清淨道論 白話全本 · 冊14Visuddhimagga · Complete Vernacular · Vol. 14

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Opening the Discussion of Wisdom and Posing the Six Questions 〔CSCD §421〕

Fourteen. Exposition of the Aggregates

Discussion of Wisdom

Now that the bhikkhu has become endowed with the development of concentration, made firmer through the benefits gained by means of direct knowledge¹, the concentration designated under the heading of “mind” in the words “A wise person, established in virtue, develops mind and wisdom” has been developed in every respect.

Wisdom should be developed next. Yet because wisdom has been stated too briefly, it is not easy even to understand, much less to develop. Therefore, to show its detailed explanation and method of development, the following questions and answers are given.

What is wisdom? In what sense is it wisdom? What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause? How many kinds of wisdom are there? How should it be developed? What are the benefits of developing wisdom?

§2 What Wisdom Is and in What Sense It Is Wisdom 〔CSCD §422–423〕

Here are the answers. “What is wisdom?”—Wisdom is of many kinds. Beginning to explain all its kinds would neither accomplish the intended meaning but would instead lead to distraction. We shall therefore speak only of what is intended here: insight knowledge³ associated with wholesome consciousness is wisdom.

“In what sense is it wisdom?”—It is wisdom in the sense of understanding. What is this “understanding”? It is knowing in many modes, distinguished from the modes of perceptual knowing and conscious knowing. For although perception, consciousness, and wisdom are alike in being modes of knowing, perception merely perceives an object as “blue” or “yellow”; it cannot reach the penetration of characteristics as “impermanent, suffering, and not-self.” Consciousness both knows the object as “blue” or “yellow” and reaches the penetration of characteristics, but it cannot rise farther to the manifestation of the path. Wisdom, in the manner already described, knows the object, reaches the penetration of characteristics, and rises farther to the manifestation of the path.

Suppose a heap of coins lies on a money changer’s counter and three people look at it: a child whose understanding has not yet arisen, a villager, and a money changer. The child whose understanding has not yet arisen knows only that the coins are variously colored, long, square, or round; he does not know, “This is what people use and enjoy, and it is regarded as treasure.” The villager knows their varied colors and so on, and also knows, “This is what people use and enjoy, and it is regarded as treasure”; but he cannot distinguish, “This one is genuine, this one is false, this one is only half-value.” The money changer knows all those modes. When he examines a coin, he knows by looking at it, by listening to the sound when it is struck, by smelling it, by tasting it, and by weighing it in his hand. He even knows, “It was made in such-and-such a village, town, city, mountain region, or riverbank,” and “It was made by such-and-such a master.” This is how the correspondence of the simile should be understood.

Perception is like the child’s seeing the coins, because it takes only the presently arisen mode of the object by way of blue and so on. Consciousness is like the villager’s seeing the coins, because it takes the object’s mode by way of blue and so on and rises farther to the penetration of characteristics. Wisdom is like the money changer’s seeing the coins, because it takes the object’s mode by way of blue and so on, reaches the penetration of characteristics, and from there rises farther to the manifestation of the path. Thus whatever knowing in many modes is distinguished from the modes of perceptual knowing and conscious knowing should be understood as “understanding.” It was with reference to precisely this that it was said, “It is wisdom in the sense of understanding.”

However, wisdom is not necessarily present wherever perception and consciousness are present. When it is present, it is inseparable from those dhammas, and their differences cannot be obtained by separating them one by one as “This is perception, this is consciousness, this is wisdom”; it is therefore subtle and hard to see. Hence Venerable Nāgasena said: “Great king, the Blessed One has done a difficult thing.” “Venerable Nāgasena, what difficult thing has the Blessed One done?” “Great king, the difficult thing the Blessed One has done is this: among the immaterial dhammas of mind and mental factors that occur with a single object, he has declared their determination—this is contact, this is feeling, this is perception, this is volition, this is mind.”

§3 Wisdom’s Characteristic, Function, Manifestation, and Proximate Cause 〔CSCD §424〕

“What are its characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause?”—Here, wisdom has penetration into the individual nature of dhammas as its characteristic; its function is to destroy the darkness of delusion that conceals the individual nature of dhammas; it manifests as non-delusion. And according to the statement, “A person whose mind is concentrated knows and sees according to reality,” concentration is its proximate cause.

§4 Classification of Wisdom—Five Dyads 〔CSCD §425–426〕

Discussion of the Classification of Wisdom

“How many kinds of wisdom are there?”—First, with respect to the characteristic of penetrating the individual nature of dhammas, it is of one kind. By way of mundane and supramundane, it is of two kinds; likewise by way of with influxes and without influxes, by way of defining mentality and defining materiality, by way of accompanied by joy and accompanied by equanimity, and by way of the plane of seeing and the plane of development, it is of two kinds in each case. By way of made by thinking, made by hearing, and made by development, it is of three kinds; likewise by way of having a limited, exalted, or measureless object, by way of skill in increase, skill in decrease, and skill in means, and by way of inward application and so on, it is of three kinds in each case. By way of knowledge of the four truths and by way of the four discriminations, it is of four kinds.

Of these, the meaning of the classification as one kind is already clear. In the classification as two kinds, wisdom associated with a mundane path is mundane wisdom, and wisdom associated with a supramundane path is supramundane wisdom. Thus it is of two kinds by way of mundane and supramundane.

In the second dyad, wisdom that can become an object of the influxes is wisdom with influxes; wisdom that cannot become their object is wisdom without influxes. In meaning, these are simply mundane and supramundane wisdom. The same method applies to such formulations as “associated with influxes is with influxes; not associated with influxes is without influxes.” Thus it is of two kinds by way of with influxes and without influxes, and so on.

In the third dyad, the wisdom of a practitioner who wishes to begin developing insight and defines the four immaterial aggregates is wisdom that defines mentality; wisdom that defines the materiality aggregate is wisdom that defines materiality. Thus it is of two kinds by way of defining mentality and defining materiality.

In the fourth dyad, wisdom in two wholesome sense-sphere consciousnesses, and wisdom in the sixteen path consciousnesses belonging to the four jhānas according to the fivefold method⁴, is accompanied by joy. Wisdom in two wholesome sense-sphere consciousnesses, and wisdom in the four path consciousnesses belonging to the fifth jhāna, is accompanied by equanimity. Thus it is of two kinds by way of accompanied by joy and accompanied by equanimity.

In the fifth dyad, the wisdom of the first path is the plane of seeing, and the wisdom of the remaining three paths is the plane of development. Thus it is of two kinds by way of the plane of seeing and the plane of development.

§5 Classification of Wisdom—Four Triads 〔CSCD §427〕

In the first of the triads, wisdom gained without hearing it from another is made by thinking because it is accomplished through personal thought. Wisdom gained by hearing it from another is made by hearing because it is accomplished by hearing. In whatever way it may occur, wisdom accomplished by development and arrived at absorption is made by development. This is accordingly said:

“Herein, what is wisdom made by thinking? With respect to fields of work established by initiative, fields of craft established by initiative, fields of knowledge established by initiative, the ownership of kamma, or what accords with truth—‘materiality is impermanent,’ or ‘feeling ... and so on as stated at length ... perception ... formations ... consciousness is impermanent’—whatever acceptance, view, preference, realization, observation, consideration, or patient acceptance of dhammas that accords with this and is gained without hearing it from another is called wisdom made by thinking ... and so on as stated at length ... what is gained by hearing it is called wisdom made by hearing. All wisdom in a practitioner who has entered concentration is wisdom made by development.”

Thus it is of three kinds by way of made by thinking, made by hearing, and made by development.

In the second triad, wisdom that occurs taking sense-sphere dhammas as its object has a limited object. Wisdom that occurs taking fine-material-sphere and immaterial-sphere dhammas as its object has an exalted object—this is mundane insight. Wisdom that occurs taking nibbāna as its object has a measureless object—this is supramundane insight. Thus it is of three kinds by way of having a limited, exalted, and measureless object.

In the third triad, “increase” means growth. It is of two kinds: the diminution of what is unbeneficial and the arising of what is beneficial. Skill in this is skill in increase. As it is said:

“Herein, what is skill in increase? ‘When I attend to these dhammas, unarisen unwholesome dhammas do not arise and arisen unwholesome dhammas are abandoned; or, when I attend to these dhammas, unarisen wholesome dhammas arise and arisen wholesome dhammas proceed to increase, abundance, development, and fulfillment’—the wisdom, understanding ... and so on as stated at length ... non-delusion, investigation of dhammas, and right view concerning this are called skill in increase.”

“Decrease” means non-growth. It too is of two kinds: the diminution of what is beneficial and the arising of what is unbeneficial. Skill in this is skill in decrease. As it is said: “Herein, what is skill in decrease? When I attend to these dhammas, unarisen wholesome dhammas do not arise ...” and so on.

In every case, skill that occurs then and there, responsive to the occasion, concerning the means for those dhammas—that is, the cause that makes them arise—is called skill in means. As it is said: “All wisdom concerning a means here is skill in means.” Thus it is of three kinds by way of skill in increase, skill in decrease, and skill in means.

In the fourth triad, insight wisdom that begins by taking the practitioner’s own aggregates is inward application. That which begins by taking another person’s aggregates or external materiality not bound to a faculty is outward application. That which begins by taking both is inward-and-outward application. Thus it is of three kinds by way of inward application and so on.

§6 Classification of Wisdom—Knowledge of the Four Truths and the Four Discriminations 〔CSCD §428〕

In the first of the tetrads, knowledge that occurs taking the truth of suffering as its object is knowledge of suffering; knowledge that occurs taking the origin of suffering as its object is knowledge of the origin of suffering; knowledge that occurs taking the cessation of suffering as its object is knowledge of the cessation of suffering; knowledge that occurs taking the way leading to the cessation of suffering as its object is knowledge of the way leading to the cessation of suffering. Thus it is of four kinds by way of knowledge of the four truths.

In the second tetrad, the four discriminations are the four kinds of knowledge that have attained discrimination concerning meaning and so on. This is accordingly said: “Knowledge of meaning is discrimination of meaning; knowledge of dhamma is discrimination of dhamma; knowledge of the expression of the language concerning that dhamma is discrimination of language; knowledge of knowledges is discrimination of perspicuity.”

Here, “meaning” in brief is a designation for the result of a cause. For the result of a cause is reached, arrived at, and obtained in dependence upon the cause, and hence it is called “meaning.” In detail, whatever is conditionally arisen, nibbāna, the meaning of what is spoken, result, and functional—these five dhammas should be understood as “meaning.” The knowledge gained by a practitioner reviewing that meaning and discriminating it is discrimination of meaning. “Dhamma” in brief is a designation for a condition. For a condition establishes, sets in motion, or brings about this or that result, and hence it is called “dhamma.” In detail, whatever cause gives rise to a result, the noble path, what is spoken, the wholesome, and the unwholesome—these five dhammas should be understood as “dhamma.” The knowledge gained by a practitioner reviewing that dhamma and discriminating it is discrimination of dhamma.

This very meaning is distinguished and shown in the Abhidhamma by the following method:

“Knowledge of suffering is discrimination of meaning; knowledge of the origin of suffering is discrimination of dhamma. Knowledge of a cause is discrimination of dhamma; knowledge of the result of a cause is discrimination of meaning. Whatever dhammas have arisen, come to be, been produced, originated, become manifest, and appeared, knowledge of those dhammas is discrimination of meaning; knowledge of those dhammas through which they have arisen, come to be, been produced, originated, become manifest, and appeared is discrimination of dhamma. Knowledge of aging-and-death is discrimination of meaning; knowledge of the origin of aging-and-death is discrimination of dhamma ... and so on as stated at length ... knowledge of the cessation of formations is discrimination of meaning; knowledge of the way leading to the cessation of formations is discrimination of dhamma. Here, a bhikkhu knows the dhamma—the discourse, the mixed prose and verse ... and so on as stated at length ... the detailed exposition: this is called discrimination of dhamma. He knows the respective meaning of what is said, ‘This is the meaning of this statement; this is the meaning of this statement’: this is called discrimination of meaning. What dhammas are wholesome? On the occasion when a wholesome sense-sphere consciousness has arisen ... and so on as stated at length ... these dhammas are wholesome; knowledge of these dhammas is discrimination of dhamma, and knowledge of their results is discrimination of meaning,” and so on.

“Knowledge of the expression of the language concerning that dhamma”: with respect to that meaning and that dhamma, there is natural expression⁵, usage that is not confused. On hearing what is spoken, talked about, and declared through its expression, utterance, and declaration, the listener knows, “This is natural expression; this is not natural expression.” The knowledge that gains discrimination concerning this natural expression called “the language concerning dhamma”—the Magadhan language, the root language of all beings—is discrimination of language. A person who has attained discrimination of language knows, merely on hearing an expression such as “contact, feeling” (phasso vedanā), “This is natural expression”; and on hearing “phassā vedano,” knows, “This is not natural expression.”

“Knowledge of knowledges” means knowledge that takes knowledge as its object when a practitioner reviews with knowledge in every instance; or it is knowledge that understands in detail the knowledges described above according to their respective domains, functions, and so forth. This is discrimination of perspicuity.

§7 The Two Planes, Five Causes, and the Ancients’ Seven Causes of the Four Discriminations 〔CSCD §429〕

These four discriminations are distinguished on two planes: the plane of trainees and the plane of non-trainees.

