “bile” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.⁹

“Phlegm,” measuring a bowlful, remains upon the stomach membrane. Here, just as a layer of foam that has formed on a cesspool, the cesspool does not know, “A layer of foam remains in me,” nor does the foam know, “I remain in a cesspool”; so too, the stomach membrane does not know, “Phlegm remains on me,” nor does the phlegm know, “I remain upon the stomach membrane.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “phlegm” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Pus” has no fixed location. Wherever in the body there is injury from a stake, thorn, blow, flame, or the like and blood stops and ripens there, or a boil, blister, or the like arises, it remains at that very place. Here, just as a tree from which resin flows because of an axe wound or the like, the wounded place on the tree does not know, “Resin remains upon us,” nor does the resin know, “I remain on the wounded place of the tree”; so too, places of the body injured by a stake, thorn, or the like do not know, “Pus remains upon us,” nor does the pus know, “I remain on those places.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “pus” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

Among blood, circulating blood remains pervading the entire body like unbound bile. Accumulated blood fills the lower part of the liver’s location, measuring a bowlful, and remains moistening the kidneys, heart, liver, and lungs. Here the judgment regarding circulating blood is the same as for unbound bile. As for the other, just as when water drips in a broken pot and moistens clods of earth and the like beneath it, the clods do not know, “We are moistened by water,” nor does the water know, “I am moistening the clods”; so too, the place below the liver, or the kidneys and the rest, do not know, “Blood remains here in me, or remains moistening us,” nor does the blood know, “I fill the place below the liver and remain moistening the kidneys and the rest.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “blood” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Sweat,” at times of heat and the like, fills the openings of the pores of head hairs and body hairs, remains there, and flows out. Here, just as a bundle of lotus roots, red-lotus roots, and white-lotus stalks newly pulled from water, the openings in the bundle do not know, “Water flows from us,” nor does the water flowing from them know, “I flow from the openings in the bundle”; so too, the openings of the hair pores do not know, “Sweat flows from us,” nor does the sweat know, “I flow from the openings of the hair pores.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “sweat” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Fat” is congealed grease. In one who is fat it pervades the entire body; in one who is thin it remains supported on the flesh of the calves and the like. Here, just as a heap of meat covered by yellow cloth, the heap does not know, “Yellow cloth remains upon me,” nor does the cloth know, “I remain upon a heap of meat”; so too, the flesh throughout the body or at the calves and the like does not know, “Fat remains upon me,” nor does the fat know, “I remain upon flesh throughout the body or at the calves and the like.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “fat” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, congealed juice,¹⁰ with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

§6 Water Element, Part Two—Tears, Grease, Saliva, Snot, Oil-of-the-Joints, and Urine 〔CSCD §337–342〕

“Tears,” when they arise, fill the eye sockets and remain there or flow out. Here, just as the hollow of a tender palmyra kernel filled with water, the hollow does not know, “Water remains inside us,” nor does the water know, “I remain inside the hollow of a tender palmyra kernel”; so too, the eye sockets do not know, “Tears remain inside us,” nor do the tears know, “We remain in the eye sockets.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what are called “tears” are an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Grease” is melted fat that remains on the palms, backs of the hands, soles, tops of the feet, nostrils, forehead, and points of the shoulders at times of heat and the like. Here, just as oil poured over rice-water, the rice-water does not know, “Oil remains covering me,” nor does the oil know, “I remain covering the rice-water”; so too, the palms and the other places do not know, “Grease remains covering me,” nor does the grease know, “I remain covering the palms and the other places.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “grease” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Saliva,” when a condition for its production is present, descends from the sides of the cheeks and remains on the surface of the tongue. Here, just as a well on a riverbank with an unbroken flow of water, the bottom of the well does not know, “Water rests here upon me,” nor does the water know, “I rest at the bottom of the well”; so too, the surface of the tongue does not know, “Saliva descends from the sides of the cheeks and remains upon me,” nor does the saliva know, “I descend from the sides of the cheeks and remain on the surface of the tongue.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “saliva” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Snot,” when it arises, fills the nostrils and remains there or flows out. Here, just as a shell filled with sour curds, the shell does not know, “Sour curds remain inside me,” nor do the sour curds know, “I remain inside the shell”; so too, the nostrils do not know, “Snot remains inside us,” nor does the snot know, “I remain inside the nostrils.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “snot” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Oil-of-the-joints” performs the work of lubricating the joints and remains in the one hundred and eighty joints.¹¹ Here, just as an axle smeared with oil, the axle does not know, “Oil remains smearing me,” nor does the oil know, “I remain smearing the axle”; so too, the one hundred and eighty joints do not know, “Oil-of-the-joints remains smearing us,” nor does the oil-of-the-joints know, “I remain smearing the one hundred and eighty joints.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “oil-of-the-joints” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

