清淨道論 白話全本 · 冊3Visuddhimagga · Complete Vernacular · Vol. 3

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Eight Questions on Concentration 〔CSCD §38〕

III. The Exposition on Taking a Meditation Subject

Now that a person has thus become established in this virtue, purified by such qualities as fewness of wishes brought to fulfillment through the observance of the ascetic practices, then, in accordance with the words “Having become established in virtue, a person with wisdom develops mind and wisdom,” the concentration indicated under the heading of “mind” should be developed. Because this concentration has been taught in such extreme brevity, it is not easy even to understand, much less to develop. Therefore, in order to show it in detail and explain the method of its development, this set of questions is presented.

What is concentration? In what sense is it concentration? What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause? How many kinds of concentration are there? What is its defilement? What is its purification? How should it be developed? What is the benefit of developing concentration?

§2 What Is Concentration?—Its Nature, Characteristic, Function, Manifestation, and Proximate Cause 〔CSCD §38〕

Here are the answers. “What is concentration?”—concentration is of many kinds and many varieties. If an answer were begun with the aim of explaining all its varieties, it would neither accomplish the intended meaning nor do anything but lead to further distraction. We shall therefore speak only with reference to what is intended here: wholesome one-pointedness of mind is concentration.

“In what sense is it concentration?”—it is concentration in the sense of “coordinating” (samādhāna). What is this “coordinating”? It means placing and setting mind and mental factors evenly and rightly upon a single object. Thus, when through the power of a certain state mind and mental factors remain upon a single object evenly and rightly, without distraction or dispersion, this should be understood as “coordinating.”

“What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause?”—here, concentration has non-distraction as its characteristic, eliminating distraction as its function, and unwavering as its manifestation. According to the words “The mind of one who has pleasure becomes concentrated,” pleasure is its proximate cause.

§3 How Many Kinds?—One Kind and the General Enumeration 〔CSCD §39〕

“How many kinds of concentration are there?”—first, in terms of its characteristic of non-distraction, it is one kind. By way of access and absorption,¹ it is twofold; likewise, it is twofold by way of mundane and supramundane, accompanied by rapture and without rapture, and accompanied by pleasure and accompanied by equanimity. By way of inferior, middling, and superior, it is threefold; likewise, it is threefold by way of accompanied by applied and sustained thought and so forth, accompanied by rapture and so forth, and limited, exalted, and measureless. By way of painful practice with slow penetration and so forth, it is fourfold; likewise, it is fourfold by way of limited with a limited object and so forth, the four absorption factors, factors of decline and so forth, the sensual sphere and so forth, and dominance. By way of the five absorption factors in the fivefold system,² it is fivefold.

§4 Four Pairs of Twofold Classification 〔CSCD §39〕

The Explanation of Concentration as Onefold and Twofold

Of these, the classification as one kind is evident in meaning. In the twofold classification, the one-pointedness obtained through the six bases of recollection,³ mindfulness of death, recollection of peace, perception of repulsiveness in food, and defining of the four elements, together with the one-pointedness that precedes the various absorption concentrations, is access concentration. According to such statements as “The preliminary work for the first absorption is a condition for the first absorption by way of proximity condition,” the one-pointedness that arises immediately after preliminary work⁴ is absorption concentration. Thus it is twofold by way of access and absorption.

In the second pair, wholesome one-pointedness of mind in the three planes is mundane concentration; one-pointedness associated with a noble path is supramundane concentration. Thus it is twofold by way of mundane and supramundane.

In the third pair, one-pointedness in two absorptions in the fourfold system and three absorptions in the fivefold system is concentration accompanied by rapture; one-pointedness in the remaining two absorptions is concentration without rapture. Access concentration may be accompanied by rapture or may be without rapture. Thus it is twofold by way of accompanied by rapture and without rapture.

In the fourth pair, one-pointedness in three absorptions in the fourfold system and four absorptions in the fivefold system is concentration accompanied by pleasure; in the remaining [one absorption], it is concentration accompanied by equanimity. Access concentration may be accompanied by pleasure or may be accompanied by equanimity. Thus it is twofold by way of accompanied by pleasure and accompanied by equanimity.

§5 Four Groups of Threefold Classification 〔CSCD §39〕

The Explanation of Concentration as Threefold

Among the threefold classifications, the first group is as follows: what has only just been obtained is inferior; what has not been fully developed is middling; what has been well developed and brought to mastery is superior. Thus it is threefold by way of inferior, middling, and superior.

The second group: the concentration of the first absorption together with access concentration is accompanied by applied and sustained thought. The concentration of the second absorption in the fivefold system is without applied thought and has sustained thought only. A person who sees danger in applied thought alone, sees none in sustained thought, and wishes only to abandon applied thought passes beyond the first absorption and obtains concentration without applied thought but with sustained thought only; this statement was made with reference to that person. One-pointedness in the three absorptions beginning with the second in the fourfold system and the three beginning with the third in the fivefold system is concentration without applied or sustained thought. Thus it is threefold by way of accompanied by applied and sustained thought and so forth.

The third group: one-pointedness in the first two absorptions in the fourfold system and the [first] three in the fivefold system is concentration accompanied by rapture. In those same systems, one-pointedness in the third and fourth absorptions is concentration accompanied by pleasure. In the final [absorption], it is accompanied by equanimity. Access concentration may be accompanied by rapture and pleasure or may be accompanied by equanimity. Thus it is threefold by way of accompanied by rapture and so forth.

The fourth group: one-pointedness on the plane of access is limited concentration. One-pointedness in wholesome consciousness of the fine-material and immaterial spheres is exalted concentration. One-pointedness associated with a noble path is measureless concentration. Thus it is threefold by way of limited, exalted, and measureless.

§6 The First Group of Fourfold Classification—Practice and Penetration 〔CSCD §39〕

The Explanation of Concentration as Fourfold

Among the fourfold classifications, the first group is as follows: there is concentration with painful practice and slow penetration, concentration with painful practice and quick penetration, concentration with pleasant practice and slow penetration, and concentration with pleasant practice and quick penetration.

Here, the development of concentration that occurs from the first act of attention until access to the particular absorption arises is called “practice”; the wisdom that occurs from access until absorption is called “penetration.”⁵ For some, this practice is painful: because opposing states such as the hindrances repeatedly arise and take hold, it is difficult and unpleasant to cultivate. For others it is pleasant, because those states are absent. Penetration, too, is slow for some—sluggish and not proceeding quickly—and quick for others—not sluggish and proceeding swiftly.

Among the suitable and unsuitable things, preliminary tasks such as cutting off impediments, and skills in absorption that we shall explain later, one who cultivates what is unsuitable has painful practice and slow penetration; one who cultivates what is suitable has pleasant practice and quick penetration. One who cultivates what is unsuitable in the earlier part but what is suitable in the later part, or suitable in the earlier part but unsuitable in the later part, should be understood as having a mixed case. Likewise, one who undertakes development without completing such preliminary tasks as cutting off impediments has painful practice; the converse has pleasant practice. One who does not complete the skills in absorption has slow penetration; one who completes them has quick penetration.

Moreover, their distinctions should be understood in terms of craving and ignorance, and in terms of prior cultivation of tranquility and insight. One overcome by craving has painful practice; one not overcome by it has pleasant practice. One overcome by ignorance has slow penetration; one not overcome by it has quick penetration. One who has not previously cultivated tranquility has painful practice; one who has cultivated it has pleasant practice. One who has not previously cultivated insight has slow penetration; one who has cultivated it has quick penetration. Their distinctions should also be understood in terms of defilements and faculties. A person with sharp defilements and dull faculties has painful practice and slow penetration; one with [sharp defilements and] sharp faculties has quick penetration. A person with mild defilements and dull faculties has pleasant practice and slow penetration; one with [mild defilements and] sharp faculties has quick penetration.

Thus, among these modes of practice and penetration, the concentration of a person who reaches concentration through painful practice and slow penetration is called “concentration with painful practice and slow penetration.” The remaining three should be understood in the same way. Thus it is fourfold by way of painful practice with slow penetration and so forth.

§7 The Remaining Five Groups of Fourfold Classification and the Fivefold System 〔CSCD §39〕

The second group: there is limited concentration with a limited object, limited concentration with a measureless object, measureless concentration with a limited object, and measureless concentration with a measureless object. Concentration that is not yet mastered and cannot become a condition for a higher absorption is limited; concentration occurring with an object that has not been enlarged has a limited object. Concentration that is mastered and well developed and can become a condition for a higher absorption is measureless; concentration occurring with an enlarged object has a measureless object. Mixed cases should be understood by combining the characteristics just stated. Thus it is fourfold by way of limited with a limited object and so forth.

The third group: when the hindrances have been suppressed, the first absorption has five factors—applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, pleasure, and concentration. The second [absorption], in which applied and sustained thought have become still, has three factors. The third [absorption], in which rapture has faded, has two factors. The fourth [absorption], in which pleasure has been abandoned, has two factors by way of concentration accompanied by equanimous feeling. Thus there are four concentrations that constitute factors of these four absorptions. Thus it is fourfold by way of the factors of the four absorptions.

The fourth group: there is concentration conducive to decline, concentration conducive to maintenance, concentration conducive to distinction, and concentration conducive to penetration. Here, it should be understood that recurrence of an opposing state makes it conducive to decline; the establishment of mindfulness in conformity with that concentration makes it conducive to maintenance; attainment of a higher distinction makes it conducive to distinction; and recurrence of perceptions and attention accompanied by disenchantment makes it conducive to penetration. As it is said: “In one who has obtained the first absorption, perceptions and attention accompanied by sensual desire recur: this is wisdom conducive to decline. Mindfulness in conformity with that concentration becomes established: this is wisdom conducive to maintenance. Perceptions and attention accompanied by the absence of applied thought recur: this is wisdom conducive to distinction. Perceptions and attention accompanied by disenchantment recur: this is wisdom conducive to penetration and associated with dispassion.” The concentrations associated with these kinds of wisdom are likewise four. Thus it is fourfold by way of conducive to decline and so forth.