Those of the chief disciples and great disciples are distinguished on the plane of non-trainees. Those of Venerable Ānanda, the householder Citta, the lay follower Dhammika, the householder Upāli, the laywoman Khujjuttarā, and others are distinguished on the plane of trainees. Although these are distinguished on two planes, they become clear by five modes: attainment, mastery of scripture, hearing, inquiry, and prior practice.

Here, “attainment” is the attaining of arahant fruition. “Mastery of scripture” is mastery of the Buddha’s word. “Hearing” is listening to the Dhamma respectfully and attentively. “Inquiry” is discussion that distinguishes difficult passages and passages of meaning in the scriptures and commentaries⁶, and so on. “Prior practice” is the practice of insight carried on to the proximity of conformity and change-of-lineage⁷, by a course of going and returning in the teachings of past Buddhas.

Others have said:

Prior practice, great learning, regional language, and scripture;

inquiry, attainment, and reliance on a teacher,

together with possession of good friends—these are conditions for the discriminations.

Here, “prior practice” is as described above. “Great learning” is skill in the various treatises and fields of craft. “Regional language” is skill in one hundred and one languages—particularly skill in the Magadhan language. “Scripture” is mastery of the Buddha’s word even if only as much as the Chapter of Similes. “Inquiry” is a question that distinguishes the meaning even of a single stanza. “Attainment” is the state of a stream-enterer⁸ ... and so on as stated at length ... or arahant fruition. “Reliance on a teacher” is dwelling in the presence of learned and eloquent teachers. “Possession of good friends” is gaining friends of just that kind.

Buddhas and paccekabuddhas attain the discriminations through prior practice and attainment; disciples attain them through all these causes. There is no distinct practice of developing a meditation subject for attaining the discriminations. For trainees, the attaining of the discriminations culminates in the liberation of a trainee’s fruition; for non-trainees, it culminates precisely in the liberation of a non-trainee’s fruition. For just as the ten powers of the Tathāgatas are accomplished through the fruit of awakening, so too the discriminations of noble ones are accomplished through noble fruition. It was with reference to these discriminations that it was said, “It is of four kinds by way of the four discriminations.”

§8 Wisdom’s Soil, Root, and Body, and the Naming of the Five Aggregates 〔CSCD §430–431〕

Establishing Wisdom’s Soil, Root, and Body

“How should it be developed?”—Here, dhammas classified as aggregates, bases, elements, faculties, truths, dependent origination, and so on are the soil⁹ of this wisdom. The two purifications—purification of virtue and purification of mind—are its root. The five purifications—purification of view, purification by overcoming doubt, purification by knowledge and vision of what is and is not the path, purification by knowledge and vision of the way, and purification by knowledge and vision—are its body. Therefore the practitioner should cultivate familiarity with knowledge by recitation and inquiry concerning those dhammas that are its soil, accomplish the two purifications that are its root, and develop wisdom while accomplishing the five purifications that are its body. This is the brief account.

Here is the detailed account. First, regarding the statement “dhammas classified as aggregates, bases, elements, faculties, truths, dependent origination, and so on are the soil”: here, “aggregates” are the five aggregates—the materiality aggregate, the feeling aggregate, the perception aggregate, the formations aggregate, and the consciousness aggregate.

Notes

¹ Direct knowledge (abhiññā): the direct knowledges accomplished through the development of concentration; the treatise uses them to mark the completion of the preceding development of concentration. The same word elsewhere in this work means “penetration”—the wisdom extending from access to absorption; the two belong to different categories.

² The two levels of concentration (samādhi): access concentration (upacāra-samādhi) is a level of concentration in which the hindrances have been suppressed but absorption has not yet been entered; in absorption concentration (appanā-samādhi), the mind enters its object completely and remains unmoving. This chapter speaks generally only of concentration as wisdom’s proximate cause; the distinction between these two levels and their methods of development are treated throughout the chapters on concentration in this work.

³ Insight knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa): the wisdom that sees impermanence, suffering, and not-self in formations. In this chapter the treatise itself limits the wisdom under consideration to this: insight knowledge associated with wholesome consciousness.

⁴ The fourfold and fivefold methods (catukka-naya・pañcaka-naya): two enumerations of jhāna. The second jhāna of the fourfold method is divided into the second and third of the fivefold method, while its third and fourth become the fourth and fifth.

⁵ Natural expression (sabhāvanirutti): language that accords with the individual nature of a dhamma and is not confused. The treatise gives “phasso vedanā” as a grammatical example and “phassā vedano” as an ungrammatical example.

⁶ Commentary (aṭṭhakathā): the ancient commentaries on the scriptures. This chapter defines “inquiry” as discussion that distinguishes difficult passages and passages of meaning in the scriptures and commentaries.

⁷ Conformity and change-of-lineage (anuloma・gotrabhu): the third and fourth of the four successive consciousnesses in the cognitive process before entry into absorption—the first two are preparation and access. Here they mark the limit reached by the practice of insight.

⁸ Stream-enterer (sotāpanna): a person who has first attained noble fruition. The older Chinese transmission also uses a transliteration of the Pāli; this edition follows the normative glossary and uses “stream-enterer.”

⁹ Soil (bhūmi): the ground on which wisdom grows, namely the dhammas classified as aggregates, bases, elements, faculties, truths, dependent origination, and so on. The first class discussed in this chapter is the five aggregates.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The General Characteristic of the Form Aggregate and the List of Twenty-Eight Kinds of Materiality 〔CSCD §432〕

Discussion of the Form Aggregate

Here, whatever kind of dhamma has the characteristic of being altered by cold and so forth should all be gathered into a single heap and understood as the form aggregate.

Although this materiality is of a single kind according to the characteristic of alteration, it is of two kinds according to the division into great-element materiality and derived materiality.

Here, great-element materiality is of four kinds: the earth element, water element, fire element, and air element. Their characteristics, functions, and manifestations have been stated in the definition of the four elements¹; as for proximate cause, each has the other three elements as its proximate cause.

Derived materiality is of twenty-four kinds: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body; visible form², sound, odor, flavor; femininity faculty, masculinity faculty, life-faculty; heart basis; bodily intimation, verbal intimation; space element; lightness of materiality, malleability of materiality, wieldiness of materiality; accumulation of materiality, continuity of materiality, aging of materiality, impermanence of materiality; and physical nutriment.

§2 The Four Aspects of the Five Sensitivities, the Dispute over Their Supports, and Their Locations 〔CSCD §433–436〕

The eye has as its characteristic the sensitivity³ of the great elements that is capable of receiving the impact of visible forms; or its characteristic is the sensitivity of the great elements originated by kamma caused by the desire to see. Its function is to draw toward visible forms; it manifests as the support of eye-consciousness; its proximate cause is the kamma-born great elements caused by the desire to see.

The ear has as its characteristic the sensitivity of the great elements that is capable of receiving the impact of sounds; or its characteristic is the sensitivity of the great elements originated by kamma caused by the desire to hear. Its function is to draw toward sounds; it manifests as the support of ear-consciousness; its proximate cause is the kamma-born great elements caused by the desire to hear.

The nose has as its characteristic the sensitivity of the great elements that is capable of receiving the impact of odors; or its characteristic is the sensitivity of the great elements originated by kamma caused by the desire to smell. Its function is to draw toward odors; it manifests as the support of nose-consciousness; its proximate cause is the kamma-born great elements caused by the desire to smell.

The tongue has as its characteristic the sensitivity of the great elements that is capable of receiving the impact of flavors; or its characteristic is the sensitivity of the great elements originated by kamma caused by the desire to taste. Its function is to draw toward flavors; it manifests as the support of tongue-consciousness; its proximate cause is the kamma-born great elements caused by the desire to taste.

The body has as its characteristic the sensitivity of the great elements that is capable of receiving the impact of tangibles; or its characteristic is the sensitivity of the great elements originated by kamma caused by the desire to touch. Its function is to draw toward tangibles; it manifests as the support of body-consciousness; its proximate cause is the kamma-born great elements caused by the desire to touch.

Some, however, say: “The eye is the sensitivity of great elements in which fire predominates; the ear, nose, and tongue are the sensitivities of great elements in which air, earth, and water respectively predominate; and the body belongs to all the elements.” Others say: “The eye is the sensitivity of what is fire-predominant; the ear, nose, tongue, and body are the sensitivities of what is respectively predominant in space, air, water, and earth.” They should be told, “Bring a discourse.” They certainly will not find such a discourse.

Some here offer this reason: “Because they are sustained by the qualities of fire and the other elements—visible form and the other objects.” They should be told: “Who has ever said that visible form and the other objects are qualities of fire and the other elements? Among great elements that occur inseparably, it cannot be said, ‘This is the quality of this element; that is the quality of that element.’” If they further say: “You acknowledge that, in various composite things, the supporting and other functions of earth and the other elements occur because this or that great element predominates. In the same way, because visible form and the other objects are seen to predominate in composites in which fire and the other elements predominate, you should acknowledge that visible form and the other objects are their qualities,” they should be told: “We would acknowledge this if the odor of earth-predominant cotton were stronger than the odor of water-predominant liquor, and if the color of cold water were inferior to the color of fire-predominant hot water.” But neither is so. Therefore abandon this establishment of differences among the great elements that support the sensitivities and understand the matter in this way: just as, within a single cluster that has no such differentiation, the colors, flavors, and other qualities of the great elements differ from each other, so too eye-sensitivity and the others differ even without another cause of differentiation.

What, then, is peculiar to each and not shared with the others? Kamma alone is the cause of their difference. Their difference therefore comes from a difference in kamma, not from a difference in the great elements; for if the great elements differed, sensitivity would not arise at all. The Ancients said: “Sensitivity belongs to elements that are equal, not unequal.”

Among these sensitivities differentiated through differences in kamma, the eye and ear apprehend objects that have not reached them, for they cause consciousness only with respect to an object that does not adhere to their own support. The nose, tongue, and body apprehend objects that have reached them, both by way of the support and in themselves, for they cause consciousness only with respect to an object adhering to their own support.

Here, what the world calls the “eye” is the organ surrounded by blue eyelashes, variegated with a black and a white disk, and shaped like a blue-lotus petal. Within that compound eye, in the center of the black disk encircled by the white disk, at the spot where the shape of the body of a person standing directly opposite appears, the eye-sensitivity remains spread across the seven ocular membranes, like oil permeating seven layers of cotton. It is assisted by the four great elements with the four functions of supporting, binding, maturing, and moving, just as a khattiya (warrior-class) prince is tended by four nurses whose functions are holding, bathing, adorning, and fanning. It is sustained by temperature, mind, and nutriment, guarded by life, and surrounded by color, odor, flavor, and so forth. In size it is as large as a louse’s head. It remains accomplishing the respective character of support and door for eye-consciousness and the rest. The Dhamma General also said:

Through this eye-sensitivity, visible forms are seen;

it is small and subtle, like the head of a louse.

The ear-sensitivity remains inside the opening of the compound ear, at the place where fine red hairs grow and whose shape resembles a finger-ring. It is assisted by the great elements described above, sustained by temperature, mind, and nutriment, guarded by life, surrounded by color and so forth, and accomplishes the respective character of support and door for ear-consciousness and the rest.

The nose-sensitivity remains inside the opening of the compound nose, at a place shaped like a goat’s hoof. It has the assistance, sustenance, guarding, and surrounding described above and accomplishes the respective character of support and door for nose-consciousness and the rest.

The tongue-sensitivity remains above the middle of the compound tongue, at a place shaped like the tip of a blue-lotus petal. It has the assistance, sustenance, guarding, and surrounding described above and accomplishes the respective character of support and door for tongue-consciousness and the rest.

Wherever there is appropriated materiality in this body, body-sensitivity remains throughout it, like oil in a layer of cotton. It has the assistance, sustenance, guarding, and surrounding described above and accomplishes the respective character of support and door for body-consciousness and the rest.

And just as a snake, crocodile, bird, dog, and jackal each incline toward their respective domains—an anthill, water, the sky, a village, and a charnel ground—so too the eye and the other sensitivities incline toward their respective domains, visible forms and the rest. This is how they should be regarded.

§3 The Four Objects: Visible Form, Sound, Odor, and Flavor 〔CSCD §437〕

Among visible form and the other objects that follow the sensitivities, visible form has impacting the eye as its characteristic, being the object of eye-consciousness as its function, and being its domain as its manifestation; its proximate cause is the four great elements. As with this visible form, so with all derived materiality; wherever there is a difference, we shall state it there. Visible form is manifold as blue, yellow, and so on.

Sound has impacting the ear as its characteristic, being the object of ear-consciousness as its function, and being its domain as its manifestation. It is manifold as the sound of a drum, the sound of a tabour, and so on.

Odor has impacting the nose as its characteristic, being the object of nose-consciousness as its function, and being its domain as its manifestation. It is manifold as root odor, heartwood odor, and so on.

Flavor has impacting the tongue as its characteristic, being the object of tongue-consciousness as its function, and being its domain as its manifestation. It is manifold as root flavor, stalk flavor, and so on.

§4 The Two Sex Faculties, Life-Faculty, and Heart Basis 〔CSCD §438–440〕

The femininity faculty has the feminine sex as its characteristic, revealing “this is a woman” as its function, and being the cause of feminine features, signs, behavior, and deportment as its manifestation. The masculinity faculty has the masculine sex as its characteristic, revealing “this is a man” as its function, and being the cause of masculine features, signs, behavior, and deportment as its manifestation. Both spread throughout the entire body like body-sensitivity. Yet neither can be said to occupy the place where body-sensitivity stands nor the place where it does not stand; like color and flavor, they are not intermingled with each other.