“Urine” remains inside the bladder. Here, just as a mouthless resonating jar¹² thrown into a cesspool, the resonating jar does not know, “Cesspool liquid remains inside me,” nor does the liquid know, “I remain in the resonating jar”; so too, the bladder does not know, “Urine remains inside me,” nor does the urine know, “I remain inside the bladder.” These dhammas are mutually devoid of inclination and reviewing. Thus, in this body, what is called “urine” is an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, become juice, with the mode of cohesion, and the water element.

§7 Attention to the Four Divisions of Fire and Six Divisions of Air 〔CSCD §343–344〕

Having directed attention to head hairs and the rest in this way, [one should further attend:] “That by which one grows hot is, in this body, an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, with the mode of digestion, and the fire element.” “That by which one ages, that by which one burns, and that by which what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted is properly digested is, in this body, an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, with the mode of digestion, and the fire element.” Attention should be directed to the divisions of fire in this way.

Afterward, having apprehended up-going winds by their upward course, down-going winds by their downward course, winds in the belly by the belly, winds in the bowels by the bowels, winds coursing through the limbs by the limbs, and in- and out-breath simply as in- and out-breath,¹³ [one should attend:] “What are called up-going winds are, in this body, an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, with the mode of supporting, and the air element.” “What are called down-going winds, winds in the belly, winds in the bowels, winds coursing through the limbs, and winds of in- and out-breath are, in this body, an individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being, with the mode of supporting, and the air element.” Attention should be directed to the divisions of air in this way. As he directs attention in this way, the elements become manifest. He repeatedly turns toward and attends to them, and access concentration arises according to the method stated before.

§8 In Brief and by Analysis of Individual Characteristics; List of Thirteen Modes 〔CSCD §345–346〕

If someone develops in this way but the meditation subject still does not succeed, he should develop it in brief by individual characteristics.¹⁴ How? Among the twenty bodily parts, he should define: “That whose characteristic is hardness is the earth element.” Right there: “That whose characteristic is cohesion is the water element”; “that whose characteristic is digestion is the fire element”; “that whose characteristic is supporting is the air element.”

Among the twelve bodily parts, he should define: “That whose characteristic is cohesion is the water element.” Right there: “That whose characteristic is digestion is the fire element”; “that whose characteristic is supporting is the air element”; “that whose characteristic is hardness is the earth element.”

Among the four bodily parts, he should define: “That whose characteristic is digestion is the fire element.” Inseparable from it: “That whose characteristic is supporting is the air element”; “that whose characteristic is hardness is the earth element”; “that whose characteristic is cohesion is the water element.”

Among the six bodily parts, he should define: “That whose characteristic is supporting is the air element.” Right there: “That whose characteristic is hardness is the earth element”; “that whose characteristic is cohesion is the water element”; “that whose characteristic is digestion is the fire element.” As he defines them in this way, the elements become manifest. He repeatedly turns toward and attends to them, and access concentration arises according to the method stated before.

If someone develops even in this way but the meditation subject still does not succeed, he should develop it by analysis of individual characteristics.¹⁵ How? Having apprehended head hairs and the rest according to the method stated before, he should define regarding head hairs: “That whose characteristic is hardness is the earth element.” Right there: “That whose characteristic is cohesion is the water element”; “that whose characteristic is digestion is the fire element”; “that whose characteristic is supporting is the air element.” In this way, in all bodily parts, he should define four elements individually in each and every bodily part. As he defines them in this way, the elements become manifest. He repeatedly turns toward and attends to them, and access concentration arises according to the method stated before.

Furthermore, attention should be given to the elements according to these modes: meaning of the words, grouping, particles, characteristics and the rest, origination, diversity and unity, separability and inseparability, similarity and dissimilarity, distinction of internal and external, inclusion, condition, nonconcurrence, and analysis of conditions.¹⁶

Notes

¹ Names of the thirty-two bodily parts: all thirty-two names in this division, beginning with head hairs, carry forward the readings established in the chapter on recollection meditation subjects. That chapter describes their color, shape, direction, location, and delimitation through the doorway of repulsiveness; this division describes their location and simile through the doorway of elements.