The fifth group: concentration of the sensual sphere, concentration of the fine-material sphere, concentration of the immaterial sphere, and unclassified concentration—these are four kinds. Here, all one-pointedness of access is concentration of the sensual sphere; likewise, wholesome one-pointedness of the fine-material sphere and the rest constitutes the remaining three. Thus it is fourfold by way of the sensual sphere and so forth.

The sixth group: “Bhikkhu, if by making desire dominant he obtains concentration, obtains one-pointedness of mind, this is called concentration through desire . . . and so on as stated at length above . . . Bhikkhu, if by making energy [dominant] . . . and so on as stated at length above . . . if by making mind [dominant] . . . and so on as stated at length above . . . Bhikkhu, if by making investigation⁷ dominant he obtains concentration, obtains one-pointedness of mind, this is called concentration through investigation.” Thus it is fourfold by way of dominance.

In the fivefold system, the second absorption stated in the fourfold division is divided into two: a second through the surmounting of applied thought alone and a third through the surmounting of both applied and sustained thought. In this way, five absorptions should be understood. The concentrations that constitute their factors are likewise five. Thus it should be understood as fivefold by way of the factors of the five absorptions.

§8 What Is Defilement and What Is Purification? 〔CSCD §40〕

“What is its defilement? What is its purification?”—the answer here has already been stated in the Vibhaṅga. It says there: “Defilement is a state conducive to decline. Purification is a state conducive to distinction.” The state conducive to decline should be understood according to the method of the statement, “In one who has obtained the first absorption, perceptions and attention accompanied by sensual desire recur: this is wisdom conducive to decline.” The state conducive to distinction should be understood according to the method of the statement, “Perceptions and attention accompanied by the absence of applied thought recur: this is wisdom conducive to distinction.”

Notes

¹ Access concentration (upacāra-samādhi) and absorption concentration (appanā-samādhi): access concentration is the level at which the hindrances have been suppressed but absorption has not yet been entered; in absorption concentration, the mind is fully stabilized upon its object. This passage classifies concentration into these two levels; their method of cultivation is explained in the chapter on the earth kasiṇa.

² The fourfold and fivefold systems (catukka-naya・pañcaka-naya): two ways of numbering the absorptions. The second absorption of the fourfold system is divided into the second and third of the fivefold system; its third and fourth accordingly become the fourth and fifth.

³ The six bases of recollection: recollection of the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Saṅgha, virtue, generosity, and deities, explained in the chapter on the six recollections; mindfulness of death and recollection of peace are explained in the chapter on meditation subjects of recollection.

⁴ Preliminary work (parikamma): the first in the sequence of four minds preceding absorption; it is followed by access, conformity, and change-of-lineage. The sequence is explained in the chapter on the earth kasiṇa.

⁵ Penetration (abhiññā): the treatise establishes its scope here as the wisdom from access to absorption. The same word elsewhere means “supernormal knowledge,” as in the six supernormal knowledges; the two usages belong to different classifications.

⁶ Mindfulness (sati): the mental factor that remembers its object and does not lose it; in the treatise it consistently operates together with wisdom, energy, and concentration. It belongs to a different classification from the diffuse awareness commonly meant today by the word “mindfulness” and should be read according to the sense established in this treatise.

⁷ Investigation (vīmaṃsā): the fourth of the four dominances, the wisdom that examines and discriminates.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Summary of the Development of Concentration and the Summary Verse on the Ten Impediments 〔CSCD §41〕

The Explanation of the Ten Impediments

“How should it be developed?”—here, first, the method of developing the concentration associated with a noble path, mentioned earlier under “twofold by way of mundane and supramundane” and the other classifications, is included in the method of developing wisdom. For when wisdom is developed, that concentration is developed as well. Therefore, with reference to it, we say nothing separately about how it should be developed.

Mundane concentration, however, should be developed as follows. A person should purify virtue in the way already stated and become established in thoroughly purified virtue; cut off whichever of the ten impediments applies; approach a good friend who gives a meditation subject¹ and take, from among the forty meditation subjects, one suited to the person’s own temperament;² leave a monastery unsuitable for developing concentration and dwell in a suitable one; cut off the minor impediments;³ and develop concentration without omitting any part of the method of development. This is the summary here.

The following is the detailed explanation. First, concerning the statement “cut off whichever of the ten impediments applies,” here:

　　Dwelling, family, gain, a group, and work as the fifth;
　　travel, relatives, illness, scripture, and supernormal power—these are the ten.

These are called the ten impediments. Here, the dwelling itself is the impediment of dwelling; the same method applies to family and the rest.

§2 The Impediment of Dwelling 〔CSCD §41〕

Here, a “dwelling” may mean a single room, a single monastic residence, or an entire monastery. It does not become an impediment for everyone. It is an impediment only to a person who is occupied with new building work and the like, who has accumulated many possessions, or who, for some reason or another, is concerned about it and attached in mind—not to anyone else.

Here is an account. It is said that two sons of good family left Anurādhapura and in due course went forth at Thūpārāma. One mastered two Mātikās, completed five years, held the Invitation, and went to a place called Pācinakhaṇḍarāji; the other remained there. The one who went to Pācinakhaṇḍarāji stayed there a long time and became an elder. He thought, “This place is suitable for seclusion. Let me tell my companion about it too.” He left and in due course entered Thūpārāma. As soon as the elder of equal seniority saw him entering, he went out to meet him, took his bowl and robe, and performed the duties. The visiting elder entered his lodging and thought, “Now my companion will send me ghee, molasses, or a drink; he has lived in this city a long time.” Receiving nothing during the night, he thought in the morning, “Now he will send me the rice gruel and solid food brought by his supporters.” When that did not appear either, he thought, “There is no one to send anything. I suppose he will give me something after we enter the village,” and early in the morning he entered the village with him. They walked along one street, received a ladleful of gruel, sat down in the dining hall, and drank it. The visitor then thought, “I suppose there is no regular gruel. At mealtime people will now give refined food.” But at mealtime they again went for alms and ate only what they received. Then the visitor asked, “Venerable sir, do you always live in this way?” “Yes, friend.” “Venerable sir, Pācinakhaṇḍarāji is comfortable; let us go there.” As the elder left through the city’s southern gate, he took the road to Kumbhakāragāma. The other asked, “But venerable sir, why have you taken this road?” “Friend, did you not praise Pācinakhaṇḍarāji?” “But venerable sir, have you no extra requisites at the place where you lived for so long?” “Yes, friend. The bed and chair belong to the Saṅgha and have been put away; there is nothing else.” “But venerable sir, my walking stick, oil tube, and sandal bag are still there.” “Friend, after staying for a single day, have you left so much behind?” “Yes, venerable sir.” His heart filled with confidence, he paid homage to the elder and said: “Venerable sir, for people such as you, every place is a forest dwelling. Thūpārāma is the place where the relics of four Buddhas are enshrined; at Lohapāsāda there is suitable hearing of the Dhamma; and one can see the Great Stūpa and the elders. Everything proceeds as though it were the Buddha’s own time. Please remain here.” On the following day, he himself took his bowl and robe and departed. For a person such as this, a dwelling does not become an impediment.

§3 The Impediment of Family 〔CSCD §41〕

“Family” means either a family of relatives or a family of supporters. For some people, even a family of supporters becomes an impediment: living entangled with them according to such patterns as “happy when they are happy,” the person will not go even to a nearby monastery to hear the Dhamma without members of that family. For others, even parents do not become an impediment, as in the case of the young bhikkhu, nephew of the elder who lived at Koraṇḍakavihāra.

It is said that he went to Rohaṇa to receive instruction. The elder’s sister, a laywoman, constantly asked the elder for news of him. One day the elder thought, “I shall bring the young bhikkhu back,” and set out toward Rohaṇa. The young bhikkhu also thought, “I have lived here a long time. I shall now see my preceptor, learn how the laywoman is, and then return,” and left Rohaṇa. They met on the bank of the Ganges. At the foot of a tree, the young bhikkhu performed the duties for the elder and, when asked, “Where are you going?” told him the matter. The elder said, “You have done well. The laywoman is always asking after you, and I came precisely for this. Go on; I shall spend this rains residence here,” and sent him away. He reached that monastery on the very day the rains residence began. The lodging allotted to him was the one his own father had built.

His father came the next day and asked, “Venerable sir, to whom has our lodging been allotted?” Hearing, “To a visiting young bhikkhu,” he approached him, paid homage, and said: “Venerable sir, there is a duty for someone who spends the rains in our lodging.” “What is it, lay follower?” “For the three months, you are to take your almsfood only in our house, and when you leave after the Invitation, you must inform us.” He consented by remaining silent. The lay follower went home and said, “A visiting noble one has entered the rains in our dwelling. He should be attended to with care.” The laywoman agreed, saying “Good,” and prepared refined solid and soft food. At mealtime the young bhikkhu went to the home of his relatives. No one recognized him.

He used their almsfood for all three months. When the rains residence had ended, he announced, “I am leaving.” His relatives said, “Venerable sir, leave tomorrow.” The next day they fed him in the house, filled an oil tube, gave him a lump of molasses and a cloth nine cubits long, and said, “Go, venerable sir.” He gave a blessing and set out toward Rohaṇa.

His preceptor, traveling in the opposite direction after the Invitation, saw him at the same place as before. The young bhikkhu performed the duties for the elder beneath a tree. The elder asked, “Good man, did you see the laywoman?” He replied, “Yes, venerable sir,” related everything, rubbed the elder’s feet with the oil, made a drink from the molasses, and gave the cloth to the elder as well. He then paid homage and said, “Venerable sir, for me only Rohaṇa is suitable,” and departed. The elder returned to the monastery and entered Koraṇḍakagāma the next day.