The life-faculty has maintaining conascent materiality as its characteristic, making those forms occur as its function, and keeping those very forms established as its manifestation; its proximate cause is the great elements that are to be maintained. Although it performs the functions of maintaining and so forth, it maintains conascent materiality only during its presence, like water maintaining lotuses and the like. It also maintains dhammas that have arisen from their respective conditions, like a nurse maintaining a child. It occurs only in connection with the dhammas whose occurrence it sustains, like a navigator and a ship. It does not occur after breakup, since neither it nor what it should sustain then exists. Nor does it keep dhammas established at the moment of breakup, since it too is breaking up—like oil in a wick nearing exhaustion in relation to the lamp flame. Yet it is not wholly without the powers of maintaining, making occur, and keeping established, for at the moment described above it accomplishes each respective task. This is how it should be regarded.

The heart basis has serving as the support of the mind element and mind-consciousness element⁴ as its characteristic, supporting those very elements as its function, and carrying them as its manifestation. Depending upon the kind of blood inside the heart described in the discussion of Mindfulness of the Body⁵, it is assisted by great elements that perform the functions beginning with support, sustained by temperature, mind, and nutriment, and guarded by life. It remains accomplishing the character of a physical support for the mind element, mind-consciousness element, and the dhammas associated with them.

§5 Bodily and Verbal Intimation, and the Space Element 〔CSCD §441–442〕

Bodily intimation is the alteration of mode in the mind-originated air element that becomes the condition for supporting, sustaining, and moving the conascent material body, as in the occurrence of going forward and so forth. Its function is to reveal intention; it manifests as the cause of bodily movement; its proximate cause is the mind-originated air element. It is called “bodily intimation” because it makes intention known by bodily movement, while it is itself known through the “body” called bodily movement. Going forward and the rest occur because temperature-originated materiality and other forms connected with the mind-born materiality moved by it also move. This should be understood.

Verbal intimation is the alteration of mode in the mind-originated earth element that becomes the condition for striking appropriated materiality, as in the occurrence of speech. Its function is to reveal intention; it manifests as the cause of the sound of speech; its proximate cause is the mind-originated earth element. It is called “verbal intimation” because it makes intention known through the sound of speech, while it is itself known through the “speech” called the sound of speech. Just as a person seeing a water sign—a cow’s skull and the like raised and hung up in a forest—knows, “There is water here,” so too bodily and verbal intimation become known by apprehending bodily movement and the sound of speech.

The space element has delimiting materiality as its characteristic, revealing the boundaries of materiality as its function, and the limits of materiality as its manifestation; alternatively, its manifestation is the state of non-contact, the state of a hole or aperture. Its proximate cause is the materiality it delimits. Because of it, distinctions such as “this is above, below, or beside that” occur among delimited forms.

§6 Lightness, Malleability, and Wieldiness; Accumulation, Continuity, Aging, and Impermanence; and Physical Nutriment 〔CSCD §443–445〕

Lightness of materiality has non-sluggishness as its characteristic, dispelling heaviness in forms as its function, and light transformation as its manifestation; its proximate cause is light materiality. Malleability of materiality has non-rigidity as its characteristic, dispelling rigidity in forms as its function, and non-opposition in every activity as its manifestation; its proximate cause is malleable materiality. Wieldiness of materiality has the capacity to conform to bodily activity as its characteristic, dispelling unwieldiness as its function, and the state of non-weakness as its manifestation; its proximate cause is wieldy materiality.

These three never leave one another. Even so, the alteration of materiality that has lightness, non-sluggishness, and light transformation—like a healthy person—and is originated by conditions opposed to disturbance among the elements that makes materiality sluggish is lightness of materiality. The alteration of materiality that has malleability and a gentle responsiveness to every distinction of activity—like well-worked leather—and is originated by conditions opposed to disturbance among the elements that makes materiality rigid is malleability of materiality. The alteration of materiality that has competence and conformity to bodily activity—like well-refined gold—and is originated by conditions opposed to disturbance among the elements that makes bodily activities nonconforming is wieldiness of materiality. Their differences should be understood in this way.

Accumulation of materiality has initial arising as its characteristic, bringing forms forth from their prior limit as its function, and delivery or fullness as its manifestation; its proximate cause is accumulated materiality. Continuity of materiality has occurrence as its characteristic, continuing on as its function, and non-interruption as its manifestation; its proximate cause is materiality capable of continuing on. Both are designations for “birth of materiality.” Yet because their modes differ, and in accordance with the persons to be guided, the headings and teaching “accumulation” and “continuity” are given. But because there is no difference in meaning here, the explanation of these terms says: “Whatever is the initial arising of the bases is the accumulation of materiality; whatever is the accumulation of materiality is the continuity of materiality.” The commentary⁶ also says: “Initial arising means coming into being; accumulation means growth; continuity means occurrence.” It gives a simile: “In a well dug on a riverbank, the first welling up of water is like initial arising, or coming into being; the filling of the well is like accumulation, or growth; the water overflowing and flowing onward is like continuity, or occurrence.”

At the end of the simile it says: “What is stated in this way? Initial arising has been stated by way of ‘base,’ and ‘base’ by way of initial arising.” Therefore it should be understood that the first coming into being of forms is initial arising. When further forms come into being upon them, that coming into being is accumulation because it appears in the mode of growth. When still further forms repeatedly come into being upon those, that coming into being is also called continuity because it appears in the mode of continuing on.

Aging has the maturing of materiality as its characteristic, drawing it toward breakup as its function, and the loss of freshness without departure from its individual nature as its manifestation—like old grain; its proximate cause is maturing materiality. Since alteration is seen in teeth and the rest through their falling out and other such signs, this is said with reference to manifest aging. The aging of immaterial dhammas is called concealed aging and has no such alteration; that in earth, water, mountains, the moon, the sun, and so on is called uninterrupted aging.

Impermanence of materiality has breaking up as its characteristic, subsiding as its function, and exhaustion and destruction as its manifestation; its proximate cause is materiality that is breaking up.

Physical nutriment has nutritive essence as its characteristic, bringing materiality as its function, and sustaining as its manifestation; its proximate cause is what must be made into a morsel and eaten. It is a designation for the nutritive essence through which beings sustain themselves.

§7 The Commentary’s Five Additional Forms, Their Inclusion, and the Conclusion of Twenty-Eight 〔CSCD §446〕

The forms above are those transmitted in the canonical text. In the commentary, further forms are introduced: strength-materiality, generation-materiality, birth-materiality, disease-materiality, and, in the opinion of some, sleep-materiality. Citing such words as “You are indeed a sage, a Rightly and Fully Enlightened One; you have no hindrances,” it first refutes sleep-materiality and says it does not exist at all. Of the rest, disease-materiality is already included by taking aging and impermanence; birth-materiality by taking accumulation and continuity; generation-materiality by taking the water element; and strength-materiality by taking the air element. The conclusion is therefore made that none is established separately.

Thus these twenty-four kinds of derived materiality together with the four kinds of great-element materiality stated above make twenty-eight kinds of materiality—neither less nor more.

§8 Classification Through the Methods—From Onefold to Fivefold 〔CSCD §447–450〕

All this materiality is of a single kind according to such methods as: not a root, rootless, dissociated from roots, conditioned, mundane, and with influxes.

It is of two kinds according to internal and external, gross and subtle, far and near, completed materiality and non-completed materiality, sensitive materiality and non-sensitive materiality, faculty and non-faculty, appropriated and non-appropriated, and so on. Here, the five beginning with the eye are internal because they occur with reference to the personal body; the rest are external because they are outside that. The nine beginning with the eye together with the three elements other than the water element—twelve kinds—are gross because they can be apprehended by impact; the rest are subtle because they are the opposite. Whatever is subtle is far precisely because its individual nature is difficult to penetrate; the other kind is near because its individual nature is easy to penetrate. The four elements, the thirteen beginning with the eye, and physical nutriment—eighteen kinds of materiality—are completed materiality because, transcending the states of delimitation, alteration, and characteristic, they are apprehensible through their own individual nature; the rest are non-completed materiality because they are the opposite. The five beginning with the eye are sensitive materiality because, being conditions for apprehending visible forms and the rest, they are clear like the surface of a mirror; the other kind is non-sensitive materiality because it is the opposite. Sensitive materiality itself together with the three beginning with the femininity faculty are faculties in the sense of predominance; the rest are non-faculties because they are the opposite. The forms that will later be described as kamma-born are appropriated because they are appropriated by kamma; the rest are non-appropriated because they are the opposite.

Furthermore, all materiality is of three kinds according to the triads beginning with visible and kamma-born. Here, among the gross forms, visible form is visible and resistant; the rest are invisible and resistant. All subtle forms are invisible and non-resistant. Thus, first, it is of three kinds according to the visibility triad. According to each origin triad: what is born of kamma is kamma-born; what is born of another condition is non-kamma-born; what is born from nowhere is neither kamma-born nor non-kamma-born. What is born of mind is mind-born; what is born of another condition is non-mind-born; what is born from nowhere is neither mind-born nor non-mind-born. What is born of nutriment is nutriment-born; what is born of another condition is non-nutriment-born; what is born from nowhere is neither nutriment-born nor non-nutriment-born. What is born of temperature is temperature-born; what is born of another condition is non-temperature-born; what is born from nowhere is neither temperature-born nor non-temperature-born. Thus it is of three kinds according to the triads beginning with kamma-born.

Furthermore, it is of four kinds according to the tetrads of seen and so on, materiality-as-materiality and so on, and support and so on. Here, the visible-form base is called “seen” because it is the object of seeing; the sound base is called “heard” because it is the object of hearing; the three—odor, flavor, and tangible—are called “sensed” because they are objects of faculties that apprehend what has reached them; the rest are called “cognized” because they are objects of consciousness alone. Thus, first, it is of four kinds according to the tetrad of seen and so on.

Here, completed materiality is called materiality-as-materiality; the space element is called delimiting materiality; the forms from bodily intimation through wieldiness are called alteration-materiality; birth, aging, and breakup are called characteristic-materiality. Thus it is of four kinds according to the tetrad of materiality-as-materiality and so on.

Here, what is called heart-materiality is a support but not a door; the two intimations are doors but not supports; sensitive materiality is both support and door; the rest are neither support nor door. Thus it is of four kinds according to the tetrad of support and so on.

Furthermore, it is of five kinds as single-origin, double-origin, triple-origin, fourfold-origin, and born from nowhere. What is kamma-born alone and mind-born alone is called single-origin. Of these, faculty-materiality together with the heart basis is kamma-born alone, while the two intimations are mind-born alone. What is born of mind and temperature is called double-origin; this is the sound base alone. What is born of temperature, mind, and nutriment is called triple-origin; this is precisely the triad beginning with lightness. What is born of all four, kamma and the rest, is called fourfold-origin; this is the remainder apart from characteristic-materiality. Characteristic-materiality is born from nowhere. Why? Because arising does not have an arising, while the other two are merely the maturation and breakup of what has arisen. In passages such as “the visible-form base, sound base, odor base, flavor base, tangible base, space element, water element, lightness of materiality, malleability of materiality, wieldiness of materiality, accumulation of materiality, continuity of materiality, and physical nutriment—these dhammas are mind-originated,” it is also admitted that birth is born from somewhere. But this should be understood as being seen at the moment when the power of the function of the conditions producing materiality operates.

　This is the portal to the detailed discussion of the form aggregate.

Notes

¹ Defining of the four elements (catudhātuvavatthāna): one of the forty meditation subjects, the practice of defining the earth, water, fire, and air elements in this body.

² Form (rūpa) has two positions in this chapter: as the name of an aggregate—the form aggregate, all dhammas characterized by alteration—and as the name of an object—visible form encountered by the eye. “Visible form” in this list is the latter.

³ Sensitivity (pasāda): the clear aspect of a faculty capable of apprehending its object. Eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body share this characteristic and are therefore called the five kinds of sensitive materiality.

⁴ Mind element and mind-consciousness element (manodhātu・manoviññāṇadhātu): two classes of consciousness; their classification appears in this chapter’s unit on the consciousness aggregate.

⁵ Mindfulness of the Body (kāyagatāsati): one of the forty meditation subjects, the cultivation of the thirty-two parts of the body; its discussion appears in this work’s unit “Mindfulness of the Body.”

⁶ Commentary (aṭṭhakathā): the ancient commentary on the canonical text. This unit cites its threefold distinction among initial arising, accumulation, and continuity, then introduces its five additional forms and either includes or rejects each in turn.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 General Designation of the Four Aggregates and Why the Consciousness Aggregate Is Explained First 〔CSCD §451〕

Discussion of the Consciousness Aggregate

Among the remaining four aggregates, whatever has experiencing as its characteristic, all gathered together, is the feeling aggregate; whatever has perceiving as its characteristic, all gathered together, is the perception aggregate; whatever has forming as its characteristic, all gathered together, is the formations aggregate; and whatever has discerning as its characteristic, all gathered together, should be understood as the consciousness aggregate. Of these, because the others become easy to understand once the consciousness aggregate is understood, we shall begin our explanation with the consciousness aggregate.

For it was said that whatever has discerning as its characteristic, all gathered together, should be understood as the consciousness aggregate. What, then, is the consciousness that has discerning as its characteristic? As it is said: “Friend, because it discerns, discerns, it is called consciousness.” Consciousness, mind, and mentality¹ are the same in meaning. Although consciousness is of a single kind in individual nature according to the characteristic of discerning, it is of three kinds by class: wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate².