² Inclination and reviewing (ābhoga・paccavekkhaṇa): inclination is the mind’s turning toward an object; reviewing is looking back and discerning. The treatise uses the pair to summarize how bodily parts “do not know one another”: there is neither mental inclination nor discerning review.

³ Individual bodily part, non-conscious, indeterminate, empty, not a being (pāṭiyekko koṭṭhāso・acetano・abyākato・suñño・nissatto): five expressions shared by thirty-six closing formulas in this division. Each is followed by the characteristic and mode appropriate to its element: earth is hard; water is become juice and has the mode of cohesion; fire has the mode of digestion; air has the mode of supporting.

⁴ Division into nine hundred pieces of flesh (navapesisatappabheda): the count of pieces of flesh is explained in the chapter on recollection meditation subjects; this division points back to it in one expression without restating it.

⁵ Vertebrae (piṭṭhikaṇṭaka): bones of the spinal column. The eight kinds of bones listed in this passage as mutually supporting above and below are heel bones, ankle bones, shin bones, thigh bones, hip bones, vertebrae, neck bones, and skull.

⁶ Rib cage (uraṭṭhipañjara): the framework formed by the bones of the chest. The “framework” of the “old cart’s framework” (jiṇṇasandamānikapañjara) below uses the same word.

⁷ Stomach membrane (udarapaṭala): the membrane covering the stomach.

⁸ Receptacle for digested food (pakkāsaya): the place reached after food has been digested, namely the end of the intestine.

⁹ Become juice and mode of cohesion (yūsabhūta・ābandhanākāra): two expressions in the water-element closing formula. Its substance has the nature of liquid, and its operation gathers and adheres.

¹⁰ Congealed juice (patthinnayūsa): only the section on fat changes “become juice” to this expression in the closing formulas for the water element, because fat is congealed juice.

¹¹ One hundred and eighty joints (asītisatasandhi): the count of joints in the body.

¹² Mouthless resonating jar (ravaṇaghaṭa): a kind of mouthless jar. This edition uses this reading; its form is preserved in this unit’s apparatus.

¹³ Six winds: up-going winds, down-going winds, winds in the belly, winds in the bowels, winds coursing through the limbs, and in- and out-breath. Their names and characteristics were established in the first unit on defining of the four elements; here the division only closes them with the judgment of element.

¹⁴ In brief by individual characteristics (salakkhaṇasaṅkhepa): the third of four methods of development. Rather than proceeding part by part, it defines the four characteristics within each of the four groups: earth’s twenty, water’s twelve, fire’s four, and air’s six.

¹⁵ Analysis of individual characteristics (salakkhaṇavibhatti): the fourth of four methods of development, defining all four elements in each bodily part.

¹⁶ Thirteen modes: this sentence lists the thirteen modes; their individual explanations occur in the next unit. In the base text this sentence has no paragraph number and falls at the end of this unit according to the boundary decision.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Three Modes: Meaning, Group, and Particles 〔CSCD §347–349〕

Here, one who attends to the meaning¹ should understand as follows: because it is spread out, it is “earth.” It reaches, is increased, and causes growth, so it is “water.” It heats, so it is “fire.” It moves, so it is “air.” Without making such distinctions, however, they are called “elements” because they bear their own characteristics, because they take up suffering, and because they deposit suffering.² They should be attended to in this way according to the particular and the general, by meaning.

“By group”: whatever earth element is shown by way of the twenty aspects beginning with “head hairs, body hairs,” and whatever water element is shown by way of the twelve aspects beginning with “bile, phlegm,” there—

Color, odor, taste, nutritive essence,³ and the four elements: from the assemblage of these eight dhammas comes the conventional name “head hair”; once they are separated, there is no conventional name “head hair.”

—thus “head hair” is nothing more than a group of eight dhammas.⁴ “Body hair” and the rest are the same. Here, whatever bodily part is produced by kamma forms a group of ten dhammas together with the life faculty and sex.⁵ It is called the earth element or the water element merely according to predominance.⁶ It should be attended to in this way by group.

“By particles”: in this body, when apprehended according to an average measure, the earth element, broken down to the division of ultimate particles and become fine dust, is about a doṇa in measure.⁷ It is held together by the water element, which measures half as much, maintained by the fire element, and supported by the air element; hence it does not scatter or break apart. Not scattering or breaking apart, it turns into the various distinctions of female and male form and so on, and displays the qualities of fine, coarse, long, short, firm, hard, and so forth.

