清淨道論 白話全本 · 冊2Visuddhimagga · Complete Vernacular · Vol. 2

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Why This Chapter Is Composed and the List of the Thirteen Practices 〔CSCD §22〕

Two: Exposition of the Ascetic Practices

Now, the kind of virtue described earlier¹ is purified by such qualities as fewness of wishes and contentment. In order to fulfill those qualities, a meditator who has undertaken virtue should undertake the ascetic practices.² For when the stains on his virtue have been washed away by the water of such qualities as fewness of wishes, contentment, austerity,³ seclusion, non-accumulation, the arousing of energy, and ease of support, his virtue will become exceedingly pure and his observances will be fulfilled. Thus, with all his conduct purified by the blameless qualities of virtue and observance, he stands established in the three ancient noble lineages⁴ and becomes capable of attaining the fourth noble lineage, called delight in development. Therefore we shall begin the discussion of the ascetic practices.

For sons of good family who have abandoned the food of the world, have no concern for body or life, and desire only to fulfill the way of conformity, the Blessed One permitted thirteen ascetic practices. They are: the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice, the triple-robe-wearer’s practice, the alms-food-eater’s practice, the house-to-house-seeker’s practice, the one-session-eater’s practice, the bowl-food-eater’s practice, the later-food-refuser’s practice, the forest-dweller’s practice, the tree-root-dweller’s practice, the open-air-dweller’s practice, the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice,⁵ the any-bed-user’s practice, and the sitter’s practice. Here—

By meaning and by characteristic and the rest, by undertaking and its method, By distinction, by breach, and by the benefit of each, Also by the wholesome triad, by the division beginning with “shaken,” And by brief and detailed treatment—the analysis should be understood.

§2 Meanings—The Two Robe Practices and the First Two Food Practices 〔CSCD §23〕

Here, first, as to “by meaning.” Whatever lies in such places as a roadway, a charnel ground, or a rubbish heap is called “refuse-rag”: because it rests upon dust and, in the sense of rising above it, is like a heap of dust in each such place; or because, like dust, it moves toward a repulsive condition—this is what “moves toward a repulsive condition” means. A robe made of refuse-rag that has acquired this derivation is called a refuse-rag robe, and one whose virtue consists in wearing it is a refuse-rag wearer. The refuse-rag wearer’s practice is the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice. “Practice” here means a cause. Thus it should be understood that by undertaking it he becomes a refuse-rag wearer—this is the designation for that undertaking.

By this same method, one whose virtue consists in the three robes called the outer robe, upper robe, and lower robe⁶ is a triple-robe wearer. The triple-robe wearer’s practice is the triple-robe-wearer’s practice.

The falling of morsels of food called “food obtained by begging” is “almsfood”—that is, morsels given by others fall into the bowl. He seeks that almsfood, approaching one house after another in search of it, and so he is an alms-food eater. Or falling for almsfood is his observance, and so he is “one who falls for almsfood”; here “falling” means going. “One who falls for almsfood” is an alms-food eater. The alms-food eater’s practice is the alms-food-eater’s practice.

“Giving” is called a break; what is apart from a break is “without a break”—that is, unbroken. What is accompanied by the unbroken is “successive”—that is, going from house to house without a break. Going successively is his virtue, and so he is “one who goes successively”; one who goes successively is a house-to-house seeker. His practice is the house-to-house-seeker’s practice.

§3 Meanings—The Remaining Three Food Practices and the First Four Dwelling Practices 〔CSCD §23〕

Eating at one seat is “one-session eating”; one whose virtue consists in this is a one-session eater. His practice is the one-session-eater’s practice.

Because a second vessel is refused, the morsel of food kept solely in a single bowl is “bowl food.” Now, when taking bowl food, one who has the perception of bowl food and whose virtue consists in bowl food is a bowl-food eater. His practice is the bowl-food-eater’s practice.

The “refuser”⁷ in “later-food refuser” is an indeclinable with the meaning of refusal. Food obtained after one has been satisfied is called “later food”; eating that later food is “eating later”; one who, with the perception of eating later, makes eating later his virtue is a later-food eater. One who is not a later-food eater is a later-food refuser. This is the name of one who, by undertaking the practice, has refused leftover food. But the Commentary⁸ says that this is the name of a kind of bird: it takes a fruit in its beak, and after that fruit falls, it does not eat another. Since this person is like that, he is a later-food refuser. His practice is the later-food-refuser’s practice.

One whose virtue consists in dwelling in the forest is a forest dweller. His practice is the forest-dweller’s practice.

Dwelling at the root of a tree is “tree-root dwelling”; one whose virtue consists in this is a tree-root dweller. The tree-root dweller’s practice is the tree-root-dweller’s practice. The same method applies to the open-air-dweller’s practice and the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice.

§4 Meanings—The Any-Bed-User’s Practice, the Sitter’s Practice, and the Name “Ascetic Practice” 〔CSCD §23〕

Whatever has been prepared is “as prepared”—this is a designation for the lodging first assigned with the words, “This one falls to you.” One whose virtue consists in dwelling in that place as prepared is an any-bed user. His practice is the any-bed-user’s practice.

Having refused lying down, he dwells sitting; this is his virtue, and so he is a sitter. His practice is the sitter’s practice.

All these, because they are the practices of a bhikkhu who has shaken off defilements through each respective undertaking, are “ascetic practices”; or the knowledge that acquires the name “shaken” because it shakes off defilements has these as its practices, and so they are “ascetic practices.” Or again, because they shake off their opposites, they are both “shaken” and practices belonging to the way, and so they are “ascetic practices.” In this way the analysis should first be understood here according to meaning.

§5 Analysis by Characteristic, Function, Manifestation, and Proximate Cause 〔CSCD §23〕

All these have the volition of undertaking as their characteristic.⁹ It has also been said: “The one who undertakes is the person. That by which he undertakes is these phenomena of mind and mental factors. The volition of undertaking is the ascetic practice. What he refuses is the object.” All these have the breaking down of greed as their function, freedom from greed as their manifestation, and noble qualities such as fewness of wishes as their proximate cause. In this way the analysis should be understood here according to characteristic and the rest.

§6 The Method of Undertaking—Before Whom They Are Undertaken 〔CSCD §23〕

Among the five beginning with “undertaking and its method,” all the ascetic practices should, while the Blessed One is living, be undertaken in the Blessed One’s own presence. After his final nibbāna, they should be undertaken in the presence of a great disciple. When no great disciple is present, they should be undertaken in the presence of one whose taints are destroyed, a non-returner, a once-returner, a stream-enterer, one who knows three Piṭakas, one who knows two Piṭakas, one who knows one Piṭaka, one who knows one collection of recitation, or a teacher of the Commentaries. When none of these is present, they should be undertaken in the presence of one who maintains the ascetic practices. When not even such a person is present, one should sweep the courtyard of a shrine, sit squatting,¹⁰ and undertake them as though speaking in the presence of the Rightly and Fully Enlightened One; one may also undertake them by oneself. Here the story should be told of the elder brother among the two elder brothers at Mount Cetiya and his fewness of wishes concerning the ascetic practices. This, first, is the common account.

Notes

¹ The kind of virtue described earlier: the virtue discussed in Chapter 1 of this work; the treatise itself identifies what this chapter takes up as the purification of that virtue.