§2 Twenty-One Wholesome Consciousnesses 〔CSCD §452〕

Here, wholesome consciousness is of four kinds according to plane: sense sphere, fine-material sphere, immaterial sphere, and supramundane. Of these, sense-sphere wholesome consciousness is eightfold according to joy, equanimity, knowledge, and prompting. That is: accompanied by joy and associated with knowledge, unprompted and prompted³; likewise, accompanied by joy and dissociated from knowledge, unprompted and prompted. Accompanied by equanimity and associated with knowledge, unprompted and prompted; likewise, accompanied by equanimity and dissociated from knowledge, unprompted and prompted.

When a person encounters excellence in the gift, the recipient, and so forth, or another cause of joy, becomes glad and elated, takes right view occurring in such a mode as “there is what is given” as forerunner, and performs a meritorious deed such as giving without shrinking back and without being urged by others, their mind at that time is accompanied by joy, associated with knowledge, and unprompted. When the person is glad and content in the manner described and takes right view as forerunner, but shrinks back because unable to open the hand and give or is urged by others to act, that same mind is prompted. In this context, “prompting” designates prior effort occurring through oneself or through others. When small children, habituated by seeing their relatives’ conduct, become joyful on seeing bhikkhus and immediately give something from their hands or pay homage, the third consciousness arises. When their relatives have to urge them, “Give; pay homage,” before they act in this way, the fourth consciousness arises. When the four situations lack joy because of deficiency in the gift, the recipient, and so forth, or because another cause of joy is absent, the remaining four consciousnesses accompanied by equanimity arise. Thus sense-sphere wholesome consciousness should be understood as eightfold according to joy, equanimity, knowledge, and prompting.

Fine-material-sphere wholesome consciousness is fivefold according to its association with jhāna factors. The first is associated with applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, pleasure, and concentration; the second has transcended applied thought; the third has then transcended sustained thought; the fourth has then become dispassionate toward rapture; the fifth, with pleasure vanished, is associated with equanimity and concentration.

Immaterial-sphere wholesome consciousness is fourfold according to association with the four immaterial attainments. In the manner already stated, the first is associated with the jhāna of the base of boundless space, while the second, third, and fourth are associated with the base of boundless consciousness and the remaining attainments. Supramundane wholesome consciousness is fourfold according to its association with the four paths. Thus wholesome consciousness alone is twenty-onefold.

§3 Twelve Unwholesome Consciousnesses 〔CSCD §453〕

Unwholesome consciousness is of a single kind by plane, occurring only in the sense sphere, and is of three kinds by root: greed-rooted, aversion-rooted, and delusion-rooted.

Of these, greed-rooted consciousness is eightfold according to joy, equanimity, view, and prompting. That is: accompanied by joy and associated with view, unprompted and prompted; likewise, accompanied by joy and dissociated from view, unprompted and prompted. Accompanied by equanimity and associated with view, unprompted and prompted; likewise, accompanied by equanimity and dissociated from view, unprompted and prompted.

When a person takes wrong view in a mode such as “there is no danger in sensual pleasures” as forerunner, gladly and contentedly enjoys sensual pleasures or takes an omen that has been seen and the like as substantial, and the mind is naturally keen and not urged, the first unwholesome consciousness arises. When the mind is sluggish and has been urged, the second arises. When, without taking wrong view as forerunner, the person merely engages gladly and contentedly in sexual intercourse, covets another’s prosperity, or takes another’s property, and the mind is naturally keen and not urged, the third arises. When the mind is sluggish and has been urged, the fourth arises. When the four situations lack joy because sensual pleasures are deficient or another cause of joy is absent, the remaining four consciousnesses accompanied by equanimity arise. Thus greed-rooted consciousness should be understood as eightfold according to joy, equanimity, view, and prompting.

Aversion-rooted consciousness is accompanied by grief and associated with aversion, unprompted or prompted, and is therefore only twofold. Its occurrence should be understood at times when killing living beings and the like is performed keenly or sluggishly.

Delusion-rooted consciousness is accompanied by equanimity and is either associated with doubt or associated with restlessness⁴, and is therefore twofold. Its occurrence should be understood at times of indecision and distraction. Thus unwholesome consciousness is twelvefold.

§4 Indeterminate Consciousness—Thirty-Six Resultants and Twenty Functionals 〔CSCD §454〕

Indeterminate consciousness is of two kinds by class: resultant and functional⁵. Of these, resultant consciousness is of four kinds according to plane: sense sphere, fine-material sphere, immaterial sphere, and supramundane. Sense-sphere resultant consciousness is of two kinds: wholesome resultant and unwholesome resultant. Wholesome resultant consciousness is also of two kinds: rootless and rooted⁶.

What is devoid of resultant roots such as non-greed is rootless. This consists of eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, the mind element whose function is receiving, and the two mind-consciousness elements whose functions include investigating⁷—eight in all.

Eye-consciousness has discerning visible form dependent upon the eye as its characteristic, taking only visible form as its object as its function, and facing visible form as its manifestation; its proximate cause is the departure of the functional mind element that takes visible form as object. Ear-, nose-, tongue-, and body-consciousness have discerning sound and the other objects dependent upon the ear and the other faculties as their characteristic, taking only sound and the other respective objects as their function, and facing sound and the other respective objects as their manifestation; their proximate cause is the departure of the functional mind element that takes sound and the other respective objects as object.

The mind element has discerning visible form and the other objects immediately after eye-consciousness and the rest as its characteristic, receiving visible form and the other objects as its function, and that very state as its manifestation; its proximate cause is the departure of eye-consciousness and the rest.

The two rootless resultant mind-consciousness elements whose functions include investigating have discerning the six objects as their characteristic, investigating and so forth as their function, that very state as their manifestation, and the heart basis as their proximate cause. Their distinction is made according to association with joy or equanimity and according to the difference between two positions and five positions. Of these two, the first is associated with joy because it occurs with an invariably agreeable object; and because it occurs by way of investigating and registration at the five doors and at the end of impulsion, it occupies two positions. The other is associated with equanimity because it occurs with a moderately agreeable object; and because it occurs by way of investigating, registration, rebirth-linking, life-continuum, and death, it occupies five positions.

These eight rootless resultant consciousnesses are of two kinds according to whether their object is fixed or variable, and of three kinds according to equanimity, pleasure, and joy. The five consciousnesses have fixed objects, since each occurs only with its respective object—visible form and so on; the rest have variable objects. The mind element occurs with the five beginning with visible form, while the two mind-consciousness elements occur with all six. Here body-consciousness is associated with pleasure, the two-position mind-consciousness element is associated with joy, and the rest are associated with equanimity. Thus rootless wholesome resultant consciousness should be understood as eightfold.

What is associated with resultant roots such as non-greed is rooted. Like sense-sphere wholesome consciousness, it is eightfold according to such distinctions as joy. Yet wholesome consciousness occurs with the six objects through giving and so forth, whereas this does not. This resultant consciousness occurs by way of rebirth-linking, life-continuum, death, and registration only with the six objects included among limited dhammas. Whether it is prompted or unprompted should be understood according to its source and so forth. And even when the associated dhammas do not differ, resultant consciousness should be understood as without effort, like the reflection of a face on a mirror’s surface, while wholesome consciousness is with effort, like the face itself.

Unwholesome resultant consciousness is wholly rootless. It consists of eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, the mind element whose function is receiving, and the five-position mind-consciousness element whose functions include investigating—seven in all. Its characteristic and the rest should be understood according to the method stated for rootless wholesome resultants.

For wholesome resultants take agreeable and moderately agreeable objects, while these unwholesome resultants take disagreeable and moderately disagreeable objects. The former are of three kinds according to equanimity, pleasure, and joy, while the latter are of two kinds according to pain and equanimity. Here body-consciousness is accompanied only by pain, while the rest are accompanied by equanimity. The equanimity among these is inferior, like pain that is not very acute; the equanimity among the others is superior, like pleasure that is not very acute. Thus with these seven unwholesome resultants and the preceding sixteen wholesome resultants, sense-sphere resultant consciousness is twenty-threefold.

Fine-material-sphere resultant consciousness, like wholesome consciousness, is fivefold. But wholesome consciousness occurs in the impulsion process by way of attainment, while this resultant consciousness occurs at rebirth by way of rebirth-linking, life-continuum, and death. As with the fine-material sphere, immaterial-sphere resultant consciousness is fourfold like wholesome consciousness, and the distinction in its occurrence follows the method stated for the fine-material sphere. Supramundane resultant consciousness is fourfold because it is the fruit of consciousnesses associated with the four paths; it occurs in two ways, by way of the path process and by way of attainment. Thus all resultant consciousness in the four planes is thirty-sixfold.

Functional consciousness is of three kinds according to plane: sense sphere, fine-material sphere, and immaterial sphere. Sense-sphere functional consciousness is of two kinds: rootless and rooted. Of these, what is devoid of functional roots such as non-greed is rootless; this is twofold according to mind element and mind-consciousness element.

Here, the mind element has discerning visible form and the other objects prior to eye-consciousness and the rest as its characteristic, adverting as its function, facing visible form and the other objects as its manifestation, and the cutting off of the life-continuum as its proximate cause. It is associated only with equanimity.

The mind-consciousness element is of two kinds, common and uncommon. The common kind is rootless functional consciousness accompanied by equanimity. It has discerning the six objects as its characteristic, determining at the five doors and adverting at the mind door as its function, that very state as its manifestation, and the departure of either rootless resultant mind-consciousness element or a life-continuum consciousness as its proximate cause.

The uncommon kind is rootless functional consciousness accompanied by joy. It has discerning the six objects as its characteristic, producing a smile in arahants in matters that are not sublime as its function, and that very state as its manifestation; its proximate cause is invariably the heart basis. Thus sense-sphere rootless functional consciousness is threefold.

Rooted functional consciousness, like wholesome consciousness, is eightfold according to such distinctions as joy. The difference here is that wholesome consciousness arises in trainees and ordinary persons, whereas this arises only in arahants. Thus in the sense sphere there are eleven kinds.

Fine-material-sphere and immaterial-sphere functional consciousnesses, like their wholesome counterparts, are fivefold and fourfold. Their difference from wholesome consciousness should be understood simply as arising in arahants. Thus all functional consciousness in the three planes is twentyfold.

§5 Conclusion of Eighty-Nine, Establishing the Fourteen Modes, and the Occurrence of Rebirth-Linking and Life-Continuum 〔CSCD §455〕

Thus there are twenty-one wholesome, twelve unwholesome, thirty-six resultant, and twenty functional consciousnesses—a total of eighty-nine. They occur in fourteen modes: rebirth-linking⁸, life-continuum⁹, adverting, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, receiving, investigating, determining, impulsion, registration, and death.

How so? When beings are reborn among devas and humans through the power of the eight sense-sphere wholesome consciousnesses, eight rooted sense-sphere resultants and the rootless resultant mind-consciousness element accompanied by equanimity—which is the resultant of weak two-rooted wholesome kamma in humans born as eunuchs and the like—occur as nine resultant consciousnesses by way of rebirth-linking. Their object is whichever of kamma, a sign of kamma, or a sign of destiny appears at the time of death. When beings are born into fine-material or immaterial existence through the power of fine-material- and immaterial-sphere wholesome consciousness, the nine fine-material- and immaterial-sphere resultants occur by way of rebirth-linking, taking as object the sign of kamma that appeared at death.

When beings are born in bad destinations through the power of unwholesome consciousness, a single unwholesome resultant rootless mind-consciousness element occurs by way of rebirth-linking, taking as object whichever of kamma, a sign of kamma, or a sign of destiny appeared at death. Thus the occurrence of nineteen resultant consciousnesses by way of rebirth-linking should first be understood here.

When rebirth-linking consciousness has ceased, a consciousness similar to it follows each respective rebirth-linking consciousness, is the result of that same kamma, and takes the same object; it occurs under the name “life-continuum consciousness.” Another similar consciousness follows, and so on. Thus, so long as no other arising of mind interrupts the continuity, it continues to occur like a river current, even an immeasurable number of times when entering dreamless sleep and on similar occasions. This is how the occurrence of those same consciousnesses by way of life-continuum should be understood.

§6 The Occurrence of Adverting, the Five Consciousnesses, Receiving, Investigating, and Determining 〔CSCD §455〕

While the life-continuum continuity is occurring in this way, when beings’ faculties become capable of apprehending an object and a visible form enters the eye’s range, the visible form conditions impact upon eye-sensitivity. Through the power of that impact, the life-continuum vibrates. Then, when the life-continuum has ceased, the functional mind element arises taking that same visible form as object and performs the function of adverting¹⁰, as though cutting off the life-continuum. The same method applies at the ear door and the other sense doors. At the mind door, when any of the six objects enters range, the rootless functional mind-consciousness element accompanied by equanimity arises after the life-continuum vibrates and performs the function of adverting, as though cutting off the life-continuum. Thus two functional consciousnesses should be understood to occur by way of adverting.

After adverting, at the eye door eye-consciousness supported by eye-sensitivity occurs and performs the function of seeing; at the ear and the other doors, ear-, nose-, tongue-, and body-consciousness occur and perform hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching. With agreeable and moderately agreeable objects they are wholesome resultants; with disagreeable and moderately disagreeable objects they are unwholesome resultants. Thus ten resultant consciousnesses should be understood to occur by way of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching.