Here the water element, which has become fluid and has the mode of cohesion, rests upon earth, is maintained by fire, and is supported by air; hence it does not flow away or leak out. Not flowing away or leaking out, it displays the state of being moist.

Here the fire element, which digests what is eaten and drunk and so on, which has become the mode of warmth, and whose characteristic is heat, rests upon earth, is held together by water, and is supported by air. It matures this body throughout and brings it fullness of complexion. Matured by it, the body does not display the characteristic of decay.

Here the air element, which courses throughout the limbs and whose characteristics are motion and support, rests upon earth, is held together by water, and is maintained by fire; it supports this body. Supported by it, the body does not fall but stands upright. Impelled by another kind of air element, it displays intimation⁸ in the postures of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down, bends and stretches, and moves the hands and feet. Thus this mechanism of elements, which deceives fools with the forms of female and male and so forth, and which is like a magical apparition, keeps turning in this way. It should be attended to in this way by particles.

§2 Two Modes: Characteristics and Origination 〔CSCD §350–351〕

“By characteristics and so forth”: one turns toward the four elements in this way: “What is the earth element’s characteristic, function, and manifestation?” Then one understands: the earth element has hardness as its characteristic, establishing as its function, and receiving as its manifestation. The water element has flowing as its characteristic, augmenting as its function, and cohesion as its manifestation. The fire element has heat as its characteristic, maturing as its function, and the bestowal of softness as its manifestation. The air element has support as its characteristic and motion as its function. It has propelling as its manifestation. They should be attended to in this way by characteristics and so forth.

“By origination”: among the forty-two bodily parts shown in the detailed exposition of the earth element and so on, the four parts—stomach contents, excrement, pus, and urine—are produced only by temperature. Tears, sweat, saliva, and snot are produced by temperature and consciousness. The fire that digests what is eaten and so on is produced only by kamma. The in-breath and out-breath are produced only by consciousness. All the rest have the four modes of origination. They should be attended to in this way by origination.

§3 Diversity and Unity—Five Explanations of the Name “Great Elements” 〔CSCD §352〕

“By diversity and unity”: all the elements are diverse according to their own characteristics and so forth—the earth element has one characteristic, function, and manifestation, while the water element and the others have different ones. Yet although they are diverse according to characteristics and so forth, and according to being produced by kamma and so forth, they are one according to materiality, great elements, elements, dhammas, impermanence, and so on. Because none of the elements goes beyond the characteristic of being deformed, it is “materiality”; because of such reasons as great manifestation, it is a “great element.”

As to “because of great manifestation and so on”: these elements are called “great elements” because of great manifestation, because of resemblance to great beings, because of great maintenance, because of great alteration, and because they are great and existent.

Here, “because of great manifestation” means that these elements manifest greatly both in unappropriated continuity and in appropriated continuity. How do they manifest greatly in unappropriated continuity?

Two hundred thousand and four nahutas⁹— this is reckoned as the thickness of the great earth.

Their great manifestation has already been stated in the exposition of recollection of the Buddha by this and similar means.

In appropriated continuity too they manifest greatly in the bodies of fish, turtles, devas, asuras, and so on. For this has been said: “Bhikkhus, in the great ocean there are also individual forms a hundred leagues long,” and so forth.

“Because of resemblance to great beings”: just as a magician makes water that is not a jewel appear as a jewel and makes a clod that is not gold appear as gold;

and just as he himself, being neither a yakkha nor a female yakkha, displays the form of a yakkha and the form of a female yakkha, so too these elements, though not themselves blue, display blue derived materiality, and though not themselves yellow, red, or white, display white derived materiality. Thus, because of their resemblance to such “great beings” as magicians,¹⁰ they are “great elements.”

Again, when a person is seized by great beings such as yakkhas, the place where they stand can be found neither inside nor outside that person, yet they do not stand without depending on that person. So too, these elements cannot be found standing either inside or outside one another, yet they do not stand without depending on one another. Thus, because their location is inconceivable and because they resemble such great beings as yakkhas, they are also “great elements.” Again, great beings called female yakkhas conceal their frightening appearance with agreeable colors and the play of agreeable shapes, and deceive beings. So too, in female and male bodies and so forth, these elements use agreeable skin color, the agreeable shape of their own limbs, and the agreeable movement of hands, feet, fingers, and brows to conceal their own intrinsic characteristics, distinguished as hardness and so forth; they deceive fools and prevent them from seeing their own nature. Thus, because of their deceptive character and because of their resemblance to great beings in the form of female yakkhas, they are also “great elements.”