² Ascetic practice (dhutaṅga): a component of practice whose meaning is to shake off defilements—the thirteen modes of conduct discussed in this chapter.

³ Austerity (sallekhatā): conduct that pares away defilements; listed with fewness of wishes and contentment as a quality that purifies virtue.

⁴ Noble lineage (ariyavaṃsa): the lineage of the noble ones. The treatise names three ancient noble lineages and delight in development as the fourth; it does not give the names of the three in this unit.

⁵ Charnel-ground-dweller’s practice (sosānikaṅga): the eleventh of the thirteen. In the name of this numbered set, this edition renders it “charnel-ground dwelling,” while a separate occurrence of susāna is rendered “charnel ground”; the one expression occupies two positions and is rendered according to each context.

⁶ Outer robe, upper robe, and lower robe (saṅghāṭi・uttarāsaṅga・antaravāsaka): the three robes of a bhikkhu; the triple-robe-wearer’s practice is limited to these three.

⁷ “Refuser” (khalu): the treatise itself identifies it as an indeclinable with the meaning of refusal; thus “later-food refuser” means one who does not eat later food.

⁸ Commentary (aṭṭhakathā): a general name for works that explain the canonical texts handed down from ancient times.

⁹ Characteristic (lakkhaṇa), function (rasa), manifestation (paccupaṭṭhāna), and proximate cause (padaṭṭhāna): this work’s fourfold formula for explaining a phenomenon—its own characteristic, its function, the mode in which it appears, and its nearest cause.

¹⁰ Squatting (ukkuṭika): a seated posture with the body crouched; elsewhere in this work the same word, in a passage on deportment in the chapter on meditation subjects, is read as “walking rapidly”—one expression in two positions, each rendered according to its context.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Refuse-Rag-Wearer’s Practice—Undertaking and the List of Twenty-Three Kinds of Refuse-Rag 〔CSCD §24〕

One: Discussion of the Refuse-Rag-Wearer’s Practice

Now we shall explain the undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit¹ of each practice. First, the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice is undertaken through either of these two statements: “I refuse robes given by householders; I undertake the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice.” This, first, is the undertaking here.

One who has undertaken the ascetic practice in this way should take any one of the following kinds of cloth: what is discarded in a charnel ground, discarded at a shop door, a roadway cloth, a rubbish-heap cloth, a childbirth cloth, a bathing cloth, a bathing-place cloth, a going-and-returning cloth, what is scorched by fire, chewed by cattle, chewed by termites, chewed by mice, cut at the end, cut at the edge, carried away from a banner, a shrine cloth, an ascetic’s cloth, a coronation cloth, what is made by supernormal power, dropped on a road, blown by the wind, given by deities, or cast up by the sea. He should tear it apart, discard the weak portions, wash the sound portions and make a robe, then put aside his former householder-given robe and use it.

§2 Individual Explanations of the Twenty-Three Kinds 〔CSCD §24〕

Here, “what is discarded in a charnel ground” is what has fallen in a charnel ground. “What is discarded at a shop door” is what has fallen at a shop door. A “roadway cloth” is cloth thrown from a window onto a roadway by people seeking merit. A “rubbish-heap cloth” is cloth thrown at a rubbish heap. A “childbirth cloth” is a robe used to wipe away the impurities of birth and then discarded. It is said that the mother of the minister Tissa² used a robe worth one hundred to wipe away the impurities of birth and, thinking, “Those who wear refuse-rag robes will take it,” had it discarded on the road by the palmyra-tree fence; the bhikkhus took only its worn part. A “bathing cloth” is what people being exorcised discard and leave after bathing all the way over the head, calling it “an inauspicious cloth.”

A “bathing-place cloth” is old cloth discarded at a bathing place. A “going-and-returning cloth” is what people discard after returning from a charnel ground and bathing. “What is scorched by fire” is something burned in one place; people discard such a thing. “Chewed by cattle” and the rest are clear; people discard such things too. “Carried away from a banner”: people boarding a ship tie up a banner before boarding, and it may be taken once it has passed out of their sight; also, any banner tied up and standing on a battlefield may be taken when both armies have departed.

A “shrine cloth” is one offered by being wrapped around an anthill. An “ascetic’s cloth” is one belonging to a bhikkhu. A “coronation cloth” is a robe discarded at the place of a king’s consecration. “What is made by supernormal power” is the robe of a “Come, bhikkhu” bhikkhu.³ “Dropped on a road” is what has fallen midway; but if something belonging to an owner has fallen through forgetfulness, one should wait a little before taking it. “Blown by the wind” is what has been blown and fallen far away; it may be taken when its owner cannot be seen. “Given by deities” is what deities give, as in the case of the Elder Anuruddha.⁴ “Cast up by the sea” is what sea waves cast onto the shore.

§3 Distinguishing What Is Not Refuse-Rag and the Two Pure Forms and One Impure Form 〔CSCD §24〕

Whatever is given with the words “We give this to the Saṅgha,” or is obtained while begging for cloth, is not refuse-rag. Among things given by bhikkhus, whatever is distributed according to seniority, or is a robe belonging to a lodging, is likewise not refuse-rag; only what is given without distribution is refuse-rag. Among those: when a donor places it at a bhikkhu’s feet and the bhikkhu places it in the refuse-rag wearer’s hands to give it, it is called “pure on one side.” When it is placed in a bhikkhu’s hands and given, and that bhikkhu places it at the refuse-rag wearer’s feet, it too is “pure on one side.” When it is placed at the bhikkhu’s feet and he likewise gives it, it is “pure on both sides.” When it is received in the hands and then placed in the hands, it is called “a robe that is not superior.” Having understood these distinctions among refuse-rag robes, the refuse-rag wearer should use the robe. This is the method here.

§4 The Three Grades, Breach, Benefits, and Three Verses of the Refuse-Rag-Wearer’s Practice 〔CSCD §24〕

This is the distinction: refuse-rag wearers are of three kinds—superior, medium, and mild.⁵ Here, one who takes only what has been discarded in a charnel ground is superior; one who takes what people place while thinking, “Those gone forth will take it,” is medium; one who takes what is given at the feet is mild.

For any one among these, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment he accepts, by his own choice, something given by a householder. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: because of the statement “going forth in dependence⁶ on a refuse-rag robe,” one’s practice accords with the dependence; one stands established in the first noble lineage;⁷ there is no suffering of guarding; one lives without depending on another; there is no fear owing to thieves; there is no craving for use; one has a requisite appropriate for an ascetic; one has a requisite praised by the Blessed One as “few, easy to obtain, and blameless”; one inspires confidence; the fruits of fewness of wishes and the rest are fulfilled; the right way of practice increases; and later people follow what they see.

To break Māra’s army, the meditator who wears refuse-rag Shines in battle like a warrior clad in armor.

Having cast off fine robes such as cloth from Kāsi, Who would not wear the refuse-rag worn by the Honored One of the world?

Therefore a bhikkhu, remembering his own pledge, Should delight in refuse-rag that accords with the conduct of yoga.

　　This, first, is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice.

§5 The Triple-Robe-Wearer’s Practice—Undertaking and the Method of Dyeing the Robes 〔CSCD §25〕

Two: Discussion of the Triple-Robe-Wearer’s Practice

Next, the triple-robe-wearer’s practice is undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse a fourth robe; I undertake the triple-robe-wearer’s practice.”