According to the statement beginning, “Immediately after the eye-consciousness element has arisen and ceased, there arises mind, mentality, mentation, and the mind element associated with it,” after eye-consciousness and the rest, the mind element arises receiving their objects—wholesome resultant after a wholesome resultant and unwholesome resultant after an unwholesome resultant. Thus two resultant consciousnesses should be understood to occur by way of receiving.

According to the statement, “Immediately after the mind element has also arisen and ceased, there arises mind, mentality, mentation, and the mind-consciousness element associated with it,” the resultant rootless mind-consciousness element arises investigating the object received by the mind element—unwholesome resultant after an unwholesome resultant mind element; after a wholesome resultant mind element, accompanied by joy with an agreeable object or by equanimity with a moderately agreeable object. Thus three resultant consciousnesses should be understood to occur by way of investigating.

After investigating, the functional rootless mind-consciousness element accompanied by equanimity arises determining¹¹ that same object. Thus a single functional consciousness should be understood to occur by way of determining.

§7 Impulsion, Registration, Death, and the Conclusion of the Round 〔CSCD §455〕

After determining, if the object such as visible form is great, six or seven impulsions¹² run with respect to the object determined in this way, as any of the eight sense-sphere wholesome consciousnesses, the twelve unwholesome consciousnesses, or the remaining nine sense-sphere functional consciousnesses. This is the method at the five doors.

At the mind door the same impulsions occur after mind-door adverting. Above change-of-lineage¹³, whichever among the five fine-material-sphere wholesome and five functional consciousnesses, the four immaterial-sphere wholesome and four functional consciousnesses, and the four supramundane path consciousnesses and four fruition consciousnesses obtains its conditions, that consciousness runs as impulsion. Thus fifty-five wholesome, unwholesome, functional, and resultant consciousnesses should be understood to occur by way of impulsion.

At the end of impulsion, if the object is very great at a sense door or clear at the mind door, after sense-sphere impulsion in a sense-sphere being, whichever obtains its conditions among the eight rooted sense-sphere resultants and three resultant rootless mind-consciousness elements arises twice or once, depending on whether the object is agreeable and so forth and on previous kamma, impulsion consciousness, and so forth. This resultant consciousness follows the impulsion that ran upon an object other than the life-continuum’s object, like a little water following a boat going upstream. Although this consciousness at the end of impulsion would normally occur upon the life-continuum’s object, it occurs with the impulsion’s object as its object and is therefore called “registration”¹⁴. Thus eleven resultant consciousnesses should be understood to occur by way of registration.

At the end of registration, the life-continuum occurs again. When life-continuum is interrupted, adverting and the rest occur again. Thus a continuity of minds that has obtained its conditions repeatedly occurs according to the fixed order of mind—adverting follows life-continuum; seeing and the rest follow adverting—until the life-continuum of that existence is exhausted. The very last life-continuum consciousness in an existence is called “death” because the being dies from that existence through it. It too is therefore only nineteenfold. Thus nineteen resultant consciousnesses should be understood to occur by way of death.

After death comes rebirth-linking; after rebirth-linking comes life-continuum. In this way the uninterrupted continuity of mind continues to occur for beings wandering among the kinds of existence, destinations, stations of consciousness, and abodes of beings¹⁵. But when a person attains arahantship here, after that person’s death consciousness has ceased, it is simply ceased.

　　This is the portal to the detailed discussion of the consciousness aggregate.

Notes

¹ Consciousness, mind, and mentality (viññāṇa・citta・mano): this unit itself determines that the three names are the same in meaning and takes “consciousness” as the principal name for its classification.

² Indeterminate (abyākata): a consciousness neither wholesome nor unwholesome whose result is not declared; this chapter divides it only into resultant and functional.

³ Unprompted and prompted (asaṅkhāra・sasaṅkhāra): this unit explains “prompting” as a designation for prior effort arising through oneself or through others. Thus what arises without urging is unprompted, while what waits for urging is prompted.

⁴ Doubt and restlessness (vicikicchā・uddhacca): the basis for the twofold division of the two delusion-rooted consciousnesses; this unit links their occurrence to indecision and distraction. The individual mental factors are enumerated in this chapter’s unit on the formations aggregate.

⁵ Resultant and functional (vipāka・kiriya): the former is a result produced by kamma; the latter performs a function without producing a resultant. This unit itself marks rooted functional consciousness as arising only in arahants.

⁶ Rootless and rooted (ahetuka・sahetuka): what is devoid of roots such as non-greed is rootless; what is associated with them is rooted.

⁷ Mind element and mind-consciousness element (manodhātu・manoviññāṇadhātu): the former performs receiving, while the latter performs investigating and other functions; this unit establishes the characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause of each.

⁸ Rebirth-linking (paṭisandhi): the first consciousness of a single lifetime; this unit lists nineteen resultant consciousnesses that can perform it.

⁹ Life-continuum (bhavaṅga): the uninterrupted stream of mind within an existence, occurring like a river when no other consciousness arises to interrupt it.

¹⁰ Adverting (āvajjana): the stage in which mind turns from life-continuum toward an object; the five-door and mind-door processes each have a distinct adverting consciousness.

¹¹ Determining (voṭṭhabbana): the stage that determines an object after investigation; this unit connects it with the functional rootless mind-consciousness element accompanied by equanimity.

¹² Impulsion (javana): the stage in the cognitive process that receives the object and makes kamma; it runs for six or seven moments at both the five doors and the mind door.

¹³ Change-of-lineage (gotrabhu): the fourth of the four successive consciousnesses in the cognitive process before entry into absorption or the path—the preceding three are preparation, access, and conformity. This unit marks it as the boundary at which mind-door impulsion enters the fine-material sphere, immaterial sphere, or supramundane.

¹⁴ Registration (tadārammaṇa): this unit itself explains the name—it occurs taking the impulsion’s object as its own object.

¹⁵ Existences, destinations, stations of consciousness, and abodes of beings (bhava・gati・ṭhiti・nivāsa): four classifications through which the round proceeds—kinds of existence, five destinations, seven stations of consciousness, and nine abodes of beings.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 Definition of Feeling, Its Threefold and Fivefold Divisions, and the Numbers of Its Associations 〔CSCD §456〕

Discussion of the Feeling Aggregate

Now, regarding the earlier statement, “Whatever has experiencing as its characteristic, all that gathered together should be understood as the feeling aggregate”: here, what is called “having experiencing as its characteristic” is feeling itself. As it is said: “Friend, precisely because it feels, feels, it is called feeling.” Though feeling is of a single kind in individual nature according to the characteristic of experiencing, it is of three kinds by class: wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate¹.

Here, feeling associated with the wholesome consciousness described in such terms as “sense-sphere wholesome consciousness is eightfold according to joy, equanimity, knowledge, and prompting” should be understood as wholesome; feeling associated with unwholesome consciousness as unwholesome; and feeling associated with indeterminate consciousness as indeterminate. By intrinsic distinction, feeling is fivefold: pleasure, pain, joy, grief, and equanimity².

Of these, pleasure is associated with wholesome-resultant body-consciousness, and pain with unwholesome-resultant body-consciousness. Joy is associated in the sense sphere with four wholesome, four rooted resultant, a single rootless resultant, four rooted functional, a single rootless functional, and four unwholesome consciousnesses; in the fine-material sphere, with four wholesome, four resultant, and four functional consciousnesses, excluding the consciousness of the fifth jhāna. Since there is no so-called supramundane consciousness without jhāna, the eight supramundane types become forty according to the five jhānas; excluding the eight types of the fifth jhāna leaves the other thirty-two wholesome and resultant types. Thus joy is associated with sixty-two consciousnesses. Grief is associated with two unwholesome consciousnesses. Equanimity is associated with the remaining fifty-five consciousnesses.

§2 The Characteristic, Function, Manifestation, and Proximate Cause of the Five Feelings 〔CSCD §456〕

Pleasure has experiencing an agreeable tangible object as its characteristic³, increasing associated phenomena as its function, bodily enjoyment as its manifestation, and the body faculty as its proximate cause.

Pain has experiencing a disagreeable tangible object as its characteristic, withering associated phenomena as its function, bodily affliction as its manifestation, and the body faculty as its proximate cause.

Joy has experiencing an agreeable object as its characteristic, enjoying its agreeable aspect in whatever manner as its function, mental enjoyment as its manifestation, and tranquillity as its proximate cause.

Grief has experiencing a disagreeable object as its characteristic, enjoying its disagreeable aspect in whatever manner as its function, mental affliction as its manifestation, and invariably the heart basis as its proximate cause.

Equanimity has neutral experiencing as its characteristic, neither increasing nor withering associated phenomena as its function, a peaceful state as its manifestation, and a mind without rapture⁴ as its proximate cause.

　　This is the portal to the detailed discussion of the feeling aggregate.

§3 The Perception Aggregate 〔CSCD §457〕

Discussion of the Perception Aggregate

Now, regarding the earlier statement, “Whatever has perceiving as its characteristic, all that gathered together should be understood as the perception aggregate”: here, what is called “having perceiving as its characteristic” is perception itself. As it is said: “Friend, precisely because it perceives, perceives, it is called perception.” Though perception is of a single kind in individual nature according to the characteristic of perceiving, it is of three kinds by class: wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate.

Here, perception associated with wholesome consciousness is wholesome; that associated with unwholesome consciousness is unwholesome; and that associated with indeterminate consciousness is indeterminate. No consciousness exists dissociated from perception, so perception has as many divisions as consciousness.

Although perception thus has the same divisions as consciousness, in such respects as characteristic all perception has perceiving as its characteristic; making a sign that conditions recognizing again, “This is that,” as its function, like carpenters and others making marks on wood and the like; producing commitment according to the sign grasped as its manifestation, like blind people viewing an elephant; and the object as it appears as its proximate cause, like the perception “a person” arising in young deer regarding a scarecrow.

　　This is the portal to the detailed discussion of the perception aggregate.

Notes

¹ Indeterminate (abyākata): neither wholesome nor unwholesome and with its result undeclared; in the case of feeling and perception, these are the feeling and perception associated with indeterminate consciousness.

² Pleasure, pain, joy, grief, and equanimity (sukha・dukkha・somanassa・domanassa・upekkhā): the fivefold division of feeling by intrinsic distinction—pleasure and pain are bodily feelings, joy and grief are mental feelings, and equanimity is neutral feeling.

³ Characteristic, function, manifestation, and proximate cause (lakkhaṇa・rasa・paccupaṭṭhāna・padaṭṭhāna): the treatise’s standard fourfold method for explaining a phenomenon; this unit applies it to each of the five feelings and also to perception.

⁴ Mind without rapture (nippītikacitta): a mind separated from rapture; this unit gives it as the proximate cause of equanimous feeling.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 General Characteristic of the Formations Aggregate and the Thirty-Six Factors of the First Wholesome Consciousness 〔CSCD §458〕

Discussion of the Formations Aggregate

Regarding the earlier statement, “Whatever has forming as its characteristic, all that brought together should be understood as the formations aggregate”: here, the “characteristic of forming” is the characteristic of making a mass. What has that characteristic? The formations themselves. As it is said: “Bhikkhus, because they form what is conditioned, they are called ‘formations.’” They have forming as their characteristic, accumulating as their function, diffusion as their manifestation, and the remaining three aggregates as their proximate cause.

Thus, although formations are of a single kind in such respects as characteristic, they are of three kinds by class: wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate. Those associated with wholesome consciousness are wholesome, those associated with unwholesome consciousness are unwholesome, and those associated with indeterminate consciousness are indeterminate.

First, of the factors associated with the first sense-sphere wholesome consciousness¹, twenty-seven are fixed and explicitly named, four are “or-whatever” factors², and five are variable—thirty-six in all. Contact, volition, applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, energy, life, concentration, faith, mindfulness, moral shame, moral dread, non-greed, non-hate, non-delusion, bodily tranquillity, mental tranquillity, bodily lightness, mental lightness, bodily malleability, mental malleability, bodily wieldiness, mental wieldiness, bodily proficiency, mental proficiency, bodily rectitude, and mental rectitude are the twenty-seven explicitly named factors. Desire, resolution, attention, and specific neutrality are the four “or-whatever” factors. Compassion, sympathetic joy³, abstinence from bodily misconduct, abstinence from verbal misconduct, and abstinence from wrong livelihood are the five variable factors. They arise only at times, and even when they arise, they do not arise together.

§2 Contact, Volition, Energy, Life, Concentration, Faith, Mindfulness, Moral Shame, and Moral Dread 〔CSCD §459–466〕

It touches, so it is “contact.” Contact has touching as its characteristic, impingement as its function, conjunction as its manifestation, and an object that has come into range as its proximate cause. Although it is an immaterial phenomenon, it occurs precisely in the mode of touching the object. And although it does not physically adhere through any part, it makes mind and object impinge, as visible form does the eye and sound the ear. Because it is explained through its own cause, the conjunction of the three, conjunction is its manifestation. Since it arises without interval upon an object examined by the appropriate attention and faculty, an object that has come into range is said to be its proximate cause. Because it is the support of feeling, it should be regarded as like a flayed cow.

It wills, so it is “volition”; the meaning is bringing together. Volition has the state of willing as its characteristic, accumulating as its function, and coordinating as its manifestation. Like a chief pupil or a master carpenter, it accomplishes its own task and the tasks of others. When an urgent task is recalled and on similar occasions, it becomes conspicuous by occurring in a manner that rouses the associated phenomena to effort.