“Because of great maintenance” means that they must be maintained by great conditions. Since these elements, requiring daily provision, are constituted and kept going by large quantities of food, clothing, and so on, they are “great elements”; alternatively, they are “elements” requiring great maintenance, and so are also “great elements.”

“Because of great alteration” means that these elements undergo great alteration, whether unappropriated or appropriated. Of these, the great alteration of the unappropriated is evident at the destruction of an aeon, and that of the appropriated when the elements are disturbed. It is as follows:

When the world is scorched by fire, that fire’s flames rise from the earth and race as far as the Brahmā world. When the world is destroyed by enraged water, a hundred thousand koṭis of world-spheres¹¹ dissolve. When the world is destroyed through the agitation of the air element, a hundred thousand koṭis of world-spheres scatter. The body becomes rigid, as though bitten by a wood-mouthed snake;¹² through disturbance of the earth element, it becomes as though bitten by one with a wooden mouth. The body putrefies, as though bitten by a putrid-mouthed snake; through disturbance of the water element, it becomes as though bitten by one with a putrid mouth. The body burns, as though bitten by a fire-mouthed snake; through disturbance of the fire element, it becomes as though bitten by one with a fiery mouth. The body is severed, as though bitten by a knife-mouthed snake; through disturbance of the air element, it becomes as though bitten by one with a blade-like mouth.

Thus, because they are elements subject to great alteration, they are “great elements.”

“Because they are great and existent” means that these elements are “great” because they can be apprehended only with great effort, and they are “elements” because they exist. Thus, because they are great and existent, they are “great elements.”

In this way, all these elements are “great elements” for such reasons as great manifestation.

And because they bear their own characteristics, because they take up suffering, and because they deposit suffering, none of them goes beyond the characteristic of an element, so they are “elements.” Because they bear their own characteristics and bear them in conformity with their own moments, they are “dhammas.” Because they have the meaning of exhaustion, they are “impermanent.” Because they have the meaning of fear, they are “suffering.” Because they have the meaning of being without essence, they are “not-self.”

Thus, all the elements are one according to materiality, great elements, elements, dhammas, impermanence, and so on. They should be attended to in this way by diversity and unity.

§4 Four Modes: Separability, Similarity, Internal and External Distinction, and Inclusion 〔CSCD §353–356〕

“By separability and inseparability”: these elements are conascent and, in each group beginning with the ultimate pure octad,¹³ are inseparable by location; nevertheless, they are separable by characteristic. They should be attended to in this way by separability and inseparability.

“By similarity and dissimilarity”: although these elements are inseparable in this way, the first two are similar because they are heavy, and the latter two are likewise similar because they are light. The first two are dissimilar to the latter two, and the latter two to the first two. They should be attended to in this way by similarity and dissimilarity.

“By internal and external distinction”: the internal elements are the bases of consciousness, intimation, and the faculties; they have postures and the four modes of origination. The external elements are the opposite of what has been stated. They should be attended to in this way by internal and external distinction.

“By inclusion”: the kamma-produced earth element is included as one with the other kamma-produced elements because there is no diversity in their origination. The same applies to what is consciousness-produced with what is consciousness-produced, and so on. They should be attended to in this way by inclusion.

§5 Two Modes: Condition and Nonconcurrence 〔CSCD §357–358〕

“By condition”: the earth element, held together by water, maintained by fire, and supported by air, conditions the three great elements by establishing them. The water element, resting on earth, maintained by fire, and supported by air, conditions the three great elements by holding them together. The fire element, resting on earth, held together by water, and supported by air, conditions the three great elements by maturing them. The air element, resting on earth, held together by water, and matured by fire, conditions the three great elements by supporting them. They should be attended to in this way by condition.

“By nonconcurrence”: here the earth element does not know, “I am the earth element,” nor does it know, “I condition the three great elements by establishing them.” The other three do not know, “Our earth element conditions us by establishing us.” This method applies throughout. They should be attended to in this way by nonconcurrence.