When that triple-robe wearer has obtained robe material, it may be set aside temporarily as long as he is unable to make it because of bodily illness, cannot obtain a supervisor, or lacks something such as a needle; there is no fault due to setting it aside temporarily. But from the time it has been dyed it may no longer be set aside. One who does so is called a thief of the ascetic practice.⁸ This is its method.

§6 The Three Grades of the Triple-Robe-Wearer’s Practice 〔CSCD §25〕

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, when dyeing the robes, the superior practitioner should first dye either the lower robe or the upper robe, put it on, and dye the other; after draping that one, he should dye the outer robe. The outer robe may not be worn as a lower robe. This is his duty in a lodging at the edge of a village. In the forest he may wash and dye two robes together, but he should sit nearby so that, on seeing someone, he can pull a dyed robe over himself. The medium practitioner may wear or drape what is called “the dyeing-time robe” in the dyeing hall and carry out the work of dyeing. The mild practitioner may wear or drape the robes of fellow bhikkhus⁹ and carry out the work of dyeing. He may also use the spread found there, but may not carry it away; and he may occasionally use the robes of fellow bhikkhus. Apart from the three robes, a meditator who maintains the triple-robe-wearer’s practice may have only a fourth shoulder cloth that is in current use; and even that may be only one span¹⁰ wide and three cubits long.

§7 Breach, Benefits, and Two Verses of the Triple-Robe-Wearer’s Practice 〔CSCD §25〕

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment a fourth robe is accepted. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: a triple-robe-wearing bhikkhu is content with robes that protect the body. Therefore, like a bird, he travels only with what he carries; he has few undertakings; avoids storing robes; lives lightly; abandons greed for extra robes; and, acting with moderation concerning allowable things, fulfills the conduct of austerity.¹¹ The fruits of fewness of wishes and the rest are fulfilled—qualities such as these are accomplished.

Having abandoned craving for extra robes and withdrawn from storage, The meditator who knows the flavor of contentment’s happiness becomes a triple-robe wearer.

Therefore, as a bird travels together with its wings, the supreme meditator travels only with his robes; One who wishes to wander in comfort should delight in the limitation of robes.

　　This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the triple-robe-wearer’s practice.

Notes

¹ Undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit: the fivefold framework established by the treatise for each of the thirteen practices, repeated once for each; its labels appear under every practice.

² Mother of the minister Tissa (Tissāmaccamātā): the only personal name in this unit. The treatise attaches “it is said” to her story; the form of the name is a compound of the minister’s name and “mother.”

³ Robe of a “Come, bhikkhu” bhikkhu (ehibhikkhucīvara): the robe that appears naturally when the Blessed One ordains someone with the words “Come, bhikkhu,” and is therefore called made by supernormal power.

⁴ Elder Anuruddha (Anuruddhatthera): the treatise only uses “as in the case of the Elder Anuruddha” as an example of a robe given by deities and does not relate the story.

⁵ Superior, medium, and mild (ukkaṭṭha・majjhima・muduka): the names of the three grades used throughout the thirteen practices. The word for “mild” literally means “soft”; this edition reads it according to the sequence of the three grades.

⁶ Dependence (nissaya): the first of the four dependences for going forth established by the Vinaya, namely the requisite on which one gone forth should depend. Elsewhere in this work, in the chapter on dependent arising, the same term is read as “support”—one expression in two positions, each rendered according to its context.

⁷ First noble lineage: the four noble lineages are introduced in the general unit of this chapter; here the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice is connected to the first.

⁸ Thief of the ascetic practice (dhutaṅgacora): a judgment on one who bears the name without carrying out its reality; the same expression occurs again under the forest-dweller’s practice in the unit on the five dwelling practices.

⁹ Fellow bhikkhu (sabhāgabhikkhu): a bhikkhu who has undertaken the same practice and shares one’s mode of conduct.

¹⁰ Span (vidatthi): a unit of length already rendered this way in the chapter on virtue; the shoulder cloth is limited to one span in width and three cubits in length.

¹¹ Conduct of austerity (sallekhavuttitā): austerity is conduct that pares away defilements; the treatise says that acting with moderation concerning allowable things fulfills this conduct.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Alms-Food-Eater’s Practice 〔CSCD §26〕

Three: Discussion of the Alms-Food-Eater’s Practice

The alms-food-eater’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse extra gains; I undertake the alms-food-eater’s practice.”

An alms-food eater should not accept these fourteen kinds of meals:¹ a meal for the Saṅgha, a designated meal, an invitation meal, a ticket meal, a fortnightly meal, an observance-day meal, a first-day meal, a guest meal, a traveler’s meal, a meal for the sick, a meal for a caregiver, a monastery meal, a regular meal, or a meal by rotation. But if, rather than saying “Please accept a meal for the Saṅgha” and so forth, people give by saying, “May the Saṅgha take a meal in our house; please take a meal too,” it may be accepted. A foodless ticket obtained from the Saṅgha and food cooked in one’s dwelling may likewise be accepted. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner takes food brought from in front and from behind; while standing at the bowl door, he also hands his bowl to those who wish to take it; and he takes food brought and given at the place of withdrawal,² but does not sit down to accept food that day. The medium practitioner sits down and accepts that day, but does not accept an invitation for the next day. The mild practitioner accepts food for the next day and the day after. The latter two do not obtain the happiness of dwelling at liberty; only the superior practitioner does. It is said that a gathering on the noble lineages was held in a certain village. The superior practitioner said to the other two, “Come, friends, let us go hear the Dhamma.” One replied, “Venerable sir, someone has asked me to sit down.” The other said, “Venerable sir, I have accepted tomorrow’s meal from someone.” Thus both missed it; the other went on alms round early, then attended and received the flavor of the Dhamma.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment one accepts an extra gain such as a meal for the Saṅgha. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: because of the statement “going forth in dependence on morsels of almsfood,” one’s practice accords with the dependence; one stands established in the second noble lineage;³ one lives without depending on another; one has a requisite praised by the Blessed One as “few, easy to obtain, and blameless”;⁴ laziness is crushed; livelihood is purified; the practice of the training rules is fulfilled; one does not support another; one acts for the benefit of others; conceit is abandoned; craving for flavor is checked; there is no offense under the two training rules concerning group meals and successive meals;⁵ one conforms to fewness of wishes and the rest; the right practice increases; and one has compassion for later people.

Content with morsels of almsfood, living without depending on another, Having abandoned greed for food, the meditator becomes one of the four quarters.⁶

He removes laziness, and his livelihood is purified; Therefore one of good wisdom should not despise the alms round.

For one such as this—

“For an alms-food-eating bhikkhu, Who supports himself and does not support another— Even the deities envy such a person, If he does not depend on gain and renown.”

　　This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the alms-food-eater’s practice.

§2 The House-to-House-Seeker’s Practice 〔CSCD §27〕

Four: Discussion of the House-to-House-Seeker’s Practice

The house-to-house-seeker’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse a greedy course; I undertake the house-to-house-seeker’s practice.”