Whatever should be said about applied thought, sustained thought, and rapture has already been stated in the explanation of the first jhāna in the Exposition of the Earth Kasiṇa.

The state of being vigorous is “energy.” It has exertion as its characteristic, supporting co-arisen phenomena as its function, and not sinking as its manifestation. According to the statement “A person stirred by urgency strives wisely,” urgency is its proximate cause; or a ground for arousing energy is its proximate cause. Energy rightly aroused should be understood as the root of every attainment.

Through it phenomena live, or it itself lives, or it is simply living; hence it is “life.” Its characteristic and the rest should be understood by the method stated for the material life faculty. That is the life of material phenomena, while this is the life of immaterial phenomena; this alone is the difference here.

It places mind evenly upon the object, or places it rightly, or is simply the mind’s placing; hence it is “concentration.” It has non-scattering, or non-distraction, as its characteristic; collecting co-arisen phenomena as its function, like water collecting bath powder; stilling as its manifestation; and especially pleasure as its proximate cause. It should be regarded as the mind’s steadiness, like the steadiness of a lamp flame in a windless place.

Through it a person has faith, or it itself has faith, or it is simply having faith; hence it is “faith.” It has faith, or confidence, as its characteristic; clarifying as its function, like a water-clearing gem, or plunging in as its function, like a person crossing a flood. Its manifestation is non-turbidity, or resolution. Its proximate cause is an object worthy of faith, or the factors of stream-entry beginning with hearing the true Dhamma. It should be regarded as like a hand, wealth, and seed.

Through it a person remembers, or it itself remembers, or it is simply remembering; hence it is “mindfulness”⁴. It has not floating away as its characteristic, not forgetting as its function, guarding as its manifestation, or facing the object as its manifestation, and firm perception or an establishment of mindfulness such as that of the body as its proximate cause. Because it is firmly established upon the object, it should be regarded as like a gatepost; because it guards the eye door and the other doors, as like a gatekeeper.

It feels shame at bodily misconduct and the like, so it is “moral shame”; this is a designation for shame. It feels dread at those same things, so it is “moral dread”; this is a designation for dread of evil. Of these, moral shame has disgust at evil as its characteristic, while moral dread has fear of evil as its characteristic. Moral shame has refraining from evil in the mode of shame as its function, while moral dread has refraining in the mode of fear. Both, as stated, have shrinking from evil as their manifestation and self-respect and respect for others as their proximate cause. A person who gives weight to themself abandons evil through moral shame, like a woman of good family; a person who gives weight to others abandons evil through moral dread, like a courtesan. These two phenomena should be understood as guardians of the world.

§3 The Three Wholesome Roots and the Six Pairs of Twelve Factors 〔CSCD §467–470〕

Through it a person does not have greed, or it itself has no greed, or it is simply non-greed; hence it is “non-greed.” The same method applies to non-hate and non-delusion. Of these, non-greed has the mind’s freedom from lust for the object, or non-attachment, as its characteristic, like a drop of water on a lotus leaf; non-grasping as its function, like a liberated bhikkhu; and non-adherence as its manifestation, like a person who has fallen into filth.

Non-hate has non-ferocity, or non-opposition, as its characteristic, like an agreeable friend; removing resentment, or removing heat-vexation, as its function, like sandalwood; and gentleness as its manifestation, like the full moon.

Non-delusion has penetration in accordance with actuality, or unerring penetration, as its characteristic, like an arrow shot by a skilled archer piercing its target; illuminating the object as its function, like a lamp; and non-delusion as its manifestation, like a good guide entering a forest. These three should be understood as the roots of all wholesome phenomena.

The tranquillity of the mental body is “bodily tranquillity,” and the tranquillity of mind is “mental tranquillity.” Here “body” means the three aggregates beginning with feeling. Taken together, bodily and mental tranquillity have calming the heat-vexation of body and mind as their characteristic, crushing that heat-vexation as their function, the non-agitation and coolness of body and mind as their manifestation, and body and mind as their proximate cause. They should be understood as the opposites of defilements such as restlessness that prevent the tranquillity of body and mind.

The light state of the mental body is “bodily lightness,” and the light state of mind is “mental lightness.” They have calming the heaviness of body and mind as their characteristic, crushing that heaviness as their function, the absence of sluggishness in body and mind as their manifestation, and body and mind as their proximate cause. They should be understood as the opposites of defilements such as sloth and torpor that make body and mind heavy.

The malleable state of the mental body is “bodily malleability,” and the malleable state of mind is “mental malleability.” They have calming rigidity in body and mind as their characteristic, crushing stiffness in body and mind as their function, non-resistance as their manifestation, and body and mind as their proximate cause. They should be understood as the opposites of defilements such as views and conceit that make body and mind stiff.

The wieldy state of the mental body is “bodily wieldiness,” and the wieldy state of mind is “mental wieldiness.” They have calming unwieldiness in body and mind as their characteristic, crushing that unwieldiness as their function, the success of body and mind in taking an object as their manifestation, and body and mind as their proximate cause. They should be understood as the opposites of the remaining hindrances and other defilements that make body and mind unwieldy. They bring confidence with regard to things that inspire confidence and fitness for application in beneficial actions, like the purity of gold.

The proficient state of the mental body is “bodily proficiency,” and the proficient state of mind is “mental proficiency.” They have the health of body and mind as their characteristic, crushing sickness in body and mind as their function, blamelessness as their manifestation, and body and mind as their proximate cause. They should be understood as the opposites of lack of faith and other defilements that make body and mind sick.

The straight state of the mental body is “bodily rectitude,” and the straight state of mind is “mental rectitude.” They have the straightness of body and mind as their characteristic, crushing crookedness in body and mind as their function, non-deviousness as their manifestation, and body and mind as their proximate cause. They should be understood as the opposites of deceit, fraud, and other defilements that make body and mind crooked.

§4 Desire, Resolution, Attention, Specific Neutrality, Compassion, Sympathetic Joy, the Three Abstinences, and Their Association with Wholesome Minds 〔CSCD §471–476〕

“Desire” is a designation for desire to act. Thus desire has desire to act as its characteristic, seeking an object as its function, need for the object as its manifestation, and that same object as its proximate cause. When an object is being taken, it should be regarded as the mind’s extending a hand.

Decisiveness is “resolution.” It has deciding as its characteristic, non-wavering as its function, decision as its manifestation, and a phenomenon to be decided as its proximate cause. It should be regarded as like an Indra post, immovable with respect to the object.

An act is “making”; making in the mind is “attention.” Or, because it makes the mind different from the preceding mind, it is “attention.” It is threefold: what directs toward the object, what directs the mental process, and what directs impulsion.

Of these, what directs toward the object is “making in the mind” and therefore attention. It has driving as its characteristic, linking associated phenomena to the object as its function, facing the object as its manifestation, and the object as its proximate cause. It is included in the formations aggregate and, because it directs associated phenomena toward the object, should be regarded as their charioteer. “What directs the mental process” designates five-door adverting, while “what directs impulsion” designates mind-door adverting. Those two are not intended here.

Neutrality among those phenomena is “specific neutrality”⁵. It has carrying mind and mental factors evenly as its characteristic, preventing deficiency and excess as its function, or cutting off partiality as its function, and neutrality as its manifestation. Because it looks on at mind and mental factors, it should be regarded as like a charioteer looking on at fine horses proceeding evenly.

Compassion and sympathetic joy should be understood by the method stated in the Exposition of the Divine Abidings. The only difference is that those have attained absorption and belong to the fine-material sphere, while these belong to the sense sphere.

Some wish to include goodwill and equanimity among the variable factors as well, but that should not be accepted. In meaning, goodwill is simply non-hate, and equanimity is simply specific neutrality.

Abstinence from bodily misconduct is “abstinence from bodily misconduct”; the same method applies to the other two. As to characteristic and the rest, all three have not transgressing the bases of bodily misconduct and the rest as their characteristic—that is, not trampling them. They have shrinking from those bases as their function, non-action as their manifestation, and qualities such as faith, moral shame, moral dread, and fewness of wishes as their proximate cause. They should be understood as the mind’s turning away from doing evil.

Thus these thirty-six formations should be understood as associated with the first sense-sphere wholesome consciousness. As with the first, so with the second; here the sole difference is its prompted nature.

With the third consciousness, the remaining factors apart from non-delusion should be understood. The same applies to the fourth; here the sole difference is its prompted nature.

Of the factors stated for the first consciousness, those remaining apart from rapture are associated with the fifth. As with the fifth, so with the sixth; here the sole difference is its prompted nature. With the seventh, the remaining factors apart from non-delusion should be understood. The same applies to the eighth; here the sole difference is its prompted nature.

Of the factors stated for the first consciousness, those remaining apart from the three abstinences are associated with the first fine-material-sphere wholesome consciousness. With the second, applied thought is further excluded; with the third, sustained thought; with the fourth, rapture; and with the fifth, compassion and sympathetic joy are further excluded from the variable factors. Those same factors are associated with the four immaterial-sphere wholesome consciousnesses; only their immaterial-sphere nature differs here.

Among supramundane consciousnesses, path consciousness of the first jhāna should first be understood by the method stated for the first fine-material-sphere consciousness; those classified under the second jhāna and the rest, by the method stated for the second fine-material-sphere consciousness and the rest. Here the differences are the absence of compassion and sympathetic joy, the fixed status of the three abstinences, and the supramundane nature. This is how wholesome formations should first be understood.

§5 Association with Greed-Rooted Minds—Seventeen Factors; Shamelessness and Fearlessness of Evil; Greed, Delusion, Wrong View, Restlessness, Sloth and Torpor, and Conceit 〔CSCD §477–483〕

Among unwholesome states, first, associated with the first greed-rooted unwholesome consciousness are thirteen fixed factors explicitly named and four “or-whatever” factors—seventeen in all. Contact, volition, applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, energy, life, concentration, shamelessness, fearlessness of evil, greed, delusion, and wrong view are the thirteen explicitly named factors. Desire, resolution, restlessness, and attention are the four “or-whatever” factors.

A person without moral shame does not feel shame, and that person’s state is shamelessness. A person without moral dread does not feel dread, and that state is fearlessness of evil. Shamelessness has no disgust at bodily misconduct and the like, or absence of shame, as its characteristic. Fearlessness of evil has no shrinking from those same things, or absence of fear, as its characteristic. This is the brief account; the detailed account should be understood as the opposite of moral shame and moral dread.

Through it a person has greed, or it itself has greed, or it is simply greed; hence it is “greed.” Through it a person is deluded, or it itself is deluded, or it is simply delusion; hence it is “delusion.” Of these, greed has taking the object as its characteristic, like monkey-lime; sticking as its function, like a piece of meat thrown onto a hot pan; non-relinquishment as its manifestation, like the stain of lampblack; and seeing gratification in things that fetter as its proximate cause. It should be understood that as it grows into a river of craving, like a swift-flowing river carrying everything to the great ocean, it carries beings only toward bad destinations.

Delusion has blindness of mind, or lack of knowledge, as its characteristic; non-penetration, or concealing the nature of the object, as its function; wrong practice, or darkness, as its manifestation; and unwise attention as its proximate cause. It should be understood as the root of every unwholesome state.

Through it a person sees wrongly, or it itself sees wrongly, or it is simply wrong seeing; hence it is “wrong view.” It has unwise grasping as its characteristic, clinging as its function, wrong adherence as its manifestation, and unwillingness to see noble persons and the like as its proximate cause. It should be understood as the supreme fault.

The state of agitation is “restlessness.” It has lack of tranquillity as its characteristic, like water stirred by the wind; unsteadiness as its function, like a flag or banner stirred by the wind; turmoil as its manifestation, like ashes scattered by a stone; and unwise attention amid mental unrest as its proximate cause. It should be understood as distraction of mind. The remaining factors should be understood by the method stated for wholesome consciousnesses; only their unwholesome nature and the inferiority that follows from it distinguish them from those factors.

Thus these seventeen formations should be understood as associated with the first unwholesome consciousness. As with the first, so with the second; the differences here are its prompted nature and the variable status of sloth and torpor.

The contracted state is “sloth,” and the torpid state is “torpor.” The meaning is that sloth is shrinking through lack of effort and torpor is impairment of capacity. Together they are “sloth and torpor.” Sloth has lack of effort as its characteristic, removing energy as its function, and sinking as its manifestation. Torpor has unwieldiness as its characteristic, covering as its function, and withdrawal as its manifestation, or nodding and sleep as its manifestation. Both have unwise attention amid discontent, yawning, and the like as their proximate cause.

With the third consciousness, the factors stated for the first apart from wrong view should be understood. Here conceit is variable. This is its distinction: it has haughtiness as its characteristic, self-exaltation as its function, desire to raise a banner as its manifestation, and greed dissociated from view as its proximate cause. It should be regarded as like madness.

With the fourth consciousness, the factors stated for the second apart from wrong view should be understood; here too conceit remains among the variable factors. Of the factors stated for the first, those remaining apart from rapture are associated with the fifth. As with the fifth, so with the sixth; the differences here are its prompted nature and the variable status of sloth and torpor. With the seventh, the factors stated for the fifth apart from view should be understood; here conceit is variable. With the eighth, the factors stated for the sixth apart from view should be understood; here too conceit remains among the variable factors.