§6 Analysis of Conditions 〔CSCD §359〕

“By analysis of conditions”: the elements have these four conditions—kamma, consciousness, nutriment, and temperature. Here, what is produced by kamma has only kamma as its condition, not consciousness and so on. What is produced by consciousness and so on likewise has only consciousness and so on as its condition, not the others. For what is produced by kamma, kamma is a producing condition; for the rest, in a qualified sense, it is a decisive-support condition.¹⁴ For what is produced by consciousness, consciousness is a producing condition; for the rest, it is a postnascence condition, a presence condition, and a non-disappearance condition. For what is produced by nutriment, nutriment is a producing condition; for the rest, it is a nutriment condition, a presence condition, and a non-disappearance condition. For what is produced by temperature, temperature is a producing condition; for the rest, it is a presence condition and a non-disappearance condition. Great elements produced by kamma condition both the great elements produced by kamma and those produced by consciousness and so forth. The same applies to those produced by consciousness and by nutriment. Great elements produced by temperature condition both the great elements produced by temperature and those produced by kamma and so forth.

Here, the kamma-produced earth element conditions the other kamma-produced elements through conascence, mutuality, support, presence, and non-disappearance, and it conditions them by establishing, not by producing. It conditions the great elements in the other three continuities through support, presence, and non-disappearance, not by establishing and not by producing. Here the water element conditions the other three through conascence and so on, and by cohesion, not by producing; it conditions those in the other three continuities only through the support condition, presence condition, and non-disappearance condition, not by cohesion and not by producing. Here the fire element conditions the other three through conascence and so on, and by maturing, not by producing; it conditions those in the other three continuities only through the support condition, presence condition, and non-disappearance condition, not by maturing and not by producing. Here the air element conditions the other three through conascence and so on, and by supporting, not by producing; it conditions those in the other three continuities only through the support condition, presence condition, and non-disappearance condition, not by supporting and not by producing. The same method applies to the consciousness-produced, nutriment-produced, and temperature-produced earth elements and so on.

Among these elements that occur through such conditions as conascence—

When one is the condition, three occur in four ways; when three are the condition, one likewise; when two elements are the condition, two occur in six ways.

That is, among earth and the rest, when each single element is the condition, each set of the other three occurs. Thus, three conditioned by one occur in four ways. Likewise, among the earth element and the rest, when each single element is conditioned by the other three, one conditioned by three occurs in four ways. When the first two are the condition, the latter two occur; when the latter two are the condition, the first two occur; when the first and third are the condition, the second and fourth occur; when the second and fourth are the condition, the first and third occur; when the first and fourth are the condition, the second and third occur; and when the second and third are the condition, the first and fourth occur. Thus, two elements conditioned by two occur in six ways.

Among them, when advancing, retreating, and so forth, the earth element is the condition for pressing. The same element, conforming to the water element, is the condition for establishing. The water element, conforming to the earth element, is the condition for lowering. The fire element, conforming to the air element, is the condition for lifting. The air element, conforming to the fire element, is the condition for carrying forward and carrying aside. They should be attended to in this way by analysis of conditions.

One who attends in this way according to meaning and so forth also makes the elements become evident through each separate doorway. As one repeatedly turns toward them and attends to them in the way already stated, access concentration arises. Because this concentration arises through the power of knowledge that defines the four elements, it is designated “defining of the four elements.”¹⁵

§7 Fruit of Developing the Defining of the Four Elements and Concluding Verse 〔CSCD §360〕

A bhikkhu devoted to this defining of the four elements penetrates emptiness and abolishes the perception of a being. Having abolished the perception of a being, he does not make distinctions concerning wild beasts, yakkhas, rakkhasas, and so forth. He becomes one who endures fear and dread, who endures discontent and delight, and who does not rise and fall over what is agreeable and disagreeable. He becomes one of great wisdom, with the Deathless as his end, or destined for a good rebirth.

This defining of the four elements, of such great power, the sport of a thousand supreme yogins, should always be cultivated by the wise.

This is the exposition of the development of the defining of the four elements.

§8 The Answer in the Exposition of Concentration Is Complete—The Determination of Two Kinds of Concentration 〔CSCD §361〕

At this point, in order to show concentration in detail and its method of development, the series of questions was set out by way of “What is concentration? In what sense is it concentration?” and so forth. Of these, the explanation in every aspect¹⁶ of the phrase “How should it be developed?” is now complete.

Here only two kinds are intended: access concentration and absorption concentration. Of these, one-pointedness in ten meditation subjects and in the mental states preceding absorption is access concentration; one-pointedness in the remaining meditation subjects is absorption concentration. Since those meditation subjects have been developed, both kinds have thereby been developed. Hence it was said: “The explanation in every aspect of the phrase ‘How should it be developed?’ is complete.”

Notes

¹ The thirteen modes: this unit explains in sequence meaning, group, particles, characteristics, origination, diversity and unity, separability and inseparability, similarity and dissimilarity, internal and external distinction, inclusion, condition, nonconcurrence, and analysis of conditions. The sentence listing them stands at the end of the preceding unit.