A house-to-house seeker should stand at the village gate, observing whether danger is present. A lane or village in which danger is present may be passed over while he goes for alms elsewhere. If nothing is obtained at a particular house door, lane, or village, he should regard it as not a village and leave. But if something is obtained at a place, that place may not be passed over. This bhikkhu should enter early, so that he can leave an inconvenient place and go elsewhere. If people give at the dwelling, or people met along the road take his bowl and give almsfood, it may be accepted. Even when walking on a journey, he may not pass over a village reached at alms time; he must go for alms there. If nothing or only a little is obtained, he should proceed according to the succession of villages. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner does not take food brought from in front, from behind, or even to the place of withdrawal, but hands over his bowl at the bowl door. In this ascetic practice no one can equal the Elder Mahākassapa;⁷ even in his case only the place where he handed over his bowl is seen. The medium practitioner accepts what is brought from in front or behind and what is brought to the place of withdrawal, and also hands over his bowl at the bowl door, but does not sit waiting for alms; in this way he conforms to the superior alms-food eater. The mild practitioner sits down and waits that day.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached as soon as a greedy course arises. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: one is always new among families; one is like the moon; stinginess toward families is abandoned; compassion is impartial; there are none of the dangers of one intimate with families;⁸ one does not delight in invitations; one does not ask that food be brought; and one conforms to fewness of wishes and the rest.

Like the moon, always new among families, Without stinginess and compassionate toward all alike, Freed from the dangers of one intimate with families— Such a bhikkhu is a house-to-house seeker.

Therefore, abandoning a greedy course, With eyes cast down, seeing only a yoke’s length,⁹ One who wants liberty of movement upon the earth Should wisely seek alms house by house.

　　This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the house-to-house-seeker’s practice.

§3 The One-Session-Eater’s Practice 〔CSCD §28〕

Five: Discussion of the One-Session-Eater’s Practice

The one-session-eater’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse eating at various seats; I undertake the one-session-eater’s practice.”

When a one-session eater sits down in the sitting hall, he should not sit in the senior elder’s seat. Thinking, “This one will fall to me,” he should observe an appropriate seat and sit down. If his meal is not finished when his teacher or preceptor arrives, he may rise and perform his duty. But the Elder Cūḷābhaya, Knower of the Three Piṭakas,¹⁰ said: “He should preserve either his seat or his meal. This person’s meal is unfinished, so let him perform the duty, but let him not eat the food again.” This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner may take nothing beyond the portion of food to which he has put down his hand, whether it is little or much. Even if people bring ghee and the like saying, “The elder has eaten nothing,” it may be taken only as medicine, not as food. The medium practitioner may take more as long as the rice in his bowl is not exhausted; such a person is called “one whose limit is the food.” The mild practitioner may eat as long as he has not risen from the seat. He is either “one whose limit is the water,” because he eats as long as he has not taken water for washing the bowl, or “one whose limit is the seat,” because he eats as long as he has not risen.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment one eats at various seats. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: little illness; little affliction; lightness; strength; dwelling in comfort; no offense because the food is not leftover; removal of craving for flavor; and conformity to fewness of wishes and the rest.

Illnesses conditioned by food cannot overcome The meditator who delights in eating at one session; He does not crave flavors Or allow his own work to fall into neglect.

Thus, for eating in one session—a cause of dwelling in comfort, Approached by those who delight in purity and austerity— The meditator whose mind is pure Should arouse delight.

　　This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the one-session-eater’s practice.

§4 The Bowl-Food-Eater’s Practice 〔CSCD §29〕

Six: Discussion of the Bowl-Food-Eater’s Practice

The bowl-food-eater’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse a second vessel; I undertake the bowl-food-eater’s practice.”

When drinking gruel, if a bowl-food eater receives a side dish¹¹ held in a vessel, he should either eat the side dish first or drink the gruel first. If he puts it into the gruel—and puts in a side dish such as rotten fish—the gruel becomes repulsive; one should make it non-repulsive before eating, so the statement concerns a side dish of that kind. But non-repulsive things such as honey and sugar should be put in. When taking them, he should take only an appropriate amount. Raw greens may be held in the hand and eaten; otherwise they should be placed directly in the bowl. Because a second vessel has been refused, even another leaf is not allowed. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, except when eating sugarcane, the superior practitioner may not spit out even refuse; nor may he break apart and eat a ball of rice, fish, meat, or cake. The medium practitioner may break food apart with one hand and eat it; he is called “one yoked to the hand.” The mild practitioner is called “one yoked to the bowl”: whatever can be put into the bowl, he may break apart with hand or teeth and eat.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment a second vessel is accepted. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: craving for various flavors is removed; excessive desire is abandoned; one sees in food only the measure of its use; there is no weariness from carrying small plates and the like; one eats without distraction; and one conforms to fewness of wishes and the rest.

Having abandoned the distraction of various vessels, with eyes cast down, The good observer of vows seems to dig up the roots of craving for flavor;

And, as though bearing contentment in visible form, he is well minded— Who other than a bowl-food eater uses food and drink in this way?

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the bowl-food-eater’s practice.

§5 The Later-Food-Refuser’s Practice 〔CSCD §30〕

Seven: Discussion of the Later-Food-Refuser’s Practice

The later-food-refuser’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse leftover food; I undertake the later-food-refuser’s practice.”

After being satisfied,¹² a later-food refuser should not have food made allowable¹³ and then eat it. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, for the superior practitioner there is no satisfaction with the first morsel; rather, satisfaction that blocks the remainder occurs when he swallows it. After being satisfied in this way, he swallows the first morsel and eats no second morsel. The medium practitioner eats only the portion of food at which satisfaction occurs. The mild practitioner eats as long as he has not risen from the seat.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment one has food made allowable after satisfaction and then eats it. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: one is remote from the offense of eating food that is not leftover; there is no gluttony; no storage of food; no second search; and conformity to fewness of wishes and the rest.

The wise person bears no weariness from searching and makes no store; The meditator who refuses later food abandons gluttony.

Therefore a meditator who wishes to shake off faults Should cultivate this ascetic practice, praised by the Well-Gone One and productive of growth in such qualities as contentment.

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the later-food-refuser’s practice.

Notes

¹ Fourteen kinds of meals: the treatise gives only their fourteen names and does not explain each. In particular, it never explains the meanings of “regular meal” and “meal by rotation”; this edition establishes their readings from the literal forms of the terms.

² Place of withdrawal (paṭikkamana): the place in a village where a bhikkhu withdraws and sits after receiving food on alms round.

³ Second noble lineage: the four noble lineages are introduced in the general unit of this chapter; here the alms-food-eater’s practice is connected with the second (the preceding unit connects the refuse-rag practice with the first).

⁴ “Few, easy to obtain, and blameless”: this citation occurs three times in the chapter. The unit on the two robe practices identifies its sources; this unit does not; and the unit on the five dwelling practices cites its words without quotation marks or a source.

⁵ Group meals and successive meals (gaṇabhojana・paramparabhojana): two training rules concerning conduct established by the Vinaya; an alms-food eater incurs no offense under them.

⁶ One of the four quarters (cātuddisa): one who is unattached in the four directions and can dwell and travel anywhere.

⁷ Elder Mahākassapa (Mahākassapatthera): the treatise only states that no one equals him and does not relate his conduct.