The laywoman had been standing and watching the road, thinking, “My brother will soon return with my son.” When she saw him coming alone, she thought, “My son must be dead; the elder is returning by himself.” She fell at the elder’s feet, lamenting and weeping. The elder thought, “The young bhikkhu must have departed without making himself known because of his fewness of wishes.” He comforted her, related the whole matter, and drew the cloth from his bowl bag to show her.

Filled with confidence, the laywoman lay prone with her breast toward the direction her son had taken and paid homage, saying: “Surely it was by making a bhikkhu like my son the bodily witness that the Blessed One taught the practice of the Relay Chariots, the practice of Nālaka, the practice of Tuvaṭṭaka, and the great practice of the noble lineage that reveals contentment with the four requisites and delight in cultivation. Though eating for three months in the home of the mother who bore him, he never said, ‘I am your son; you are my mother.’ What a marvelous person!” For a person such as this, even parents do not become an impediment, much less another family of supporters.

§4 The Four Impediments of Gain, a Group, Work, and Travel 〔CSCD §41〕

“Gain” means the four requisites.⁴ How do they become an impediment? Wherever a fortunate bhikkhu goes, people offer requisites in large groups. While he blesses them and teaches them the Dhamma, he finds no opportunity to practice the ascetic’s Dhamma. From sunrise until the first watch of the night, association with people does not cease. Then, in the hours before dawn, bhikkhus who seek abundant almsfood come and say: “Venerable sir, such-and-such a layman, laywoman, minister, or minister’s daughter wishes to see you.” Saying, “Friend, bring my bowl and robe,” he remains ready to leave at any moment. Thus continually occupied, those requisites become an impediment only to him. He should therefore leave the group and travel alone where no one knows him. In this way that impediment is cut off.

“A group” means a group of students of the discourses or of the Abhidhamma. A group becomes an impediment only to someone who finds no opportunity to practice the ascetic’s Dhamma because he is giving them recitation lessons or answering their inquiries. It should be cut off as follows. If those bhikkhus have learned much and little remains, he should finish it and enter the forest. If they have learned little and much remains, he should go no farther than a league, approach another instructor of a group within that league, and say, “May the venerable one support these bhikkhus through recitation lessons and the rest.” If he cannot find anyone, he should say, “Friends, I have a task to attend to; go wherever you find suitable,” leave the group, and do his own work.

“Work” (kamma, new building work)⁵ means new building work. Someone undertaking it must learn what carpenters and others have and have not received and must be occupied with what has and has not been done; it therefore becomes a constant impediment. It too should be cut off as follows. If little remains, it should be finished. If much remains and the work belongs to the Saṅgha, it should be handed over to the Saṅgha or to bhikkhus who bear the Saṅgha’s responsibilities. If it is personal, it should be handed over to personal stewards. If no such person can be found, it should be relinquished to the Saṅgha and the person should depart.

“Travel” means going by road. A person may have someone somewhere who wishes to go forth, or some requisite that is to be obtained. If unable to obtain it the person cannot endure, then even after entering the forest to practice the ascetic’s Dhamma, the so-called “mind bent on travel” is difficult to dispel. The person should therefore go, complete that task, and only then devote effort to the ascetic’s Dhamma.

§5 The Two Impediments of Relatives and Illness 〔CSCD §41〕

“Relatives” in the monastery are teachers, preceptors, co-resident pupils, resident pupils, those who share a preceptor, and those who share a teacher; in the household they are mother, father, siblings, and so forth. When they are ill, they become an impediment for this person. That impediment should therefore be cut off by attending them and restoring them to health.

First, concerning a preceptor: if he becomes ill and does not recover quickly, he should be cared for even throughout his life. The same applies to the going-forth teacher, the higher-ordination teacher, a co-resident pupil, a resident pupil whom he has admitted to higher ordination or caused to go forth, and one who shares his preceptor. A dependence teacher, recitation teacher, resident pupil under dependence, resident pupil receiving recitation, and one who shares his teacher should be cared for so long as the dependence or recitation continues; someone able to do so should care for them even beyond that. Parents should be treated as a preceptor is. Even if they occupy a throne and expect attendance from their son, it must be given. If they have no medicine, one’s own should be given. If one has none, it should be obtained by going for alms and given to them. For siblings, medicine should be prepared from what belongs to them and given. If they have none, one’s own may be lent and taken back if they later obtain some; if they do not, it should not be demanded. For the husband of a sister who is not a relative, medicine may neither be prepared nor given; it may, however, be given to the sister with the words, “Give this to your husband.” The same method applies to a brother’s wife. Their children, however, are this person’s relatives and may be treated.

“Illness” means any disease. When it afflicts a person, it becomes an impediment and should be cut off by medical treatment. But if it does not subside after medicine has been taken for several days, the body should be rebuked: “I am not your slave or your hired servant. It is precisely through sustaining you that I have suffered in beginningless saṃsāra.” The ascetic’s Dhamma should then be practiced.

§6 The Impediment of Scripture 〔CSCD §41〕

“Scripture”⁷ means carrying the canonical learning. It becomes an impediment only to someone continually occupied with recitation and the rest, not to anyone else. Here are the accounts:

It is said that the Elder Deva, a reciter of the Majjhima Nikāya, went to Malayavāsi-Devatthera to ask for a meditation subject. The elder asked, “Friend, how are you in canonical learning?” “Venerable sir, I have mastered the Majjhima.” “Friend, the Majjhima is difficult to maintain: while you recite the Root Fifty, the Middle Fifty presents itself; while you recite that, the Final Fifty presents itself. How can there be any meditation subject for you?” “Venerable sir, once I have received a meditation subject from you, I shall not look at it again.” After taking the meditation subject, he did not recite for nineteen years. In the twentieth year he attained arahantship. To bhikkhus who came for recitation, he said, “Friends, I have not looked at the canonical learning for twenty years; nevertheless, I am well practiced in it. Begin.” From the beginning to the end, he had no doubt about a single letter.

The Elder Nāga who lived at Karuḷiyagiri likewise set canonical learning aside for eighteen years, yet taught the Dhātukathā to bhikkhus. When they compared it with village-dwelling elders, not a single question was found out of sequence.

At Mahāvihāra there was also an elder named Tipiṭaka-Cūḷābhaya. Without having studied the Commentary, he had a golden drum beaten and announced, “I shall expound the three baskets in the circle of the five Nikāyas.” The Order of bhikkhus said: “From which teachers did you learn? You may state only what was received from your own teacher; we do not permit anything else to be said.” His preceptor also asked when he came to attend him, “Friend, was it you who had the drum beaten?” “Yes, venerable sir.” “Why?” “Venerable sir, I intend to expound the canonical learning.” “Friend Abhaya, how do the teachers explain this phrase?” “Venerable sir, they explain it in this way.” The elder rejected it, saying, “No.” Three times, using different approaches, Abhaya said, “Venerable sir, they explain it in this way.” The elder rejected them all, saying, “No,” and then said: “Friend, what you first stated is indeed the teachers’ method. But because you did not learn it from the mouth of a teacher, you could not stand firmly and say, ‘The teachers explain it in this way.’ Go and listen in the presence of your own teachers.” “Where should I go, venerable sir?” “Across the Ganges, in the region of Rohaṇa, at Tulādhārapabbatavihāra, lives the Elder Mahādhammarakkhita, who knows all the canonical learning. Go to him.” Saying, “Good, venerable sir,” Abhaya paid homage to the elder, went with five hundred bhikkhus to the other elder, paid homage, and sat down. The elder asked, “Why have you come?” “Venerable sir, to hear the Dhamma.” “Friend Abhaya, people ask me from time to time about the Dīgha and the Majjhima. I have not looked at the rest for about thirty years. Nevertheless, recite to me at night and I shall explain it to you during the day.” Abhaya said, “Good, venerable sir,” and did so. A great pavilion was built at the entrance to the monastic residence, and village dwellers came every day to hear the Dhamma. [Abhaya] recited at night and [Mahādhammarakkhita] explained it during the day. After bringing the exposition to its end in sequence, the elder sat on a mat before the Elder Abhaya and said, “Friend, teach me a meditation subject.” “Venerable sir, what are you saying? Did I not hear it from you? How could I tell you something you do not know?” The elder replied, “Friend, this is another matter; this is what is called the path of one who has gone.” It is said that the Elder Abhaya was then a stream-enterer.⁸ The elder then gave him a meditation subject. Later, after Abhaya had returned and was expounding the Dhamma at Lohapāsāda, he heard that the elder had attained final nibbāna. On hearing it he said, “Friends, bring my robe,” put it on, and said: “Friends, the path of arahantship was fitting for our teacher. Friends, our teacher was an upright thoroughbred. He sat on a mat before his own Dhamma pupil and said, ‘Teach me a meditation subject.’ Friends, the path of arahantship was fitting for that elder.” For people such as these, scripture does not become an impediment.

§7 The Impediment of Supernormal Power 〔CSCD §41〕

“Supernormal power”⁹ means the supernormal power of an ordinary person. Like an infant lying on its back and like a young crop, it is difficult to maintain; the slightest thing breaks it. It is an impediment to insight, not to concentration, because it can be obtained only after concentration has been attained. Therefore, a person who seeks insight should cut off the impediment of supernormal power; the other kind of person should cut off the remaining [nine impediments]. This is the detailed explanation of the discussion of impediments.

Notes

¹ Meditation subject (kammaṭṭhāna): a general term for the object cultivated and its method of cultivation. The method of receiving a subject and the enumeration of the forty meditation subjects are set out in this chapter.

² Temperament (cariyā): the bent of a person’s nature—six kinds, with a temperament of greed, aversion, delusion, faith, intelligence, or applied thought. They are explained in this chapter’s unit on the six temperaments.