² The three general meanings of “element” (salakkhaṇadhāraṇa, dukkhādāna, dukkhādhāna): bearing its own characteristic, taking up suffering, and depositing suffering. The treatise uses these three meanings as a general explanation of the single designation “element”; the particular meanings follow the individual etymologies.

³ Nutritive essence (ojā): the nutritive constituent in a material group. Together with color, odor, and taste it makes four; adding the four elements makes eight dhammas.

⁴ Group of eight dhammas (aṭṭhadhammakalāpa): the smallest group in which material dhammas arise, namely, the eight dhammas listed in the verse above. Head hairs and the other bodily parts are merely conventional names for this group.

⁵ Sex (bhāva): female or male sex. In bodily parts produced by kamma, the life faculty and sex are added to the eight dhammas, making a group of ten dhammas.

⁶ Predominance (ussada): when one element is especially abundant and evident within a group, the name “earth element” or “water element” is established according to the predominant one.

⁷ A doṇa in measure (doṇamatta): doṇa is the name of an ancient measure. This edition translates according to its meaning without converting it into modern units.

⁸ Intimation (viññatti): the indication manifested through bodily action.

⁹ Nahuta: the name of a number. This verse comes from recollection of the Buddha in the chapter on the six recollections; this passage merely refers back to it without explaining it again.

¹⁰ Resemblance to great beings (mahābhūtasāmañña): the word bhūta bears both the sense “great element” and the sense “spirit.” The treatise draws on the latter sense in the three similes of the magician, the yakkha, and the female yakkha, and therefore calls all three “great beings.”

¹¹ World-sphere (cakkavāḷa): the compass of one world. At the destruction of an aeon, a hundred thousand koṭis of these are destroyed.

¹² Wood-mouthed, putrid-mouthed, fire-mouthed, and knife-mouthed: names of four kinds of poisonous snakes. Their bites respectively produce rigidity, putrefaction, burning, and severance; the treatise pairs these with disturbances of the four elements.

¹³ Pure octad (suddhaṭṭhaka): a material group consisting only of eight dhammas with nothing further added, namely, the group of eight dhammas described above.

¹⁴ Producing condition, decisive-support condition, postnascence condition, presence condition, non-disappearance condition, nutriment condition, conascence condition, mutuality condition, and support condition: the names and meanings of these conditions have already been established in the chapter on dependent origination. This passage applies only their enumerated forms to the four elements.

¹⁵ Defining of the four elements (catudhātuvavatthāna): the treatise explains the name of this meditation subject here. This concentration arises through the power of knowledge that defines the four elements; therefore it is named accordingly.

¹⁶ Explanation in every aspect (sabbappakārato atthavaṇṇanā): the treatise’s own declaration that the phrase “How should it be developed?” has now been explained in every respect.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Five Benefits of Developing Concentration 〔CSCD §362〕

Discussion of the Benefits of Concentration

As to the question stated earlier, “What are the benefits¹ of developing concentration?” Here the benefits of developing concentration are five, beginning with a pleasant abiding here and now.² Arahants whose taints are destroyed develop concentration with the thought, “We will enter attainment and spend the day pleasantly with a unified mind.” Their development of absorption concentration therefore has a pleasant abiding here and now as its benefit. Thus the Blessed One said: “Cunda, these are not called effacement³ in the discipline of the noble ones; in the discipline of the noble ones, these are called a pleasant abiding here and now.”

Trainees⁴ and ordinary persons develop it with the thought, “We will emerge from attainment and contemplate with a mind that has obtained concentration.” Because concentration is the proximate cause for insight, both their development of absorption concentration and their development of access concentration—in the sense of gaining an opening amid confinement—have insight as their benefit. Thus the Blessed One said: “Bhikkhus, develop concentration. A bhikkhu who has concentration understands according to actuality.”

Those who produce the eight attainments, enter the jhāna that is the basis for direct knowledge,⁵ emerge from attainment, and produce the kinds of direct knowledge described as “having been one, he becomes many,” and so on, develop absorption concentration with direct knowledge as its benefit, because concentration is the proximate cause for direct knowledge in each case. Thus the Blessed One said: “Whatever dhamma to be realized by direct knowledge he inclines his mind toward, for the realization of that dhamma by direct knowledge, wherever there is an occasion he reaches the capacity for realization in each such case.”⁶

Ordinary persons whose jhāna has not declined may wish, “We will be reborn in the Brahmā world,” and seek such rebirth, or they may not seek it. So long as they do not decline from concentration, their development of absorption concentration has excellence of becoming as its benefit, because concentration brings excellence of becoming. Thus the Blessed One spoke the passage beginning: “Where is one reborn after developing an inferior first jhāna? Among the devas who are companions of the Brahmā’s Retinue.”⁷

The development of access concentration likewise brings excellence of becoming in a good destination of the sense sphere.