⁸ One intimate with families (kulūpaka): a bhikkhu who draws close to household families and constantly goes among them.

⁹ A yoke’s length (yugamatta): the limit of one’s gaze while walking, seeing only the ground one yoke’s length ahead.

¹⁰ Elder Cūḷābhaya, Knower of the Three Piṭakas (Tipiṭakacūḷābhayatthera): the treatise quotes his statement without judging whether it is right or wrong.

¹¹ Side dish (byañjana): a dish served with rice, contrasted with “gruel” (yāgu).

¹² Satisfaction (pavāraṇā): a boundary established by the Vinaya—when accepting food reaches a certain condition, it blocks what follows; food obtained afterward is therefore called later food.

¹³ Making allowable (kappiya): a Vinaya procedure that makes something otherwise impure or improper to accept available for use; this practice refuses having food made allowable after satisfaction and then eating it.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Forest-Dweller’s Practice—Undertaking and the Measures of Village, Village Vicinity, and Forest 〔CSCD §31〕

Eight: Discussion of the Forest-Dweller’s Practice

The forest-dweller’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse a lodging at the edge of a village; I undertake the forest-dweller’s practice.”

A forest dweller should leave behind a lodging at the edge of a village and cause the dawn sign¹ to arise in the forest. Here, the village itself together with its vicinity is a lodging at the edge of a village.

A “village” is any place consisting of one house or many houses, enclosed or unenclosed, inhabited or uninhabited—even any caravan site occupied for more than four months.

The “vicinity of a village” is as follows. In an enclosed village with two boundary pillars, as at Anurādhapura,² it extends as far as a person of medium strength, standing at the inner boundary pillar, can throw a stone. The Vinaya reciters⁴ say the standard is the area within the place where a stone lands when young men display their strength, extend their arms, and throw it. The Suttanta reciters say it is thrown according to the standard for driving away crows. In an unenclosed village, when a woman standing at the doorway of the outermost house throws water from a vessel, the place where the water falls is the vicinity of the house. From there, according to the method stated above, one stone’s throw is the village, and a second is the vicinity of the village.

As for the “forest,” the Vinaya method first says: “Apart from the village and the vicinity of the village, all the rest is forest.” The Abhidhamma method says: “Outside the boundary pillars, all is forest.” In this Suttanta method, however, its characteristic is: “A lodging called forest is at least five hundred bows away.” This is to be determined using a strung teacher’s bow,⁵ measuring from the boundary pillar of an enclosed village, or from the first stone’s throw of an unenclosed village, as far as the enclosure of the lodging.

If the lodging is unenclosed, then the first sleeping place, dining hall, regular meeting place, Bodhi tree, or shrine—even if it stands some distance from the sleeping place—is taken as the boundary and the measurement starts there: so it is said in the Vinaya Commentaries. The Majjhima Commentary, however, says that the vicinity of the lodging should be calculated just as that of a village, and the measurement made between the stone’s-throw limits of the two. This is the measure here.

Even if the village is nearby and people in the lodging can hear human voices, when a mountain, river, or the like prevents direct travel, five hundred bows should be measured along whatever customary route leads there, even if the route requires passage by boat. Whoever blocks the road to the nearby village here and there in order to fulfill his practice is a thief of the ascetic practice.⁷

If the preceptor or teacher of a forest-dwelling bhikkhu falls ill and suitable provisions cannot be obtained in the forest, he should take him to a lodging at the edge of the village and care for him. But he should leave early and cause the dawn sign to arise in a place conforming to his practice. If their illness worsens when dawn arises, he should attend only to their needs; he should not be one concerned solely with the purity of his ascetic practice.⁸ This is its method.

§2 The Three Grades, Breach, Benefits, and Four Verses of the Forest-Dweller’s Practice 〔CSCD §31〕

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner should cause the dawn sign to arise in the forest at all times. The medium practitioner may live at the edge of a village during the four months of the rainy season. The mild practitioner may do so during the cold season as well.

For all three, if they come from the forest at the appointed time to hear the Dhamma at a lodging at the edge of a village, the ascetic practice is not breached even if dawn arises; nor is it breached if dawn arises on the way back after they have heard the Dhamma. But if, after the Dhamma speaker has risen from his seat, they think, “We will sleep for a while and then go,” fall asleep, and let dawn arise, or if by their own choice they cause dawn to arise at a lodging on the edge of a village, the ascetic practice is breached. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: by attending to the perception of forest, a forest-dwelling bhikkhu is able to attain concentration not yet attained and preserve concentration already attained, and the Teacher is pleased with him. As the Blessed One said: “Nāgita, for that reason I am pleased with that bhikkhu’s dwelling in the forest.” When he dwells in a remote lodging, unsuitable visible forms and the like cannot disturb his mind; he is free from fear; he abandons attachment to life;⁹ he tastes the flavor of the happiness of seclusion; and such qualities as wearing refuse-rag accord with him.

Dwelling secluded and unmixed, delighting in a remote lodging, Through forest dwelling he gladdens the heart of the Protector.

The happiness the meditator gains by dwelling alone in the forest— Even deities together with Sakka do not taste its flavor.

He wears refuse-rag as though wearing armor, Enters the battlefield of the forest, and takes the remaining ascetic practices as weapons;

Before long he can conquer Māra together with his army. Therefore the wise person should delight in dwelling in the forest.

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the forest-dweller’s practice.

§3 The Tree-Root-Dweller’s Practice 〔CSCD §32〕

Nine: Discussion of the Tree-Root-Dweller’s Practice

The tree-root-dweller’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse a covered place; I undertake the tree-root-dweller’s practice.”

A tree-root dweller should avoid a tree between boundaries, a shrine tree, a resinous tree, a fruit tree, a tree inhabited by bats, a hollow tree, and a tree standing in the middle of the lodging. He should choose a tree standing at the edge of the lodging. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner may not choose a tree he likes and have it prepared; he should move the fallen leaves aside with his foot and dwell there. The medium practitioner may only have someone who has already arrived at that place prepare it. The mild practitioner may summon a monastery attendant or novice¹⁰ to sweep it, level it, spread sand, make a surrounding wall, and install a gate before dwelling there. At the height of the day, however, a tree-root dweller should not sit there, but should sit in another covered place.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment one makes one’s dwelling in a covered place. The Aṅguttara reciters¹¹ say it is breached when one knowingly causes dawn to arise in a covered place. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: because of the statement “going forth in dependence on a lodging at the root of a tree,” one’s practice accords with the dependence; one has a requisite praised by the Blessed One as “few, easy to obtain, and blameless”; through constantly seeing changes in tree leaves, one arouses the perception of impermanence; there is no stinginess about lodging or delight in work; one dwells together with deities; and one conforms to fewness of wishes and the rest.

Praised by the supreme Buddha and declared a “dependence”— What dwelling of one secluded can equal the root of a tree?

For the good observer of restraint dwells beneath a secluded tree That takes away stinginess about lodging and is guarded by deities;

Seeing its leaves turn red, green, and yellow, and seeing them fallen, He removes the perception of permanence.

Therefore one of discernment should not despise that heritage of the Buddha, The dwelling of one who delights in cultivation—the secluded root of a tree.

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the tree-root-dweller’s practice.