§6 Association with Hate-Rooted Minds—Eighteen Factors, Hate, Envy, Avarice, and Remorse 〔CSCD §484–488〕

Of the two hate-rooted consciousnesses, first, associated with the first are eleven fixed factors explicitly named, four “or-whatever” factors, and three variable factors—eighteen in all. Contact, volition, applied thought, sustained thought, energy, life, concentration, shamelessness, fearlessness of evil, hate, and delusion are the eleven explicitly named factors. Desire, resolution, restlessness, and attention are the four “or-whatever” factors. Envy, avarice, and remorse are the three variable factors.

Through it a person hates, or it itself hates, or it is simply hate; hence it is “hate.” It has ferocity as its characteristic, like a struck poisonous snake; spreading as its function, like diffused poison, or burning its own support as its function, like a forest fire; destruction as its manifestation, like an enemy who has gained an opportunity; and a ground for resentment as its proximate cause. It should be regarded as like rotten urine mixed with poison.

Being envious is “envy.” It has envying another’s success as its characteristic, displeasure at that success as its function, turning away from it as its manifestation, and another’s success as its proximate cause. It should be understood as a fetter.

The state of avarice is “avarice.” It has concealing success already obtained or yet to be obtained as its characteristic, inability to bear sharing that success with others as its function, shrinking or stinginess as its manifestation, and personal success as its proximate cause. It should be understood as deformity of mind.

What has been done is reprehensible, hence “badly done”; its state is “remorse.” It has subsequent burning as its characteristic, sorrowing over what has been done and left undone as its function, regret as its manifestation, and what has been done and left undone as its proximate cause. It should be regarded as like a state of slavery. The remaining factors are just as already stated.

Thus these eighteen formations should be understood as associated with the first hate-rooted consciousness. As with the first, so with the second; the differences are only its prompted nature and the occurrence of sloth and torpor among the variable factors.

§7 Association with the Two Delusion-Rooted Minds—Mental Steadiness and Doubt 〔CSCD §489–490〕

Of the two delusion-rooted consciousnesses, first, associated with doubt are eleven factors explicitly named: contact, volition, applied thought, sustained thought, energy, life, mental steadiness, shamelessness, fearlessness of evil, delusion, and doubt. Restlessness and attention are the two “or-whatever” factors—thirteen in all.

Here “mental steadiness” is merely the steadiness of occurrence, a weak concentration. Treatment has departed, so it is “doubt.” Doubt has uncertainty as its characteristic, wavering as its function, indecision or grasping without taking a single side as its manifestation, and unwise attention amid uncertainty as its proximate cause. It should be understood as an obstacle to practice. The remaining factors are just as already stated.

Associated with restlessness are the remaining twelve factors stated for the consciousness associated with doubt, apart from doubt. Since doubt is absent here, resolution arises, making exactly thirteen. Because resolution is present, concentration is stronger. Here restlessness is explicitly named, while resolution and attention are “or-whatever” factors. This is how unwholesome formations should be understood.

§8 Association with Indeterminate Minds—Resultant and Functional 〔CSCD §491–492〕

Among indeterminate states, first, resultant-indeterminate formations⁶ are twofold as rootless or rooted. Those associated with rootless resultant consciousness are rootless. First, associated with wholesome- and unwholesome-resultant eye-consciousness are four explicitly named factors—contact, volition, life, and mental steadiness—and the sole “or-whatever” factor, attention: five in all. The same factors are associated with ear-, nose-, tongue-, and body-consciousness. Associated with the two resultant mind elements are these factors together with applied thought, sustained thought, and resolution—eight in all; the same applies to the three rootless mind-consciousness elements. Wherever a consciousness here is accompanied by joy, rapture should be understood as an additional factor.

Those associated with rooted resultant consciousness are rooted. First, the formations associated with the eight sense-sphere resultants are the same as those associated with the eight sense-sphere wholesome consciousnesses. But compassion and sympathetic joy, which are among the variable factors there, do not occur in resultants because they take sentient beings as object; sense-sphere resultants invariably take limited objects. Nor are only compassion and sympathetic joy absent: the abstinences too do not occur in resultants, for it has been said, “The five training rules are exclusively wholesome.”

The formations associated with fine-material-sphere, immaterial-sphere, and supramundane resultant consciousnesses are exactly the same as those associated with their corresponding wholesome consciousnesses.

Functional-indeterminate formations are also twofold as rootless or rooted. Those associated with rootless functional consciousness are rootless, and are the same as those associated with the wholesome-resultant mind element and the two rootless mind-consciousness elements. In the two mind-consciousness elements, however, energy is an additional factor; because energy is present, concentration gains strength. This is the difference here.

Those associated with rooted functional consciousness are rooted. First, the formations associated with the eight sense-sphere functional consciousnesses are the same as those associated with the eight sense-sphere wholesome consciousnesses, apart from the abstinences. Those associated with fine-material-sphere and immaterial-sphere functional consciousnesses are, in every respect, the same as those associated with their corresponding wholesome consciousnesses. This is how indeterminate formations should be understood.

This is the portal to the detailed discussion of the formations aggregate.

This, first, is the portal to the detailed discussion of the aggregates according to the method of analysis in the Abhidhamma.

Notes

¹ The first through eighth sense-sphere wholesome consciousnesses: their sequence is established in this chapter’s unit on the consciousness aggregate. The “first,” “second,” and so forth through “eighth” in this unit refer to that sequence item by item.

² Explicitly named, “or-whatever,” and variable factors (sarūpena āgatā・yevāpanakā・aniyatā): this unit’s threefold way of counting mental factors—those explicitly listed by name, those separately supplied where the canonical list says “or whatever,” and those that arise only at times and do not arise together even when present.

³ Sympathetic joy (muditā) and rapture (pīti): both are rendered with a term for joy in the Chinese sister but belong to different classes. Pīti is the fifth of the twenty-seven factors in this unit; muditā is the second of the five variable factors and is the sympathetic joy of the four divine abidings. Their respective positions distinguish them here.

⁴ Mindfulness (sati): the mental factor that retains the object without floating away or forgetting; in the treatise it regularly proceeds together with faith, energy, concentration, and wisdom. It is not the same class as the generalized awareness commonly called “mindfulness” today and should be read according to the definition established here.

⁵ Specific neutrality (tatramajjhattatā): neutrality among those phenomena—the mental factor that carries mind and mental factors evenly and prevents deficiency and excess.

⁶ Resultant-indeterminate and functional-indeterminate (vipākābyākata・kiriyābyākata): the two divisions of indeterminate formations, each further divided into rootless and rooted. Resultant is the fruit of kamma; functional performs a function without producing a resultant.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Discourse Formula and the Explanation of “Whatever Form” 〔CSCD §493〕

Discussion of the Analysis Beginning with the Past

And the Blessed One [said]:

　　“Whatever form there is—past, future, or present; internal or external; gross or subtle; inferior or superior; far or near—having gathered and summarized it all together, this is called the form aggregate. Whatever feeling there is … whatever perception there is … whatever formations there are … whatever consciousness there is—past, future, or present … up to (expanded as above) … having summarized it, this is called the consciousness aggregate.”

This is how the aggregates were explained in detail.

Here, “whatever there is” is an exhaustive inclusion without remainder. “Form” is a limitation that prevents overextension. Thus these two words effect an exhaustive inclusion of form. The analysis of form as past and so forth then begins, for some form is past, while some is future, and so on. The same method applies to feeling and the rest.

§2 Form as Past, Future, and Present—Four Modes: Lifetime, Continuity, Time, and Moment 〔CSCD §494〕

First, form becomes what is called “past” in four ways: by lifetime, continuity, time, and moment¹. It is likewise future and present.

First, by lifetime: within a single existence, what precedes rebirth-linking is past, what follows death is future, and what lies between the two is present.

By continuity: materiality of the same kind originated by a single temperature or by a single nutriment is present even though it occurs in succession; before that, materiality of a different kind originated by a different temperature or nutriment is past, and after it, future. What is mind-originated and produced by a single cognitive process, a single impulsion, or a single attainment is present; what precedes it is past, and what follows it is future. Kamma-originated materiality has no separate division into past and so forth by continuity; its status as past and so forth should instead be understood through the support it gives to temperature-originated, nutriment-originated, and mind-originated materiality.

By time: during a period such as a single moment, morning, afternoon, night, or day, what proceeds by continuity within that period is called present; what precedes it is past, and what follows it is future.

By moment: what is included in the three moments beginning with arising is present; before that it is future, and after that it is past. Further, what has passed beyond the activity of cause and condition is past; what has completed the activity of its cause but not the activity of its condition is present; and what has not reached either activity is future. Or it is present at the moment of its own activity, future before that, and past after that. Here only the statement in terms of moment and the related modes is a non-definitive direct statement²; the others are qualified statements.

§3 Internal and External, Gross and Subtle, Inferior and Superior, Far and Near 〔CSCD §495–496〕

The distinction between internal and external follows the method already stated. Further, what is within oneself should here be understood as internal, and what belongs to another person as external. The distinction between gross and subtle likewise follows the method already stated.

The distinction between inferior and superior is twofold: by qualified statement and by direct statement. By qualified statement, compared with the form of the Akaniṭṭha devas, the form of the Sudassī devas is inferior; yet that same form of the Sudassī devas is superior to the form of the Sudassa devas. In this way, down to the form of beings in hell, inferiority and superiority should be understood relatively. By direct statement, where an unwholesome resultant arises is inferior, and where a wholesome resultant arises is superior.

“Far and near” also follows the method already stated. Further, farness and nearness should here be understood relatively, item by item, according to location.

§4 Explanation of Gathering into a Single Mass and the Application of the Same Method to Feeling and the Rest 〔CSCD §497–498〕

“Having gathered and summarized it all together” means this: all the form individually indicated by the terms past and so forth is made by wisdom into a mass within the single nature called the characteristic of being altered; it is then called the form aggregate. This shows that all form, because it approaches the state of a mass⁴ in the characteristic of being altered, is the form aggregate. Apart from form, there is no separate thing called the form aggregate.

As with form, so too feeling and the rest become their aggregates by approaching the state of a mass in the characteristic of experiencing and the other respective characteristics. Apart from feeling and the rest, there are no separate things called the feeling aggregate and the other aggregates.

In this analysis beginning with the past, feeling’s status as past, future, and present should be understood by continuity and by moment and the related modes. By continuity, feelings included within a single cognitive process, a single impulsion, or a single attainment, and those occurring in association with an object within a single cognitive process, are present; what precedes them is past, and what follows them is future. By moment and the related modes, a feeling included within the three moments, situated between the prior and posterior boundaries, and performing its own function is present; what precedes it is past, and what follows it is future. The distinction between internal and external should be understood according to what is within oneself.

§5 Feeling as Gross and Subtle—Four Modes: Class, Intrinsic Nature, Person, and Mundane or Supramundane 〔CSCD §499–501〕

The distinction between gross and subtle should be understood according to class, intrinsic nature, person, and mundane or supramundane, following the method stated in the Vibhaṅga: “Unwholesome feeling is gross; wholesome and indeterminate feeling are subtle,” and so forth. First, by class: unwholesome feeling is gross compared with wholesome feeling because it is the cause of blameworthy action, has the heat of defilements, and proceeds in an unpeaceful mode. It is gross compared with resultant-indeterminate feeling because it has activity, exertion, a resultant, the heat of defilements, and blame. It is gross compared with functional-indeterminate feeling because it has a resultant, the heat of defilements, affliction, and blame. Wholesome and indeterminate feeling, for reasons opposite to those stated, are subtle compared with unwholesome feeling. Both wholesome and unwholesome feeling are, as appropriate, gross compared with the two kinds of indeterminate feeling because they have activity, exertion, and a resultant; for the opposite reasons, both kinds of indeterminate feeling are subtle compared with them. This is how grossness and subtlety should first be understood by class.

By intrinsic nature: painful feeling is gross compared with the other two because it affords no enjoyment, has diffusion, causes disturbance, inspires aversion, and overwhelms. The other two are, as appropriate, subtle compared with painful feeling because they are agreeable, peaceful, superior, pleasing, and neutral. Pleasant and painful feelings are gross compared with neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling because they have diffusion, cause disturbance, and are conspicuous; that feeling, for the opposite reasons, is subtle compared with both. This is how grossness and subtlety should be understood by intrinsic nature.

By person: the feeling of a person not in attainment is gross compared with that of a person in attainment because it is scattered among various objects; the latter is subtle for the opposite reason. This is how grossness and subtlety should be understood by person.

By mundane or supramundane: feeling with influxes is mundane. It is gross compared with feeling without influxes because it is a cause for the arising of influxes, is liable to floods, yokes, bonds, hindrances, and clinging, is a cause of defilement, and is shared by ordinary persons. Feeling without influxes is subtle compared with feeling with influxes for the opposite reasons. This is how grossness and subtlety should be understood as mundane or supramundane.

§6 The Warning Not to Confound the Modes and the Relative Determination 〔CSCD §502〕

Here, confounding the modes beginning with class should be avoided. Feeling associated with unwholesome-resultant body-consciousness is indeterminate by class and therefore subtle, yet by intrinsic nature and the other modes it is gross. For it was said: “Indeterminate feeling is subtle. Painful feeling is gross. The feeling of a person in attainment is subtle. The feeling of a person not in attainment is gross. Feeling with influxes is gross. Feeling without influxes is subtle.” As with painful feeling, so too pleasant feeling and the rest can be gross by class but subtle by intrinsic nature and the other modes. The grossness and subtlety of feelings should therefore be understood without confounding class and the other modes. That is: indeterminate feeling is subtle by class compared with wholesome and unwholesome feeling. Which indeterminate feeling is intended there? Is it painful or pleasant? Does it belong to a person in attainment or not in attainment? Does it have influxes or not? Distinctions by intrinsic nature and the other modes should not be grasped in this way. The same method applies throughout.