³ Minor impediments (khuddaka-palibodha): distinct from the ten impediments, these are small obstructions involving hair, nails, robes, bowl, and the like. The method of cutting them off is explained in the chapter on the earth kasiṇa.

⁴ The four requisites: robes, almsfood, lodging, and medicines as requisites for the sick.

⁵ “Work” here means new building work, not kamma in the sense of action and result—the treatise explains it directly: “Work means new building work.”

⁶ Teacher (ācariya) and preceptor (upajjhāya): the two teachers on whom a person depends when going forth and receiving higher ordination. This passage distinguishes kinds of teacher according to going forth, higher ordination, dependence, and recitation, and lists two kinds of pupil—co-resident and resident—together with fellow pupils under the same teacher.

⁷ Scripture (gantha): the treatise explains it directly as “carrying the canonical learning,” meaning the recitation and preservation of the teaching. It is called an impediment here only for someone whose constant recitation leaves no time.

⁸ Stream-enterer (sotāpanna): the first of the four fruits of the ascetic life; a person who has entered the noble stream and will not fall away.

⁹ Supernormal power (iddhi): the power of transformation gained through concentration. This unit speaks only of an ordinary person’s supernormal power.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Two Kinds of Meditation Subject—Universally Needed and Constantly Maintained 〔CSCD §42〕

“Having approached a good friend who is a giver of the meditation subject”—here, meditation subject¹ (kammaṭṭhāna) is of two kinds: the universally needed meditation subject and the constantly maintained meditation subject. Of these, the universally needed meditation subject consists in loving-kindness² (mettā) toward the Saṅgha of bhikkhus and so forth, and mindfulness of death³ (maraṇassati). Some also say the perception of foulness 〔is one〕.

For a bhikkhu who practices a meditation subject should first delimit the range and develop loving-kindness toward the Saṅgha of bhikkhus within the boundary with the thought, “May they be happy and free from affliction.” Next, toward the deities within the boundary; next, toward the influential people in the alms-resort village; and next, beginning with the people there, toward all sentient beings. Through loving-kindness toward the Saṅgha of bhikkhus, he causes those who live with him to develop tender minds, and they then live happily with him. Through loving-kindness toward the deities within the boundary, he is well guarded with lawful protection by deities whose minds have become tender. Through loving-kindness toward the influential people in the alms-resort village, his requisites are well guarded with lawful protection by influential people whose continuities of mind have become tender. Through loving-kindness toward the people there, their minds gain confidence and he moves about without being despised. Through loving-kindness toward all sentient beings, he moves everywhere unobstructed. Through mindfulness of death, reflecting, “I shall certainly die,” he abandons improper seeking, his sense of urgency grows ever stronger, and he becomes one whose conduct is unflagging. And in the case of a person whose mind has been familiarized with the perception of foulness, even divine objects do not overwhelm his mind by way of greed.

Thus, because it is so beneficial, because it should be sought and desired everywhere, and because it is the ground for the desired work of devoted cultivation, it is called the “universally needed meditation subject.”

Among the forty meditation subjects, however, whichever one accords with a person’s temperament is called that person’s “constantly maintained meditation subject,” because it should be constantly maintained and because it is the proximate cause for each successively higher work of development. Thus, whoever gives these two kinds of meditation subject is called a “giver of the meditation subject.” 〔The phrase in question refers to〕 that giver of the meditation subject.

§2 The Seven Qualities of a Good Friend and the Hierarchy for Seeking a Teacher 〔CSCD §42〕

“A good friend”—

Lovable, respected, and worthy of esteem; one who admonishes and patiently receives words; One who can speak on profound matters and does not urge a person toward what is unfitting.

—one endowed with such qualities and others like them, who seeks welfare exclusively and stands on the side of growth, is a good friend.

And because of such words as, “Ānanda, it is through reliance on me as a good friend that beings subject to birth are freed from birth,” only the Rightly and Fully Enlightened One is the good friend complete in every respect. Therefore, while he was alive, only a meditation subject received in the presence of that Blessed One was well received. After he attained parinibbāna, it should be received in the presence of whichever of the eighty great disciples was still living. If none of them was present, a person wishing to receive a particular meditation subject should receive it in the presence of a destroyer of the influxes⁴ (khīṇāsava) who, on the basis of that very subject, has produced the fourfold and fivefold absorptions, developed insight with absorption as its proximate cause, and thereby reached the destruction of the influxes.

But does a destroyer of the influxes reveal himself by saying, “I am a destroyer of the influxes”? What need be said? He reveals himself after knowing that the other person is a practitioner. Did not a certain elder (assaguttatthero), knowing of a bhikkhu who had undertaken a meditation subject, “This person is one who practices a meditation subject,” spread a piece of hide in the air, sit cross-legged upon it, and teach him the meditation subject?

Therefore, if a destroyer of the influxes is available, that is good. If not, it should be received from the first available among, in descending order, a non-returner, a once-returner, a stream-enterer⁵ (sotāpanna), an ordinary person who has attained absorption, one who bears the Three Piṭakas, one who bears two Piṭakas, and one who bears one Piṭaka. If even one who bears a single Piṭaka is unavailable, it should be received from a person who is proficient in one recitation together with its commentary⁶ (aṭṭhakathā) and who has moral shame. For such a teacher, a bearer of the canonical text, guardian of the lineage, and keeper of the tradition, follows the opinion of teachers rather than personal opinion. It was for this very reason that the elders of old said three times, “One with moral shame will guard it; one with moral shame will guard it.”

Here, the destroyer of the influxes and the others mentioned above teach only the path they themselves have attained. A learned person, however, having approached various teachers and purified both learning-grasp and inquiring, discerns canonical text and reason from one source and another, relates what is suitable and unsuitable, and teaches a meditation subject while showing the broad road like a great elephant making its way through dense forest. Therefore, one should approach such a good friend who is a giver of the meditation subject, perform the duties of respectful service toward him, and receive the meditation subject.

§3 The Way to the Teacher and the Etiquette of the First Meeting 〔CSCD §42〕

If such a person can be found in the same monastery, that is good. If not, one should go to where he lives. When going, one should not wash and oil the feet, put on sandals, carry an umbrella, have others carry an oil tube, honey, molasses, and the like, and travel surrounded by resident pupils. Instead, one should fulfill the duties of a traveler, carry one’s own bowl and robes, perform the duties of respectful service at every monastery entered along the way, and go with few requisites and in a manner of utmost austerity.

On entering that monastery, one should have a tooth-stick made allowable along the way and enter carrying it. One should not enter another dwelling thinking, “I shall rest for a moment, wash and oil my feet, and then go to the teacher.” Why? If there were bhikkhus there who were at odds with the teacher, they might ask the reason for one’s arrival, proclaim the teacher’s faults, and say, “You are ruined if you have come to study with him,” causing regret so that one might turn back from there. One should therefore ask where the teacher lives and go directly there.

If the teacher is younger, one should not accept services such as his taking one’s bowl and robes. If he is older, one should go, pay homage to the teacher, and stand. When told, “Friend, put down your bowl and robes,” one should put them down. When told, “Drink some water,” one may drink if one wishes. When told, “Wash your feet,” one should not wash them at once, for it would be unfitting if the water had been brought by the teacher. But when told, “Wash, friend. I did not bring it; others brought it,” one should sit and wash the feet in a screened place where the teacher cannot see, in the open, or at one side of the monastery.

If the teacher brings an oil tube, one should rise and receive it respectfully with both hands. If one did not accept it, the teacher might feel differently, thinking, “This bhikkhu is already beginning to break fellowship.” After receiving it, however, one should not begin by oiling the feet, for it would be unfitting if it were oil for anointing the teacher’s body. One should therefore first anoint the head and then the shoulders and so forth. But when he says, “Friend, this oil is for general use; anoint your feet as well,” one should apply a little to the head, anoint the feet, then say, “Venerable sir, I shall put down this oil tube,” and hand it to the teacher as he receives it.

§4 Serving the Teacher and the Time for Declaring One’s Purpose 〔CSCD §42〕

One should not say on the very day of arrival, “Venerable sir, teach me a meditation subject.” Beginning on the second day, if the teacher has a regular attendant, one should ask that person’s permission before performing the duties. If permission is refused, one should perform them only when an opportunity arises. When doing so, one should offer three tooth-sticks—small, medium, and large. One should prepare both cold and hot water for washing the face, as well as bathing water. Thereafter, whichever kind the teacher uses for three days, one should always offer that kind. If he follows no fixed rule and uses whatever is available, one should offer whatever has been obtained.

What need is there to say more? Every proper practice laid down by the Blessed One in the Khandhaka—“Bhikkhus, a resident pupil should conduct himself properly toward his teacher. This is the proper conduct: rising at the appropriate time, removing the sandals, arranging the upper robe over one shoulder, offering a tooth-stick, offering water for washing the face, and preparing a seat. If there is rice gruel, one should wash a vessel and offer the gruel,” and so forth—should all be carried out.

A person who pleases the teacher by such fulfillment of duties should pay homage in the evening and leave when dismissed with the words, “You may go.” Only when asked, “Why have you come?” should the purpose of the visit be stated. If the teacher never asks but continues to accept the service, then after ten days or a fortnight, on a certain day one should not leave even after being dismissed, but ask for an opportunity and declare the purpose of the visit. Or one may go at an unusual time and state it when asked, “Why have you come?” If the teacher says, “Come early in the morning,” one should go early in the morning.

But if at that time one’s abdomen burns because of a bile disorder, food is not digested because the digestive fire is weak, or one is afflicted by some other illness, one should disclose the matter as it truly is, state a suitable time for oneself, and approach at that time. For even when a meditation subject is taught at an unsuitable time, it cannot be attended to.

This is the detailed explanation of the phrase “having approached a good friend who is a giver of the meditation subject.”

Notes

¹ Meditation subject (kammaṭṭhāna): the general name for an object to be cultivated together with its method of cultivation; the forty are enumerated in this chapter’s unit “The Forty Meditation Subjects.”