§4 The Open-Air-Dweller’s Practice 〔CSCD §33〕

Ten: Discussion of the Open-Air-Dweller’s Practice

The open-air-dweller’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse a covered place and the root of a tree; I undertake the open-air-dweller’s practice.”

An open-air dweller may enter an observance hall to hear the Dhamma or for the observance. If it rains after he enters, he should not leave while it is raining, but should leave when the rain stops. He may enter a dining hall or fire hall to perform a duty, greet senior bhikkhus with food in the dining hall, enter a covered place to give or receive instruction, or move beds, seats, and the like that have been carelessly left outside into shelter. If, while traveling, he is carrying a requisite for someone senior, he may enter a roadside hall when it rains. If he is carrying nothing, he may not hurry while thinking, “I shall reach the hall”; but if he proceeds at his normal pace and enters it, he should remain until the rain stops before leaving. This is its method. The same principle applies to a tree-root dweller.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner may not dwell supported by a tree, mountain, or house; he should make a robe-tent in the open air and dwell there. The medium practitioner may dwell supported by a tree, mountain, or house, provided he does not go inside. For the mild practitioner, a rock overhang that is not fully covered, a branch shelter, a seat and cloth, and even a little hut abandoned by a field watcher or the like are allowable.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached at the moment one enters a covered place or the root of a tree for the purpose of dwelling. The Aṅguttara reciters say it is breached when one knowingly causes dawn to arise there. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: the impediment of lodging is cut off; sloth and torpor¹² are removed; one accords with the praise, “Bhikkhus wander unattached like deer and dwell without a home”; one is unattached; one belongs to the four quarters; and one conforms to fewness of wishes and the rest.

In the open air, consonant with homelessness and not hard to obtain, With stars for a jeweled canopy and lit by the lamp of the moon,

The bhikkhu dwells with a mind like a deer’s, Removes sloth and torpor, and devotes himself to delight in cultivation;

Before long he tastes the sweetness of seclusion’s flavor. Therefore one with wisdom should delight in the open air.

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the open-air-dweller’s practice.

§5 The Charnel-Ground-Dweller’s Practice 〔CSCD §34〕

Eleven: Discussion of the Charnel-Ground-Dweller’s Practice

The charnel-ground-dweller’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse a place that is not a charnel ground; I undertake the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice.”

A charnel-ground dweller should not live at a place that people designated “This is a charnel ground” when building a village or town; for unless a corpse has been burned there, it is not called a charnel ground. From the time a corpse has been burned there, however, it remains a charnel ground even if abandoned for twelve years.

One who lives there should not build a walking-meditation shelter or the like, set up a bed and seat, provide drinking and washing water, or teach people the Dhamma while dwelling there. Because this is a weighty ascetic practice,¹³ he should inform the senior elder of the Saṅgha or a royal official, so that any danger that arises may be averted, and dwell heedfully. When walking, he should walk with half an eye on the cremation place.

When going to the charnel ground, he should also leave the main road and take an out-of-the-way path. He should identify his object during the daytime; in that way the night will not be frightening to him. Even if nonhuman beings¹⁴ cry out and roam about at night, he may not strike any of them. He may not fail to go to the charnel ground for even one day. The Aṅguttara reciters say that he may spend the middle watch in the charnel ground and return during the last watch. He should not consume such hard and soft foods as sesame flour, bean rice, fish, meat, milk, oil, and sugar, which nonhuman beings favor. He should not enter the home of a householder. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner should dwell where there is constant burning, constant presence of corpses, and constant weeping. For the medium practitioner, one of the three is sufficient. For the mild practitioner, it is sufficient that the place has the characteristic of a charnel ground according to the method stated above.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached when one does not make one’s dwelling in a charnel ground. The Aṅguttara reciters say it is breached on a day one does not go to the charnel ground. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: one acquires mindfulness of death;¹⁵ one dwells heedfully; one acquires the sign of foulness; sensual lust is removed; one constantly sees the nature of the body; one has abundant urgency;¹⁶ intoxication with health and the like are abandoned; one endures fear and dread; one is respected by nonhuman beings; and one conforms to fewness of wishes and the rest.

Through the power of mindfulness of death, The fault of heedlessness cannot touch even a sleeping charnel-ground dweller; And because he constantly sees many corpses, His mind does not fall under the sway of sensual desire.

He gains abundant urgency and does not become intoxicated, And, seeking peace, he strives with right effort. Since the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice brings so many virtues, One whose heart inclines to nibbāna should cultivate it.

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice.

§6 The Any-Bed-User’s Practice 〔CSCD §35〕

Twelve: Discussion of the Any-Bed-User’s Practice

The any-bed-user’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse greed for lodging; I undertake the any-bed-user’s practice.”

An any-bed user should be content with whatever lodging is assigned to him with the words, “This one falls to you,” and should not make another person get up. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, the superior practitioner may not ask whether the lodging assigned to him is far away, too near, troubled by nonhuman beings or long creatures, hot, or cold. The medium practitioner may ask, but may not go and inspect it. The mild practitioner may go and inspect it, and if it does not please him, he may take another.

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached as soon as greed for lodging arises. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: one practices the instruction expressed in the statement “one should be content with what is received”; one seeks the welfare of one’s companions in the spiritual life; one abandons discrimination between inferior and superior;¹⁷ conformity and opposition are cut off; the door to excessive desire¹⁸ is closed; and one conforms to fewness of wishes and the rest.

The any-bed-using meditator is content with what is received; Free from discrimination, he sleeps at ease even upon a spread of grass.

He is not attached to what is excellent and is not angry when he receives what is inferior; With concern for their welfare, he has compassion for companions in the spiritual life who are new to the training.

Therefore one with wisdom should cultivate delight in any bed, Practiced by the noble ones and praised by the foremost of sages.

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the any-bed-user’s practice.

Notes

¹ Dawn sign (aruṇa): the sign that day is about to break. The standard of this practice is “causing the dawn sign to arise in the forest,” meaning that one must pass the night in the forest until dawn.

² Anurādhapura (Anurādhapura): a city cited by the treatise as an example of one with two boundary pillars.

³ Boundary pillar (indakhīla): a pillar erected to mark a village boundary; the village and its vicinity are determined in relation to it.

⁴ Vinaya reciters (vinayadharā) and Suttanta reciters (Suttantikā): names of two schools; the treatise cites both accounts of the measure of a stone’s throw.

⁵ Teacher’s bow (ācariyadhanu): the bow used for measuring land; in the Suttanta method, a forest lodging must be at least five hundred such bows away.

⁶ The Vinaya Commentaries and the Majjhima Commentary: two accounts of the starting point for measurement. The treatise closes with “This is the measure here” without identifying which account it adopts.

⁷ Thief of the ascetic practice (dhutaṅgacora): a judgment on one who bears the name without carrying out its reality; the same judgment already occurs under the triple-robe-wearer’s practice in the unit on the two robe practices.

⁸ One concerned solely with the purity of the ascetic practice (dhutaṅgasuddhika): one who seeks only the purity of one’s own practice while disregarding everything else.

⁹ Attachment to life (jīvitanikanti): fond attachment to one’s own life; this reading follows the one already established in this work’s chapter on recollection meditation subjects.

¹⁰ Monastery attendant and novice (ārāmikasamaṇuddesa): the attendant is a layperson who performs duties in a lodging; the novice is one not yet fully ordained.