Noble ones who produce the eight attainments and enter the attainment of cessation⁸ develop concentration with the thought, “We will become mindless for seven days and, here and now, attain the cessation called nibbāna and abide pleasantly.” Their development of absorption concentration thus has cessation as its benefit. Hence it is said: “The wisdom that is mastery through sixteen modes of knowledge and nine modes of concentration is knowledge of the attainment of cessation.”

Thus the benefits of developing concentration are these five, beginning with a pleasant abiding here and now—

Therefore, in the practice of developing concentration, which has many benefits and cleanses the stains of defilements, the wise should not be heedless.

§2 Close of the Concentration Division and End of the Chapter 〔CSCD §363〕

At this point, within the Visuddhimagga expounded through the three doors of virtue, concentration, and wisdom on the basis of the verse “A person established in virtue, possessing wisdom,”⁹ concentration too has been explained.

In the Visuddhimagga, composed to bring joy to good people,

the chapter named the Exposition of Concentration,

the eleventh, is complete.

§3 Table of Contents for the Eleven Chapters of Part One 〔CSCD §364〕

The first is the Exposition of Virtue. The second is the Exposition of the Ascetic Practices. The third is the Exposition of Taking a Meditation Subject. The fourth is the Exposition of the Earth Kasiṇa. The fifth is the Exposition of the Remaining Kasiṇas. The sixth is the Exposition of Foulness. The seventh is the Exposition of the Six Recollections. The eighth is the Exposition of the Remaining Recollections. The ninth is the Exposition of the Divine Abodes. The tenth is the Exposition of the Immaterial States. The exposition of the pair—Perception of Repulsiveness and Defining of the Elements—is the eleventh.¹⁰

Part One of the Visuddhimagga is complete.

Notes

¹ Benefit (ānisaṃsa): an excellent result obtained from development. In the chapter on virtue, this book likewise renders this word as “benefit,” distinct from “quality” (guṇa); the unit title and section title follow that distinction.

² Pleasant abiding here and now (diṭṭhadhammasukhavihāra): entering attainment and abiding in happiness in this very life and body. This is the first of the five benefits, and its persons are those whose taints are destroyed.

³ Effacement (sallekha): a practice that wears away defilements. The cited discourse states that the attainments are not simply called effacement in the discipline of the noble ones but should be called pleasant abidings here and now. In the chapter on the ascetic practices, the same word is rendered “frugality.” One term occupies two locations and is read according to each.

⁴ Trainee (sekkha): one who has entered the noble path but still has something to learn, namely, a stream-enterer, once-returner, or non-returner; contrasted with an arahant, one whose taints are destroyed.

⁵ Jhāna that is the basis for direct knowledge (abhiññāpādakaṃ jhānaṃ): the jhāna that serves as the basis for direct knowledge, namely, the fourth jhāna. The development of direct knowledge is treated in this book’s chapters on supernormal power and direct knowledge.

⁶ “Wherever there is an occasion he reaches the capacity for realization in each such case” (sati sati āyatane): the concluding expression of the cited discourse. It means that wherever the requisite conditions are present, the capacity for realization is obtained there.

⁷ Brahmā’s Retinue (brahmapārisajja): the first of the three heavens corresponding to the first jhāna in the realm of form.

⁸ Attainment of cessation (nirodhasamāpatti): an attainment in which perception and feeling cease and one becomes mindless, accessible only to non-returners and arahants. Its full exposition occurs in this book’s chapter on Purification by Knowledge and Vision.

⁹ “A person established in virtue, possessing wisdom”: the first line of the verse expounded throughout the book. The treatise makes the three doors of virtue, concentration, and wisdom in this verse the framework of the entire work; the verse and its threefold division are established at the opening of Chapter 1, “Virtue.”

¹⁰ The name of this chapter in the table of contents, “Exposition of the Pair—Perception of Repulsiveness and Defining of the Elements,” differs from the name in the four-line chapter colophon, “Exposition of Concentration.” One chapter has two names, recorded as they stand.