² Loving-kindness (mettā): the mind that wishes sentient beings happiness and freedom from affliction; its method of development is unfolded in the chapter “The Divine Abidings.”

³ Mindfulness of death (maraṇassati): the meditation subject that recollects the certainty of death and thereby arouses effort; it is unfolded in the chapter “Meditation Subjects of Recollection.”

⁴ Destroyer of the influxes (khīṇāsava): one whose influxes have been destroyed; this unit indicates the attainment with the phrase “having reached the destruction of the influxes” (āsavakkhaya).

⁵ Stream-enterer (sotāpanna): formerly transliterated as “Srotāpanna” in Chinese; in this unit’s hierarchy for seeking a teacher, the order descends from a destroyer of the influxes through a non-returner (anāgāmi), a once-returner (sakadāgāmi), and a stream-enterer.

⁶ Commentary (aṭṭhakathā): the ancient commentary on the canonical text; this unit sets proficiency in one recitation together with its commentary as the minimum qualification for a teacher.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Establishing the Six Temperaments and Their Contraction or Expansion 〔CSCD §43〕

Now, as to “what accords with one’s own temperament”: here “temperament”¹ (cariyā) means six temperaments—the greed temperament, aversion temperament, delusion temperament, faith temperament, discerning temperament, and discursive-thought temperament. Some, however, posit four more based on the mixing and combination of greed and so forth, and likewise four more based on faith and so forth, maintaining fourteen together with these eight. But if the classification is stated in this way, then by also mixing greed and so forth with faith and so forth, temperaments become innumerable. Therefore, in brief, only six temperaments should be understood. “Temperament,” “natural disposition,” and “predominance” are the same in meaning. On their basis, there are likewise only six kinds of person: the greed-tempered, aversion-tempered, delusion-tempered, faith-tempered, discerning, and discursive-thought-tempered person.

Of these, when wholesome states occur in a greed-tempered person, faith is strong because faith has qualities near to greed. Just as greed on the unwholesome side is unctuous and not overly rough, so is faith on the wholesome side. Just as greed seeks objects of sensual desire, so faith seeks such qualities as virtue. Just as greed does not relinquish what is harmful, so faith does not relinquish what is beneficial. Thus the faith-tempered person is similar to the greed-tempered person.

When wholesome states occur in an aversion-tempered person, understanding is strong because understanding has qualities near to aversion. Just as aversion on the unwholesome side is dry and does not cling to its object, so is understanding on the wholesome side. And just as aversion seeks even faults that are not real, so understanding seeks real faults. Just as aversion occurs in the mode of avoiding sentient beings, so understanding occurs in the mode of avoiding formations. Thus the discerning person is similar to the aversion-tempered person.

When a delusion-tempered person strives for the arising of wholesome states not yet arisen, obstructive thoughts arise for the most part, because discursive thought has a characteristic near to delusion. Just as delusion is unsettled because it is confused, so discursive thought is unsettled because it thinks in many different ways. And just as delusion wavers because it does not penetrate deeply, so discursive thought wavers because it forms ideas lightly. Thus the discursive-thought-tempered person is similar to the delusion-tempered person.

Others speak of three further temperaments based on craving, conceit, and views. Of these, craving is simply greed, and conceit is associated with it, so neither goes beyond the greed temperament. And because views have delusion as their cause, the view temperament follows the delusion temperament.

§2 The Causes of Temperament—Statement and Refutation of Two Accounts 〔CSCD §44〕

What, then, causes these temperaments? How is it to be known, “This person is greed-tempered; this person has one of the temperaments beginning with aversion”? What is suitable for a person of each temperament?

Here, some say that the first three temperaments are caused by past habit and also by the elements and bodily faults² (dosa). It is said that a person who in past lives frequently performed agreeable acts and beautiful kamma becomes greed-tempered, or else is someone who passed away from a heavenly realm and was reborn here. A person who in past lives frequently performed acts of cutting, killing, binding, and enmity becomes aversion-tempered, or else is someone who passed away from a hell or a nāga realm and was reborn here. A person who in past lives frequently drank intoxicants and lacked learning and inquiring becomes delusion-tempered, or else is someone who passed away from the animal realm and was reborn here. This is how they say temperament is caused by past habit. A person becomes delusion-tempered when two elements—earth and water—predominate; a person becomes aversion-tempered when the other two predominate; and a person becomes greed-tempered when all the elements are balanced. Among the bodily faults, a person with excess phlegm becomes greed-tempered and a person with excess wind becomes delusion-tempered; alternatively, a person with excess phlegm becomes delusion-tempered and a person with excess wind becomes greed-tempered. This is how they say temperament is caused by the elements and bodily faults.

But people who frequently performed agreeable acts and beautiful kamma in past lives and people reborn here after passing away from a heavenly realm are not all greed-tempered; nor are all the others aversion-tempered or delusion-tempered. Likewise, there is no fixed rule that the elements predominate in the way stated. And the rule concerning bodily faults mentions only greed and delusion, while even what it says about those two contradicts itself. Moreover, it gives no cause whatsoever for even one of the temperaments beginning with faith. Therefore, all of this is an indeterminate account.

§3 The Causes of Temperament—Determination through Eight Cases of Rebirth-Producing Kamma 〔CSCD §44〕

The determination here, following the opinion of the teachers of the commentary³ (aṭṭhakathā), is as follows. For in the “Description of Predominance” it is said: “Through the fixed order of past causes, these sentient beings come to have predominance of greed, predominance of aversion, predominance of delusion, predominance of non-greed, predominance of non-aversion, or predominance of non-delusion.

For a person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma⁴ (kammāyūhanakkhaṇa), greed is strong and non-greed weak, while non-aversion and non-delusion are strong and aversion and delusion weak, the weak non-greed cannot overcome greed, but the strong non-aversion and non-delusion can overcome aversion and delusion. Thus, when reborn through the rebirth-linking⁵ (paṭisandhi) given by that kamma, the person is greedy, pleasant-natured, not irascible, and discerning, with knowledge like a diamond.

A person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma, greed and aversion are strong and non-greed and non-aversion weak, while non-delusion is strong and delusion weak, is by the preceding method both greedy and averse. The person is nevertheless discerning, with knowledge like a diamond, as was a certain elder (dattābhayatthero).

A person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma, greed, non-aversion, and delusion are strong and the others weak, is by the preceding method both greedy and dull, but good-natured and not irascible, as was a certain elder (bākulatthero).

Likewise, a person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma, all three—greed, aversion, and delusion—are strong and non-greed and the others weak, is by the preceding method greedy, averse, and deluded.

A person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma, non-greed, aversion, and delusion are strong and the others weak, is by the preceding method non-greedy and has few defilements, remaining unmoved even on seeing a divine object; but the person is averse and dull in understanding.

A person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma, non-greed, non-aversion, and delusion are strong and the others weak, is by the preceding method non-greedy, non-averse, and good-natured, but dull.

Likewise, a person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma, non-greed, aversion, and non-delusion are strong and the others weak, is by the preceding method non-greedy and discerning, but averse and irascible.

A person in whom, at the moment of accumulating kamma, all three—non-greed, non-aversion, and non-delusion—are strong and greed and the others weak, is by the preceding method non-greedy, non-averse, and discerning, as was a certain elder (mahāsaṅgharakkhitatthero).”

Here, whoever was called “greedy” is a greed-tempered person. The averse and the dull are respectively aversion-tempered and delusion-tempered persons. The discerning person has the discerning temperament. The non-greedy and non-averse, being naturally confident, have the faith temperament. Or just as a person reborn through kamma accompanied by non-delusion has the discerning temperament, so a person reborn through kamma accompanied by strong faith has the faith temperament. A person reborn through kamma accompanied by thoughts of sensual desire and so forth has the discursive-thought temperament. A person reborn through kamma accompanied by a mixture of greed and so forth has a mixed temperament. Thus it should be understood that rebirth-producing kamma accompanied by one or another of the states beginning with greed is the cause of the temperaments.

§4 The Verse on Discerning Temperament and the Door of Posture 〔CSCD §45〕

As to the question stated above, “How is it to be known that this person is greed-tempered?” and so forth, the method is this:

From posture, from work, from food, and from seeing and so forth, And from the occurrence of states, the temperaments should be discerned.

Here, “from posture”: when a greed-tempered person walks with a natural gait, the person walks gracefully, places the foot down slowly, places it down evenly, lifts it evenly, and leaves a close-stepping footprint. An aversion-tempered person walks as though digging with the tips of the feet, places a foot down suddenly and lifts it suddenly, and leaves a dragged footprint. A delusion-tempered person walks with a confused gait, places a foot down as if frightened and lifts it as if frightened, and leaves a hurriedly pressed footprint. This is also said in the origin story of the Māgaṇḍiya Sutta (māgaṇḍiyasuttuppattiyaṃ):

The footprint of a person inflamed with lust is close-stepping; The footprint of an averse person is dragged; The footprint of a deluded person is hurriedly pressed; Such is the footprint of a person whose covering has been removed.

Standing is likewise: a greed-tempered person’s posture is pleasing and gentle, an aversion-tempered person’s stiff, and a delusion-tempered person’s confused. The same method applies to sitting. A greed-tempered person, without haste, spreads the bedding evenly, lies down slowly, draws the limbs together, and sleeps in a pleasing posture. When awakened, the person does not rise quickly but answers slowly as though suspicious. An aversion-tempered person hurriedly spreads the bedding any which way, flings the body down, and sleeps with a frown. When awakened, the person rises quickly and answers as though angry. A delusion-tempered person spreads the bedding shapelessly, sleeps with the body sprawled and usually face downward, and when awakened rises slowly while making grunting sounds. Because faith-tempered and the other persons are similar to greed-tempered and the other persons, their postures are likewise. This is how temperaments are first discerned from posture.