¹¹ Aṅguttara reciters (aṅguttarabhāṇakā): the name of a school; the treatise cites its account at four places in this unit without deciding whether it is right or wrong.

¹² Sloth and torpor (thina・middha): one of the five hindrances; their enumeration and removal occur in this work’s unit on the earth kasiṇa.

¹³ Weighty ascetic practice (garuka): this means that the practice is difficult and involves many dangers. The same word is rendered “respect” in its position in this work’s chapter on meditation subjects; one form occurs in two positions and is read according to each.

¹⁴ Nonhuman being (amanussa): a being other than a human; in this unit the term refers to beings dwelling in the charnel ground.

¹⁵ Mindfulness of death (maraṇassati): the meditation subject of mindfulness of death occurs in this work’s chapter on recollection meditation subjects, and the sign of foulness in its chapter on foulness meditation subjects; this unit presents the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice as a condition for both meditation subjects.

¹⁶ Urgency (saṃvega): the stirring of the heart on seeing the danger in saṃsāra; its established reading occurs in this work’s chapter on meditation subjects.

¹⁷ Discrimination between inferior and superior (hīnapaṇītavikappa): a mind that discriminates whether an assigned lodging is inferior or superior; this edition uses this reading for the pair here.

¹⁸ Excessive desire (atricchatā): seeking something beyond what has already been received.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Sitter’s Practice—Undertaking, Method, and Three Grades 〔CSCD §36〕

Thirteen: Discussion of the Sitter’s Practice

The sitter’s practice is likewise undertaken through either of these statements: “I refuse lying down; I undertake the sitter’s practice.”

A sitter should rise and walk during one of the three watches of the night, for among the postures¹ only lying down is not allowed. This is its method.

By distinction, this practice too is threefold. Here, for the superior practitioner, a leaning support, a cloth binding, and a binding strap² are all not allowed. For the medium practitioner, any one of these three is allowed. For the mild practitioner, a leaning support, cloth binding, binding strap, pillow, and even a five-part seat or seven-part seat are allowed. A five-part seat is made with a back support; a seven-part seat is made with a back support and supports on both sides. It is said that the latter was made for the Elder Miḷābhaya.³ The elder became a non-returner and attained final nibbāna.

§2 The Breach, Benefits, and Three Verses of the Sitter’s Practice 〔CSCD §36〕

For all three, the ascetic practice is breached when one lies down. This is the breach here.

These are the benefits: the bondage of mind described in the statement “he dwells devoted to the pleasure of lying down, the pleasure of reclining, and the pleasure of sleep” is cut off; one is supported in the cultivation of every meditation subject; one’s posture inspires confidence; one conforms to the arousing of energy; and right practice increases.

The meditator sits cross-legged, holding his body upright; Simply by sitting, the ascetic shakes Māra’s heart.

Having abandoned the pleasure of lying down and the pleasure of sleep, the bhikkhu who has aroused energy And delights in sitting adorns the forest of austerity.

Because he can attain rapture and happiness without material nutriment,⁴ The steadfast person should cultivate the sitter’s observance.

This is the explanation of undertaking, method, distinction, breach, and benefit in the sitter’s practice.

Notes

¹ Posture (iriyāpatha): a mode in which the body proceeds or remains; this practice prohibits only lying down and not the other postures.

² Leaning support (apassena), cloth binding (dussapallatthikā), and binding strap (āyogapaṭṭa): three objects used to support the body while sitting. The treatise explains only the construction of the five-part and seven-part seats and does not explain the form of these three objects or of the “pillow” (bibbohana); this edition establishes all four readings from the literal wording.

³ Elder Miḷābhaya (Miḷābhayatthera): the treatise connects the person for whom the seven-part seat was reportedly made with his final attainment, without identifying a source.

⁴ Rapture and happiness without material nutriment (nirāmisa pītisukha): rapture and happiness arising without dependence on the material nutriment of the five cords of sensual pleasure.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Opening Verse and Analysis by the Wholesome Triad 〔CSCD §37〕

Miscellany Discussion on the Ascetic Practices

Now—

And by the wholesome triad, by distinctions beginning with the ascetic, And again in brief and in detail—the analysis should be understood.

The explanation is given according to this verse.

Here, “by the wholesome triad”:¹ all ascetic practices, according as they belong to a trainee,² an ordinary person, or one whose taints are destroyed, are either wholesome or indeterminate. There is no unwholesome ascetic practice.

If someone says, “Because there are statements such as ‘one of evil wishes, overcome by wishes, becomes a forest dweller,’ there must also be unwholesome ascetic practices,” he should be told: we do not say that one cannot dwell in the forest with an unwholesome mind. Whoever dwells in the forest is a forest dweller, and he may have evil wishes or few wishes. What has been said, however, is this: because these practices shake off defilements through their respective undertakings, they are the practices of the bhikkhu whose defilements have been shaken off; or because knowledge, by shaking off defilements, acquires the designation “ascetic,” these are its practices and therefore ascetic practices; or because they shake off their opposites, they are both themselves shaken off and practices of the path, and so are ascetic practices. No one is called “ascetic” through what is unwholesome and can possess these practices; what is unwholesome shakes off nothing whereby it could be called an ascetic practice; nor can what is unwholesome both shake off greed for robes and the rest and become a practice of the path. Thus the statement “there is no unwholesome ascetic practice” is well said.

“As for those who maintain that ascetic practices are outside the wholesome triad, for them no ascetic practice exists at all in meaning. When nothing is shaken off, what could be called an ascetic practice? Moreover, they contradict the statement ‘one practices having undertaken ascetic qualities,’ so their position should not be adopted.” This, first, is the explanation by the wholesome triad.

§2 The Fourfold Classification of the Ascetic and the Speaker on Asceticism 〔CSCD §37〕

“By distinctions beginning with the ascetic”: the ascetic should be understood; the speaker on asceticism should be understood; the ascetic qualities should be understood; the ascetic practices should be understood; and it should be understood for whom cultivation of the ascetic practices is supportive.

Here, an “ascetic” is a person whose defilements have been shaken off, or a quality that can shake off defilements.

As to a “speaker on asceticism,” there is one who is an ascetic but not a speaker on asceticism; one who is not an ascetic but is a speaker on asceticism; one who is neither an ascetic nor a speaker on asceticism; and one who is both an ascetic and a speaker on asceticism.

Here, one who has shaken off his own defilements by means of the ascetic practices but does not admonish or instruct others in them, as did the Elder Bākula,³ is an ascetic but not a speaker on asceticism. As it is said: “This Venerable Bākula is an ascetic but not a speaker on asceticism.” One who has not shaken off his own defilements by means of the ascetic practices but only admonishes and instructs others in them, as did the Elder Upananda, is not an ascetic but is a speaker on asceticism. As it is said: “This Venerable Upananda the Sakyan is not an ascetic but is a speaker on asceticism.” One who fails in both, as did Lāḷudāyī, is neither an ascetic nor a speaker on asceticism. As it is said: “This Venerable Lāḷudāyī is neither an ascetic nor a speaker on asceticism.” One who possesses both, as did the General of the Dhamma, is both an ascetic and a speaker on asceticism. As it is said: “This Venerable Sāriputta is both an ascetic and a speaker on asceticism.”