§5 The Three Doors of Work, Food, and Seeing 〔CSCD §45〕

“From work”: in such tasks as sweeping, a greed-tempered person takes hold of the broom properly and, without haste or scattering the sand, sweeps cleanly and evenly, spreading it as though laying out a bed of sinduvāra flowers. An aversion-tempered person grips the broom tightly and, appearing hurried, pushes the sand to both sides, sweeping unevenly and uncleanly with a harsh sound. A delusion-tempered person holds the broom loosely and stirs about here and there, sweeping unevenly and uncleanly.

As with sweeping, so with washing and dyeing robes and all other work: a greed-tempered person acts delicately, gently, evenly, and carefully; an aversion-tempered person acts tightly, rigidly, and unevenly; a delusion-tempered person acts without delicacy, confusedly, unevenly, and without clear bounds. In wearing robes too, a greed-tempered person wears them neither too tightly nor too loosely, pleasingly and evenly; an aversion-tempered person wears them too tightly and unevenly; a delusion-tempered person wears them loosely and in disorder. Faith-tempered and the other persons should be understood by following these first three, since they are similar to them. This is how temperaments are discerned from work.

“From food”: a greed-tempered person likes rich and sweet food. While eating, the person makes a morsel that is neither too large nor misshapen, experiences its taste, and eats without haste; on obtaining something delicious, the person becomes joyful. An aversion-tempered person likes rough and sour food. While eating, the person makes a mouth-filling morsel, does not experience its taste, and eats hurriedly; on obtaining something unpalatable, the person becomes dejected. A delusion-tempered person’s preferences are unsettled. While eating, the person makes a small, misshapen morsel, drops food into the vessel, soils the mouth, and eats with a distracted mind while thinking now of this, now of that. Faith-tempered and the other persons should likewise be understood by following the first three, since they are similar to them. This is how temperaments are discerned from food.

“From seeing and so forth”: on seeing even a slightly agreeable visible form, a greed-tempered person gazes for a long time as though astonished, becomes attached even to a slight virtue, does not apprehend even a real fault, and departs reluctantly as though unwilling to let go. On seeing even a slightly disagreeable visible form, an aversion-tempered person does not look for long, as though wearied, is repelled by even a slight fault, does not apprehend even a real virtue, and departs without concern, wishing only to let go. On seeing any visible form whatsoever, a delusion-tempered person depends on others: hearing another criticize it, the person criticizes; hearing another praise it, the person praises; but personally remains equanimous only through the equanimity of ignorance. The same method applies to hearing sounds and so forth. Faith-tempered and the other persons should be understood by following the first three, since they are similar to them. This is how temperaments are discerned from seeing and so forth.

§6 The Door of Occurring States and the Author’s Own Limitation of the Account 〔CSCD §45〕

“And from the occurrence of states”: states such as guile, deceit, conceit, evil wishes, great wishes, discontent, posturing, and fickleness frequently occur in a greed-tempered person. In an aversion-tempered person, anger, resentment, denigration, rivalry, envy, avarice, and so forth frequently occur. In a delusion-tempered person, stiffness, torpor, agitation, remorse, doubt, obstinate grasping, difficulty in relinquishing, and so forth frequently occur. In a faith-tempered person, open-handed generosity, the desire to see noble persons, the desire to hear the true Dhamma, abundant joy, absence of deceit, absence of guile, confidence in what inspires confidence, and so forth frequently occur. In a discerning person, amenability to instruction, possession of good friends, moderation in eating, mindfulness and clear comprehension, devotion to wakefulness, a sense of urgency regarding what arouses urgency, and wise striving after urgency has arisen frequently occur. In a discursive-thought-tempered person, talkativeness, delight in company, discontent with wholesome cultivation, instability in work, smoking by night, blazing by day, running here and there, and so forth frequently occur. This is how temperaments are discerned from the occurrence of states.

But because this method of discerning temperaments is not found in every respect either in the canonical text or in the commentary and is stated solely according to teachers’ opinions, it should not be accepted as essential. For the postures and so forth attributed to a greed-tempered person can also be adopted by aversion-tempered and other persons when they live diligently. Nor can postures and the rest with mutually different characteristics obtain in a single person of mixed temperament. Only the method for discerning temperament stated in the commentaries should be accepted as essential. For it is said: “A teacher who has mind-reading knowledge⁶ (cetopariyañāṇa) will know the temperament and teach a meditation subject; another teacher should ask the resident pupil.” Therefore, the temperament should be known either by mind-reading knowledge or by asking the person: “This person is greed-tempered; this person has one of the temperaments beginning with aversion.”

§7 What Is Suitable for a Greed-Tempered Person 〔CSCD §46〕

As to “what is suitable for a person of each temperament,” first, lodging suitable for a greed-tempered person is of the following kind: a grass hut, leaf hut, or the like with an unwashed ledge, built directly on the ground, or with an unprepared rock overhang; strewn with dust, full of bats, broken and dilapidated, either too high or too low, barren and alarming, reached by an unclean and uneven path; where even the bed and chair are full of bedbugs, ugly in shape and displeasing in color; and which arouses disgust merely on being seen. Such lodging is suitable.

The lower and upper robes suitable for the person have torn edges and hanging, tangled threads, resemble a net-cake, feel rough like hemp cloth, and are dirty, heavy, and difficult to look after. A clay bowl of displeasing color is suitable, or an iron bowl battered by rivets and knots, heavy and badly shaped, as repulsive as a skull. The alms-round route too should be disagreeable, uneven, and lead to a village that is not nearby. An alms village is suitable where people walk about as though they did not see the bhikkhu; and where, after receiving nothing from even a single family and being about to leave, someone says, “Come, venerable sir,” leads the bhikkhu into a sitting hall, gives rice gruel and a meal, and leaves without looking back, as though driving a cow into a pen. Suitable servers are slaves or laborers who are unattractive, unpleasant to see, dressed in dirty clothes, foul-smelling and repulsive, and who serve disrespectfully as though throwing away the rice gruel and food. Rice gruel, meals, and solid food should be rough and displeasing in color, made of barnyard millet, inferior grain, broken rice, and the like, with rancid buttermilk, sour gruel, and a curry of old vegetables—anything at all, merely enough to fill the stomach. Standing or walking meditation is the suitable posture. The suitable object is any color kasiṇa⁷ (vaṇṇakasiṇa) among blue and the rest whose color is impure. This is what is suitable for a greed-tempered person.

§8 What Is Suitable for the Aversion-, Delusion-, Faith-, Discerning-, and Discursive-Thought-Tempered Persons 〔CSCD §46〕

Lodging suitable for an aversion-tempered person is of the following kind: neither too high nor too low, supplied with shade and water, with well-arranged walls, pillars, and stairs; radiant with well-finished garland-work, creeper-work, and paintings of many kinds; with a level, unctuous, and soft floor, ornamented like a Brahmā palace with garlands and canopies of many-colored cloth; with well-prepared beds and chairs covered in clean, agreeable spreads; fragrant here and there with flowers and perfumes set out for scenting the place; and arousing rapture and joy merely on being seen. Such lodging is suitable. The road to it should likewise be free of every danger, clean and level, ornamented and prepared. To eliminate hiding places for insects, bedbugs, snakes (dīghajāti), and mice, the lodging requisites should not be numerous—only a single bed and chair. The person’s robes should be one- or two-ply garments made from whichever refined cloth is available—China cloth (cīnapaṭṭa), Somāra cloth (somārapaṭṭa), silk, cotton, fine linen, and the like—light, dyed well in a manner befitting a renunciant, and pure in color. The iron bowl should be well shaped like a water bubble, polished and spotless like a jewel, and extremely pure in color in a manner befitting a renunciant. The alms-round route should be free of danger, level and agreeable, and lead to a village neither too far nor too near. The suitable alms village is one where people think, “The venerable will arrive now,” prepare a seat in a place that has been sprinkled and swept, go out to meet him, take his bowl, lead him into the house, seat him on the prepared seat, and serve him carefully with their own hands. Suitable servers are good-looking, inspiring confidence, well bathed and anointed, fragrant with incense and flowers, adorned with clean, agreeable clothing and ornaments of many colors, and attentive in their service. Rice gruel, meals, and solid food should possess color, aroma, and taste, be nourishing and agreeable, refined in every respect, and available according to desire. Lying or sitting is the suitable posture. The suitable object is any color kasiṇa among blue and the rest whose color is thoroughly pure. This is what is suitable for an aversion-tempered person.

Lodging suitable for a delusion-tempered person should face the open directions and not be confined, so that the directions appear open while the person sits there. Of the postures, walking meditation is suitable. The person’s object should not be small—the size of a winnowing basket or a dish 〔that is, confined〕. For in a confined place the mind falls into still greater confusion. Therefore, an expansive great kasiṇa is suitable. The rest is as stated for the aversion-tempered person. This is what is suitable for a delusion-tempered person.

For a faith-tempered person, the entire method stated for the aversion-tempered person is suitable. Among objects, a basis for recollection⁸ (anussatiṭṭhāna) is also suitable.

For a discerning person, there is no lodging or the like of which it may be said, “This is unsuitable.”

Lodging unsuitable for a discursive-thought-tempered person is open and faces the directions, so that while sitting there the person can see delightful parks, woods, lotus ponds, successive villages, towns, and countryside, and blue-shining mountains; for that becomes a condition precisely for the scattering of discursive thought. Therefore, the person should live in lodging at the mouth of a deep cavern, screened by forest, like Elephant’s-Belly Rock and the Great Indra Cave. An expansive object is also unsuitable, for that becomes a condition for racing about under the power of discursive thought. A small object is suitable.

The rest is as stated for the greed-tempered person. This is what is suitable for a discursive-thought-tempered person. This is the detailed explanation, by way of classification, cause, discernment, and delimitation of suitability, of the temperaments occurring in the phrase “what accords with one’s own temperament.” The meditation subject that accords with temperament has not yet been revealed in every respect; it will become clear on its own in the detailed explanation of the next item in the matrix.

Notes

¹ Temperament (cariyā): a person’s dispositional tendency. The section itself states that “temperament,” “natural disposition” (pakati), and “predominance” (ussannatā) are one in meaning.

² Bodily fault (dosa): here the word refers to a bodily fault; this passage speaks of the predominance of phlegm (semha) and wind (vāta). It has the same form as dosa, “aversion,” among the six temperaments but a different referent.

³ Commentary (aṭṭhakathā): the ancient commentary on the canonical text. This section follows the commentary teachers’ account in determining the cause of temperament but itself judges the method for discerning temperament to rest only on teachers’ opinions.

⁴ Moment of accumulating kamma (kammāyūhanakkhaṇa): the moment in which the kamma is performed. The strength and weakness of the six states beginning with greed at that time determine the temperament after birth.

⁵ Rebirth-linking (paṭisandhi): the first consciousness of a lifetime. “Rebirth-producing kamma” means the kamma that draws forth that life.

⁶ Mind-reading knowledge (cetopariyañāṇa): knowledge that knows another person’s mind. This section makes it, together with asking the person directly, a definitive method for discerning temperament.

⁷ Color kasiṇa (vaṇṇakasiṇa): a kasiṇa that takes a color such as blue, yellow, red, or white as its object. The method of cultivating a kasiṇa is given in the chapter “The Earth Kasiṇa.”

⁸ Basis for recollection (anussatiṭṭhāna): a recollection that takes the Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, and so forth as its object. These are unfolded in the chapters “The Six Recollections” and “Meditation Subjects of Recollection.”

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 General Statement of the Ten Modes and the First Four Modes 〔CSCD §47〕

Thus, regarding what was said above—“take up one among the forty meditation subjects”¹—the discrimination of meditation subjects should first be understood here according to these ten modes: according to numerical exposition, according to whether they bring access or absorption,² according to the division of jhāna, according to transcendence, according to extension or non-extension, according to object, according to plane, according to taking, according to condition, and according to suitability for temperament.

Here, “according to numerical exposition”: because “among the forty meditation subjects” was said, and these forty meditation subjects are the ten kasiṇas, ten kinds of foulness, ten recollections, four divine abodes, four immaterial states, one perception, and one defining.

The earth kasiṇa, water kasiṇa, fire kasiṇa, air kasiṇa, blue kasiṇa, yellow kasiṇa, red kasiṇa, white kasiṇa, light kasiṇa, and limited-space kasiṇa—these are the ten kasiṇas.

The bloated (uddhumātaka), the livid (vinīlaka), the festering (vipubbaka), the cut-up (vicchiddaka), the gnawed (vikkhāyitaka), the scattered (vikkhittaka), the hacked-and-scattered (hatavikkhittaka), the blood-smeared (lohitaka), the worm-infested (puḷuvaka), and the skeleton (aṭṭhika)—these are the ten kinds of foulness.

Recollection of the Buddha, recollection of the Dhamma, recollection of the Saṅgha, recollection of virtue, recollection of generosity, recollection of deities, mindfulness of death, mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of breathing, and recollection of peace—these are the ten recollections.

Loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity—these are the four divine abodes.

The base of infinite space, the base of infinite consciousness, the base of nothingness, and the base of neither perception nor non-perception—these are the four immaterial states. Perception of repulsiveness in food is the single perception. Defining of the four elements is the single defining. In this way, discrimination should be understood according to numerical exposition.

“According to whether they bring access or absorption”: apart from mindfulness of the body and mindfulness of breathing, the remaining eight recollections, together with perception of repulsiveness in food and defining of the four elements—only these ten meditation subjects bring access here; the rest bring absorption. This is according to whether they bring access or absorption.

“According to the division of jhāna”: here, among the meditation subjects that bring absorption, the ten kasiṇas together with mindfulness of breathing pertain to four jhānas; the ten kinds of foulness together with mindfulness of the body pertain to the first jhāna; the first three divine abodes pertain to three jhānas; and the fourth divine abode together with the four immaterial states pertains to the fourth jhāna. This is according to the division of jhāna.

“According to transcendence”: transcendence is twofold—transcendence of factors and transcendence of the object. In all meditation subjects that pertain to three or four jhānas, there is transcendence of factors, because second jhāna and so forth are attained on those same objects by transcending the jhāna factors of applied thought, sustained thought, and so forth. The fourth divine abode is the same: it too is attained on the same objects as loving-kindness and the rest after transcending gladness. In the four immaterial states, however, there is transcendence of the object, because the base of infinite space is attained by transcending any of the first nine kasiṇas, and the base of infinite consciousness and the rest are attained by transcending space and so forth. The remaining meditation subjects have no transcendence. This is according to transcendence.

§2 The Mode of Extension and Non-extension 〔CSCD §47〕

“According to extension and non-extension”: among these forty meditation subjects, only the ten kasiṇas should be extended. For as far as the kasiṇa is made to pervade, within that range the practitioner can hear sounds with the divine-ear element, see visible forms with the divine eye, and know the minds of other beings with the mind. Mindfulness of the body and the kinds of foulness, however, should not be extended. Why? Because they are confined to a location and because there is no benefit. How they are confined to a location will become clear in their respective methods of cultivation. Extending them merely extends a mass of corpses, without any benefit. In the answer to Sopāka’s question it was likewise said: “Blessed One, perception of visible form is clear; perception of skeletons is unclear.” For there perception of visible form is called clear because its sign is extended, while perception of skeletons is called unclear because it is not extended.

As for the statement, “He pervaded this great earth with nothing but perception of skeletons,” that is said with reference to the manifestation of the sign in a practitioner who has acquired [perception of skeletons]. Just as in the time of Dhammāsoka the karavīka bird saw its own reflection in mirrored walls on four sides, conceived that birds of its own kind were in every direction, and uttered a sweet call, so too that elder, having acquired perception of skeletons, saw the sign manifest in every direction and thought, “This whole great earth is filled with skeletons.”

[Question:] If that is so, does it not conflict with the statement that the jhānas of foulness have a measureless object?—It does not conflict. Some practitioners take up the sign on a large bloated [corpse] or large skeleton, while others take it up on a small specimen. On this account, some practitioners’ jhāna has a limited object and others’ has a measureless object. Alternatively, the statement “has a measureless object” refers to a practitioner who, without seeing the danger in extension, extends it. Nevertheless, because there is no benefit, it should not be extended.

Just as these should not be extended, so the rest should not be extended either. Why? First, regarding the sign of breathing: extending it merely extends a mass of air, and it is also confined to a location; thus, because it has a danger and is confined to a location, it should not be extended. The divine abodes take beings as their object; extending their sign merely extends a mass of beings, which serves no purpose, and therefore that too should not be extended. As for such statements as “dwells pervading one direction with a mind accompanied by loving-kindness,” they are said with reference to comprehensive taking: a practitioner who cultivates by comprehensively taking the beings in one dwelling place, then two dwelling places, and so forth, in sequence is said to “pervade one direction”; the sign is not being extended. Moreover, there is no counterpart sign⁴ here at all, and consequently nothing that could be extended; having a limited object or a measureless object should likewise be understood here solely according to comprehensive taking. The same applies to the objects of the immaterial states: space is merely what appears when the kasiṇa is removed, for attention should be given to it only by removing the kasiṇa, and extending it further yields nothing. Consciousness, meanwhile, is an intrinsic state⁵, and an intrinsic state cannot be extended. The disappearance of consciousness is merely the absence of consciousness. The object of the base of neither perception nor non-perception likewise should not be extended precisely because it is an intrinsic state. The remaining subjects should not be extended because they are signless: what is to be extended is a counterpart sign, but the objects of recollection of the Buddha and the rest are not counterpart signs, and therefore they should not be extended. This is according to extension and non-extension.

§3 The Four Modes of Object, Plane, Taking, and Condition 〔CSCD §47〕

“According to object”: among these forty meditation subjects, the ten kasiṇas, ten kinds of foulness, mindfulness of breathing, and mindfulness of the body—these twenty-two have a counterpart sign as their object; the rest do not have a counterpart sign as their object. Likewise, of the ten recollections, the eight apart from mindfulness of breathing and mindfulness of the body, together with perception of repulsiveness in food, defining of the four elements, the base of infinite consciousness, and the base of neither perception nor non-perception—these twelve have an intrinsic state as their object. The ten kasiṇas, ten kinds of foulness, mindfulness of breathing, and mindfulness of the body—these twenty-two have a sign as their object; the other six have an object that cannot be stated. Likewise, the festering, the blood-smeared, the worm-infested, mindfulness of breathing, the water, fire, and air kasiṇas, and those light kasiṇas whose object is the disk of sunlight and so forth—these eight have a moving object, and that only in the former part;⁶ the counterpart sign, however, is still. The rest do not have a moving object. This is according to object.

“According to plane”: here the ten kinds of foulness, mindfulness of the body, and perception of repulsiveness in food—these twelve do not occur among deities. Those twelve together with mindfulness of breathing—these thirteen do not occur in the Brahmā world. In immaterial existence, nothing apart from the four immaterial states occurs. Among humans, all occur. This is according to plane.

“According to taking”: discrimination should here be understood according to taking by seeing, taking by touch, and taking by hearing. Of these, the nine kasiṇas apart from the air kasiṇa, together with the ten kinds of foulness—these nineteen should be taken by seeing; that is, in the former part their signs should be taken by looking with the eye. In mindfulness of the body, the skin pentad⁷ is taken by seeing and the rest by hearing; thus its object should be taken by seeing and hearing. Mindfulness of breathing should be taken by touch, the air kasiṇa should be taken by seeing and touch, and the remaining eighteen should be taken by hearing. Here, the divine abode of equanimity and the four immaterial states are not to be taken by beginners; the remaining thirty-five may be taken. This is according to taking.