§3 The Five Ascetic Qualities 〔CSCD §37〕

“The ascetic qualities should be understood”: fewness of wishes, contentment, austerity, seclusion, and devotion to this alone⁴—because of statements beginning “depending only on fewness of wishes,” these five qualities that accompany the volition of undertaking an ascetic practice are called ascetic qualities. Here, fewness of wishes and contentment are non-greed; austerity and seclusion fall under both non-greed and non-delusion; devotion to this alone is knowledge alone. Here non-greed shakes off greed for the object that has been refused, and non-delusion shakes off the delusion that conceals the danger in those objects. Again, non-greed shakes off devotion to sensual pleasure⁵ that arises through using what is permitted, while non-delusion shakes off devotion to self-mortification that arises from excessive austerity in the ascetic practices. Thus these qualities should be understood as ascetic qualities.

§4 The Enumeration of the Thirteen and the Persons for Whom Ascetic Practices Are Supportive 〔CSCD §37〕

“The ascetic practices should be understood”: the thirteen ascetic practices should be understood—the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice … and so forth, as given in full above … through the sitter’s practice. They have already been explained by meaning and by characteristic and the rest.

“It should be understood for whom cultivation of the ascetic practices is supportive”: for one of greedy temperament and one of deluded temperament.⁶ Why? Because cultivation of the ascetic practices is both painful practice⁷ and a dwelling in austerity. Greed subsides through painful practice; through austerity, the delusion of one who is heedful is abandoned. Alternatively, cultivation of the forest-dweller’s and tree-root-dweller’s practices is also supportive here for one of hating temperament, because when he dwells in a place where nothing afflicts him, hatred too subsides. This is the explanation by distinctions beginning with the ascetic.

§5 In Brief—Three Principal Practices and Five Unmixed Practices, Four Classes, and Two Classes 〔CSCD §37〕

“In brief and in detail”: in brief, these ascetic practices are just eight—the three principal practices and the five unmixed practices.⁸ Here, the house-to-house-seeker’s, one-session-eater’s, and open-air-dweller’s practices are the three principal practices. For one who maintains the house-to-house-seeker’s practice also maintains the alms-food-eater’s practice; one who maintains the one-session-eater’s practice can easily maintain the bowl-food-eater’s and later-food-refuser’s practices; and for one who maintains the open-air-dweller’s practice, what remains to be maintained under the tree-root-dweller’s and any-bed-user’s practices? Thus these are the three principal practices. The forest-dweller’s, refuse-rag-wearer’s, triple-robe-wearer’s, sitter’s, and charnel-ground-dweller’s practices are the five unmixed practices. Hence there are just eight.

Again, two are connected with robes, five with almsfood, five with lodging, and one with energy. Thus there are just four classes. Here, the sitter’s practice is connected with energy; the rest are clear.

Again, according to their dependence, all become two kinds: twelve depend on requisites and one depends on energy. By what should and should not be cultivated, they likewise become only two. For whoever’s meditation subject increases when he cultivates an ascetic practice, it should be cultivated; whoever’s meditation subject declines when he cultivates it should not cultivate it. One for whom there is only increase and no decline whether he cultivates it or not should nevertheless cultivate it out of compassion for later people. One for whom there is likewise no increase whether he cultivates it or not should also cultivate it, for the sake of conditioning in the future.

§6 Reduction to One Volition and the Detailed Count of Forty-Two 〔CSCD §37〕

All these ascetic practices, which become two by what should and should not be cultivated, become one when considered as volition; for the ascetic practice is only one, the volition of undertaking.⁹ It is also said in the Commentary: “They say that this volition is the ascetic practice.”

In detail, there are thirteen for a bhikkhu, eight for a bhikkhunī, twelve for a novice, seven for a probationer¹⁰ and a female novice, and two for a male or female lay follower—thus there are forty-two. If a charnel ground in the open air has all the characteristics of the forest-dweller’s practice, even a single bhikkhu can observe all the ascetic practices at one time. As for a bhikkhunī, the forest-dweller’s and later-food-refuser’s practices are prohibited by training rules, while the open-air-dweller’s, tree-root-dweller’s, and charnel-ground-dweller’s practices are difficult to perform. A bhikkhunī may not live without a second companion, and in such places it is hard to find a second companion with the same aspiration; even if one is found, mixed dwelling cannot be avoided. Consequently, the purpose for which she would cultivate an ascetic practice cannot be accomplished. Because these five cannot be observed, a bhikkhunī should be understood to have only eight. Of the practices stated above, the remaining twelve apart from the triple-robe-wearer’s practice belong to a novice, and seven to a probationer and female novice. For male and female lay followers, the one-session-eater’s and bowl-food-eater’s practices are both suitable and capable of being observed, so there are two ascetic practices. Thus, in detail, there are forty-two. This is the explanation in brief and in detail.

§7 Conclusion of the Chapter 〔CSCD §37〕

At this point, within the Visuddhimagga, taught under the three headings of virtue, concentration, and wisdom according to the verse “A wise person established in virtue,”¹¹ the discussion of the ascetic practices that should be undertaken in order to fulfill such qualities as fewness of wishes and contentment, through which the purification of virtue described above occurs, has been completed.

In the Visuddhimagga, made for the delight of good people,

the second chapter, called

the Explanation of the Ascetic Practices, [is complete].

Notes

¹ Wholesome triad (kusalattika): the threefold classification of wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate; all qualities are included under these three.

² Trainee (sekkha): one who has entered the noble path but still has something to learn; here placed alongside the “ordinary person” and “one whose taints are destroyed” as a set of three.

³ Elder Bākula and the other three persons: the four names in the fourfold classification—Bākula, Upananda the Sakyan, Lāḷudāyī, and Sāriputta—are all this edition’s own readings. The fourth is called “General of the Dhamma” in prose and “Sāriputta” in the citation: one person with two names.

⁴ Devotion to this alone (idamatthitā): having only this [path] as one’s task and seeking nothing else; the fifth of the five ascetic qualities, read this way in this edition.

⁵ Devotion to sensual pleasure and devotion to self-mortification: names of the two extremes. The first arises through using what is permitted, and the second through excessive austerity in the ascetic practices.

⁶ One of greedy temperament, one of deluded temperament, and one of hating temperament: names of temperaments established in this work’s unit on temperament in the chapter on meditation subjects.

⁷ Painful practice (dukkhāpaṭipadā): a course difficult to practice; its established reading occurs in this work’s chapter on meditation subjects.

⁸ Principal practice (sīsaṅga) and unmixed practice (asambhinnaṅga): the treatise gives only the names and does not explain their meanings, which are visible only from its examples—maintaining a principal practice maintains the others automatically, while an unmixed practice is not included within another. Both readings here are this edition’s own.

⁹ Commentary (aṭṭhakathā): a general name for ancient works that comment on the canonical texts.

¹⁰ Probationer (sikkhamānā): a woman training under the training rules who has not yet received full ordination, here paired with a female novice; this edition uses this reading.

¹¹ “A wise person established in virtue”: the first line of the programmatic verse explained throughout the work. The verse and the three headings of virtue, concentration, and wisdom are established at the opening of Chapter 1, “Virtue”; the colophon of every chapter in the work is tied to this verse.