“According to condition”: among these meditation subjects, the nine kasiṇas apart from the space kasiṇa are conditions for the immaterial states; the ten kasiṇas are conditions for the supernormal knowledges; the three divine abodes are conditions for the fourth divine abode; each lower immaterial state is a condition for the next higher state; the base of neither perception nor non-perception is a condition for the attainment of cessation; and all [meditation subjects] are conditions for pleasant abiding, insight, and the accomplishment of existence. This is according to condition.

§4 The Mode of Suitability for Temperament 〔CSCD §47〕

“According to suitability for temperament”: discrimination should here be understood according to what is suitable for the temperaments. First, for a greed-tempered person, the ten kinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body—these eleven meditation subjects are suitable. For an aversion-tempered person, the four divine abodes and four color kasiṇas—these eight are suitable. For a delusion-tempered or discursive-thought-tempered person, only the single meditation subject of mindfulness of breathing is suitable. For a faith-tempered person, the first six recollections are suitable. For a discerning person, mindfulness of death, recollection of peace, defining of the four elements, and perception of repulsiveness in food—these four are suitable. The remaining kasiṇas and the four immaterial states are suitable for people of every temperament. Among the kasiṇas, any limited kasiṇa is suitable for a discursive-thought-tempered person, and a measureless kasiṇa for a delusion-tempered person.

In this way, discrimination should here be understood according to suitability for temperament. All this is stated according to direct opposition and extreme suitability; there is no wholesome cultivation that is unable to suppress greed and the rest or that gives no support to faith and the rest. Thus it was also said in the Meghiya Sutta:

“Four qualities should be cultivated further: foulness should be cultivated for abandoning greed; loving-kindness should be cultivated for abandoning ill will; mindfulness of breathing should be cultivated for abandoning discursive thought; and perception of impermanence should be cultivated for uprooting the conceit ‘I am.’”

In the Rāhula Sutta too, seven meditation subjects were taught to a single person in such terms as, “Rāhula, cultivate the cultivation of loving-kindness.” Therefore, there should be no fixation on the surface of the words alone; their intention should be sought everywhere. This completes the discrimination concerning meditation subjects in the expression “take up a meditation subject.”

§5 Explanation of “Taking”—Entrusting Oneself to the Buddha and to the Teacher 〔CSCD §48〕

As for the expression “take up,” its meaning is explained as follows. Following the method stated in “that practitioner should approach a good friend who gives a meditation subject,” the practitioner should approach a good friend of the kind described above, entrust himself⁸ to the Buddha, the Blessed One, or to the teacher, become endowed with inclination⁹ and resolution, and then request a meditation subject.

Here the practitioner should entrust himself to the Buddha, the Blessed One, in this way: “Blessed One, I relinquish this personhood to you.” A practitioner who lives in a remote lodging without thus entrusting himself cannot hold firm when a fearful object appears; he retreats to the edge of a village, mingles with householders, falls into improper seeking, and meets with disaster. A practitioner who has entrusted himself, however, feels no fear even when a fearful object appears. Reflecting, “Wise one, did you not long ago entrust yourself to the Buddhas?” he instead experiences only gladness. Suppose a man has a fine Kāsi cloth: if mice or insects gnaw it, he becomes distressed; but if he gives it to a bhikkhu who has no robe, then even on seeing that bhikkhu cut it into pieces, he experiences only gladness. The matter should be understood in this way.

A practitioner entrusting himself to the teacher should likewise say, “Venerable sir, I relinquish this personhood to you.” A practitioner who has not thus entrusted himself either becomes impervious to rebuke, or is difficult to teach and does not accept instruction, or acts as he pleases—going wherever he wishes without informing the teacher. The teacher does not support such a practitioner with material things or with Dhamma and does not teach him profound texts. Without these two kinds of support, he finds no footing in the Dispensation and before long falls into immorality or returns to lay life. A practitioner who has entrusted himself, however, neither becomes impervious to rebuke nor acts as he pleases; he receives instruction well, and all his conduct depends on the teacher. Receiving both kinds of support from the teacher, he reaches growth, increase, and fulfillment in the Dispensation, like the resident pupils of Cūḷapiṇḍapātika Tissa Thera.

It is said that three bhikkhus came to that elder. The first said, “Venerable sir, if you say to me just once, ‘For your sake,’ I can throw myself from a precipice a hundred persons deep.” The second said, “Venerable sir, if you say to me just once, ‘For your sake,’ I can grind this personhood away on a rock, beginning at the heels, until nothing remains.” The third said, “Venerable sir, if you say to me just once, ‘For your sake,’ I can stop my in-breaths and out-breaths and die.” The elder thought, “These bhikkhus are capable,” and taught them meditation subjects. Standing firm in his instruction, all three attained arahant fruition. This is the benefit of entrusting oneself. Hence it was said, “after entrusting himself to the Buddha, the Blessed One, or to the teacher.”

§6 Six Inclinations and Two Resolutions 〔CSCD §49〕

As for “having become endowed with inclination and resolution”: the practitioner should become endowed with inclination in six modes, beginning with non-greed. A person endowed with inclination in this way can attain one of the three kinds of awakening. As it is said: “Six inclinations lead bodhisattas’ awakening to maturity: bodhisattas inclined to non-greed see danger in greed; inclined to non-aversion, they see danger in aversion; inclined to non-delusion, they see danger in delusion; inclined to renunciation, they see danger in the household life; inclined to seclusion, they see danger in company; inclined to escape, they see danger in every kind of existence and destination.” For all stream-enterers, once-returners, non-returners, destroyers of the influxes, paccekabuddhas, and Rightly and Fully Enlightened Ones of the past, future, and present attained their respective distinctions through these six modes. Therefore, the practitioner should become endowed with inclination in these six modes. And because he resolves upon that, he should also become endowed with resolution; that is, he should resolve upon concentration, esteem concentration, and incline toward concentration, and he should resolve upon nibbāna, esteem nibbāna, and incline toward nibbāna.

§7 How the Teacher Knows Temperament, the Three Ways of Teaching, Taking Note While Listening, and the Chapter’s End 〔CSCD §50〕

When a person thus endowed with inclination and resolution requests a meditation subject, a teacher who has mind-reading knowledge should observe the course of his mind and thereby know his temperament. Other [teachers] should inquire in such ways as these: What sort of temperament do you have? What states occur frequently in you? To what do you feel at ease attending? Toward which meditation subject does your mind incline? Having learned this, the teacher should teach him a meditation subject suitable for his temperament.

When teaching, the teacher should teach in three ways: to a person who has already studied a meditation subject, he should have it recited in one or two sittings and then give it; to a person living nearby, he should teach each time the person comes; and to a person who, after studying it, wishes to go elsewhere, he should teach neither too briefly nor too expansively.

Taking the earth kasiṇa first, the teacher should explain these nine aspects: the four defects of a kasiṇa, the making of a kasiṇa, the method of cultivating what has been made, the two signs, the two kinds of concentration, the seven kinds of suitability and unsuitability, tenfold absorption-skill, the balancing of energy, and the method of absorption. For the other meditation subjects, the teacher should likewise explain what is appropriate in each case. All this will become clear in their respective methods of cultivation.

While the meditation subject is being taught in this way, the practitioner should take note and listen. “Taking note” means fastening each individual aspect in this way: this is the lower phrase; this is the upper phrase; this is its meaning; this is its intention; this is its simile. Only when a practitioner takes note in this way and listens respectfully is the meditation subject well received. On that basis the practitioner then accomplishes a distinguished attainment; others do not. This completes the explanation of the expression “take up.”

At this point, the words “approach a good friend and take up one among the forty meditation subjects that accords with the practitioner’s own temperament” have been fully explained in every respect.

　　Thus, in the Visuddhimagga, composed to bring joy to good people,

　　in the division on the cultivation of concentration,

　　the third chapter, entitled “The Exposition of Taking Up a Meditation Subject.”

Notes

¹ Meditation subject (kammaṭṭhāna): the general term for the object taken up in cultivating concentration and the method of its cultivation. The first four sections of this chapter discuss the preparations before taking such a subject up; the present section gives their number as forty and explains how they are taken up.

² Bringing access / bringing absorption (upacāravaha／appanāvaha): a distinction based on the concentration a meditation subject can bring about—a subject that goes only as far as access concentration brings access; a subject that can enter absorption concentration brings absorption. The distinction between access concentration and absorption concentration appears in this chapter’s section “The Eight Questions and Classification of Concentration.”

³ Kasiṇa (kasiṇa): a cultivation practice that takes one color or appearance—earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, and the like—and makes it pervade. Its preparation and cultivation are not treated in this chapter; the present section gives only its names and classifications.

⁴ Counterpart sign (paṭibhāga-nimitta): a pure mental sign that arises when the learning sign first taken by the eye or another faculty has become mature through cultivation. Its arising and cultivation are not treated in this chapter.

⁵ Intrinsic state (sabhāvadhamma): something that has its own nature and is not a sign produced through cultivation, such as consciousness. The present section distinguishes it from a counterpart sign on the ground that it cannot be extended.

⁶ Former part (pubbabhāga): the initial stage of a cultivation practice, distinct from the later stage after the sign has been accomplished.

⁷ Skin pentad (tacapañcaka): the first five among the thirty-two body parts contemplated in mindfulness of the body—head-hairs, body-hairs, nails, teeth, and skin. The details of mindfulness of the body are not treated in this chapter.

⁸ Entrusting oneself (attaniyyātana): the practice of verbally relinquishing oneself to the Buddha or to the teacher. The present section gives both the fault of not entrusting oneself and the benefit of doing so.

⁹ Inclination (ajjhāsaya): what the mind tends toward and rests upon. The present section describes its six forms as non-greed, non-aversion, non-delusion, renunciation, seclusion, and escape.