Further, according to the statement, “The grossness and subtlety of feelings should be seen relative to each particular feeling”⁵, among unwholesome feelings and the rest, hate-associated feeling is gross compared with greed-associated feeling, because it burns its own support like fire; greed-associated feeling is subtle. Among hate-associated feelings, the determinate is gross and the indeterminate subtle. Among determinate feelings, that whose result lasts for an aeon⁶ is gross and the other subtle. Among those lasting for an aeon, the unprompted is gross and the other subtle. Among greed-associated feelings, that associated with view is gross and the other subtle. Among view-associated feelings, the determinate, aeon-lasting, unprompted feeling is gross and the other subtle. Without further distinction, an unwholesome feeling with much resultant is gross and an unwholesome feeling with little resultant is subtle; a wholesome feeling with little resultant is gross and a wholesome feeling with much resultant is subtle.

Further, sense-sphere wholesome feeling is gross, fine-material-sphere feeling is subtle, immaterial-sphere feeling subtler still, and supramundane feeling subtler than that. Among sense-sphere wholesome feelings, what is formed by giving is gross, what is formed by virtue is subtle⁷, and what is formed by development is subtler still. Among feelings formed by development, the two-rooted is gross and the three-rooted subtle. Among three-rooted feelings, the prompted is gross and the unprompted subtle. Among fine-material-sphere feelings, that of the first jhāna is gross … up to (expanded as above) … that of the fifth jhāna is subtle. Among immaterial-sphere feelings, that associated with the base of boundless space is gross … up to (expanded as above) … only that associated with the base of neither perception nor non-perception is subtle. Among supramundane feelings, that associated with the path of stream-entry⁸ is gross … up to (expanded as above) … only that associated with the path of arahantship is subtle. The same method applies to resultant and functional feelings in each plane, and to feelings described according to pain and so forth, a person not in attainment and so forth, and with influxes and so forth.

Further, by location: painful feeling in hell is gross, while that in the animal realm is subtle … up to (expanded as above) … only that among the Paranimmita-vasavattī devas is subtle. As with painful feeling, pleasant feeling should be fitted in everywhere as appropriate. Further, by basis, any feeling with an inferior basis is gross, and feeling with a superior basis is subtle.

In the distinction between inferior and superior, whatever is gross should be understood as inferior, and whatever is subtle as superior.

§7 The Distinction between Far and Near and the Close of the Passage 〔CSCD §503〕

The term “far” is analyzed in the Vibhaṅga in such ways as “Unwholesome feeling is far from wholesome and indeterminate feelings”; the term “near,” in such ways as “Unwholesome feeling is near to unwholesome feeling.” Thus unwholesome feeling is far from wholesome and indeterminate feelings because it is of a different kind, unmixed, and dissimilar; likewise, wholesome and indeterminate feelings are far from unwholesome feeling. The same method applies in every mode. Unwholesome feeling is near to unwholesome feeling because it is of the same kind and similar. This is the portal to the detailed discussion of the feeling aggregate in the analysis beginning with the past. Perception and the other aggregates associated with each feeling should be understood in the same way.

Notes

¹ Lifetime, continuity, time, and moment (addhā・santati・samaya・khaṇa): the four modes for distinguishing past, future, and present; this unit itself determines that only the mode of moment is a direct statement.

² Non-definitive direct statement and qualified statement (nippariyāya・sapariyāya): the former speaks directly according to a phenomenon’s own nature, while the latter speaks conventionally through relative designation.

³ Akaniṭṭha, Sudassī, and Sudassa (akaniṭṭha・sudassī・sudassa): the three highest fine-material heavens. This unit compares their form successively as inferior or superior and continues downward to the form of beings in hell.

⁴ Approaching the state of a mass (rāsibhāvūpagamana): everything of a common kind is made into a single mass under a single characteristic—this is what makes an “aggregate” an aggregate. Its meaning as a mass is explicitly established in this chapter’s unit on the determination of order and the other modes.

⁵ Relative (upādāya): grossness and subtlety are determined only by comparing this phenomenon with that, not according to a single fixed standard.

⁶ Lasting for an aeon (kappaṭṭhitika): a determinate action whose result lasts for an aeon.

⁷ Formed by giving, virtue, and development (dānamaya・sīlamaya・bhāvanāmaya): the three levels of sense-sphere wholesomeness, distinguished according to the practice through which they are accomplished.

⁸ Path of stream-entry (sotāpattimagga): the older Chinese rendering was Xūtuóhuán dào; this unit orders the four paths from stream-entry through arahantship as progressively gross and subtle.

The vernacular of this unit is this edition’s own rendering-with-exposition from the Pāli original (tr. mine); see this unit’s apparatus for the base-text particulars.

§1 The Verse on Determination and the Mode of Order 〔CSCD §504〕

Discussion of the Determination of Order and the Other Modes

Having known thus, further regarding these [aggregates]—

For the sake of discerning knowledge among the aggregates, by order and again by distinction, by neither deficiency nor excess, and likewise by simile, by the two ways they should be seen, and by the accomplishment of the aim for whoever sees thus— the discerning person should rightly understand the method of determination.

Here, “by order”—order here is of many kinds: order of arising, order of abandoning, order of practice, order of planes, and order of teaching.

“First comes the kalala; from the kalala comes the abbuda,” and so forth, is the order of arising. “Phenomena to be abandoned through seeing, phenomena to be abandoned through development,” and so forth, is the order of abandoning. “Purification of virtue, purification of mind”¹, and so forth, is the order of practice. “Of the sense sphere, of the fine-material sphere,” and so forth, is the order of planes. “The four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts,” or “a discourse on giving, a discourse on virtue,” and so forth, is the order of teaching. Of these, the order of arising does not apply here, for the aggregates do not arise with a fixed sequence of before and after as the kalala and the rest do. It is not the order of abandoning, because the wholesome and the indeterminate are not to be abandoned. It is not the order of practice, because the unwholesome is not to be practiced. It is not the order of planes, because feeling and the rest are included in all four planes. The order of teaching, however, does apply.

For the Blessed One, compassionate toward people to be guided who had fallen into grasping a self in the undifferentiated five aggregates, wished to free them from self-grasping by showing the dissection of the compactness of the mass. To make apprehension easy for each person, he first taught the gross form aggregate, which is also an object of the eye and the other faculties. Thereafter he taught feeling, which experiences agreeable and disagreeable form. Then, in accordance with “Whatever is felt is perceived,” he taught perception, which grasps the mode of feeling’s object. Based on perception, he taught the formations, which construct. And he taught consciousness, the support of feeling and the rest and dominant over them. This is how the method of determination should first be understood by order.

§2 The Mode of Distinction—Aggregates and Aggregates Subject to Clinging 〔CSCD §505〕

“By distinction” means the distinction between aggregates and aggregates subject to clinging. What, then, is their distinction? First, aggregates are stated without distinction; aggregates subject to clinging are stated after being distinguished by the qualities of having influxes and being subject to clinging². As it is said:

“Bhikkhus, I shall teach you the five aggregates and the five aggregates subject to clinging; listen. And what, bhikkhus, are the five aggregates? Whatever form there is, bhikkhus—past, future, or present … up to (expanded as above) … or near—this, bhikkhus, is called the form aggregate. Whatever feeling there is … up to (expanded as above) … whatever consciousness there is … up to (expanded as above) … or near—this, bhikkhus, is called the consciousness aggregate. These, bhikkhus, are called the five aggregates. And what, bhikkhus, are the five aggregates subject to clinging? Whatever form there is, bhikkhus … up to (expanded as above) … or near, with influxes and subject to clinging—this, bhikkhus, is called the form aggregate subject to clinging. Whatever feeling there is … up to (expanded as above) … whatever consciousness there is … up to (expanded as above) … or near, with influxes and subject to clinging—this, bhikkhus, is called the consciousness aggregate subject to clinging. These, bhikkhus, are called the five aggregates subject to clinging.”

Here, feeling and the rest can also be without influxes; form is not so. But because form qualifies as an aggregate in the sense of a mass³, it is stated among the aggregates. Because it qualifies as an aggregate subject to clinging both in the sense of a mass and in the sense of having influxes, it is [also] stated among the aggregates subject to clinging. Of feeling and the rest, those without influxes are stated only among the aggregates, and those with influxes among the aggregates subject to clinging. Here, “aggregate subject to clinging” should be understood to mean this: aggregates that are the domain of clinging are aggregates subject to clinging. In this passage, however, all of these are taken together and intended simply as “aggregates.”

§3 The Mode of Neither Deficiency nor Excess 〔CSCD §506〕

“By neither deficiency nor excess”—why, then, did the Blessed One teach exactly five aggregates, neither fewer nor more? Because all conditioned phenomena are gathered into unity according to common nature, because the objects of grasping a self and what belongs to a self reach their limit in these, and because the rest are included within them.

For among conditioned phenomena of many kinds, when they are gathered according to common nature, form is gathered into unity by the common nature of form and becomes a single aggregate; feeling is gathered into unity by the common nature of feeling and becomes a single aggregate; and the same method applies to perception and the rest. Thus, because all conditioned phenomena are gathered into unity according to common nature, exactly five were taught.

And the objects of grasping a self and what belongs to a self reach their limit in these—namely, the five beginning with form. For this was said: “Bhikkhus, when form exists, by taking up form and insisting upon form, this view arises: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self.’ When feeling exists, when perception exists, when formations exist, when consciousness exists, by taking up consciousness and insisting upon consciousness, this view arises: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self.’” Thus, because the objects of grasping a self and what belongs to a self reach their limit in these, exactly five were taught.

And the other five aggregates of Dhamma beginning with virtue⁴ that were taught are properly included here because they are included within the formations aggregate. Thus, because the rest are included within them, exactly five were taught. This is how the method of determination should be understood by neither deficiency nor excess.

§4 The Mode of Simile—Five Similes for the Five Aggregates Subject to Clinging 〔CSCD §507〕

“By simile”—here the form aggregate subject to clinging is like a sick ward, because by way of basis, door, and object it is the dwelling place of the consciousness aggregate subject to clinging, which is like a patient. The feeling aggregate subject to clinging is like an illness, because it can afflict. The perception aggregate subject to clinging is like the cause of an illness, because through sensual perception and the rest there is feeling associated with greed and the rest. The formations aggregate subject to clinging is like taking something unsuitable, because it is a condition for the illness of feeling—for it was said, “They construct feeling for the sake of feeling”; likewise, [it was said], “Because unwholesome kamma has been done and accumulated, resultant body-consciousness has arisen associated with pain.” The consciousness aggregate subject to clinging is like a patient because it is not free from the illness of feeling. Further, these are also likened to prison, punishment, offense, perpetrator, and offender; and to vessel, food, flavor, server, and eater. This is how the method of determination should be understood by simile.

§5 The Mode of Seeing—Four in Brief and Five in Detail 〔CSCD §508〕

“By the two ways they should be seen” means in brief and in detail; here, too, the method of determination should be understood according to how they are to be seen.

First, in brief: according to the method stated in the Viper Simile, the five aggregates subject to clinging should be seen as enemies with raised swords; according to the Discourse on the Burden, as a burden; according to the Exposition of What Is Consumed, as eaters; and according to the Twin Discourse, as impermanent, painful, not-self, conditioned, and as killers.

In detail: here form should be seen as like a lump of foam, because it cannot withstand being kneaded; feeling as like a bubble, because it is delightful only for a moment; perception as like a mirage, because it deceives; formations as like a plantain trunk, because they have no core; and consciousness as like an illusion, because it beguiles. In particular, internal form, even if beautiful, should be seen as foul. Feeling, because it is not free from the three kinds of painfulness, should be seen as painful. Perception and formations, because they cannot be controlled, should be seen as not-self. Consciousness, because it is a phenomenon of arising and passing away, should be seen as impermanent.

§6 Accomplishment of the Aim for Whoever Sees Thus, the Chapter-Closing Verse, and the Colophon 〔CSCD §509〕

“By the accomplishment of the aim for whoever sees thus”—the accomplishment of the aim belonging to a person who sees in these two ways, in brief and in detail, should also be used to understand the method of determination. That is: first, in brief, a person who sees the five aggregates subject to clinging as enemies with raised swords and so forth is not afflicted by the aggregates. In detail, a person who sees form and the rest as resembling a lump of foam and so forth does not see substance in what is insubstantial.

In particular, a person who sees internal form as foul fully understands the nutriment of material food, abandons the inversion that sees beauty in what is foul, crosses the flood of sensuality, becomes disentangled from the yoke of sensuality, becomes free from the influx of sensual desire, breaks the bodily tie of covetousness, and does not cling to sensual clinging.⁵

A person who sees feeling as painful fully understands the nutriment of contact, abandons the inversion that sees pleasure in what is painful, crosses the flood of becoming, becomes disentangled from the yoke of becoming, becomes free from the influx of becoming, breaks the bodily tie of ill will, and does not cling to clinging to rules and observances.

A person who sees perception and formations as not-self fully understands the nutriment of mental volition, abandons the inversion that sees a self in what is not-self, crosses the flood of views, becomes disentangled from the yoke of views, becomes free from the influx of views, breaks the bodily tie of insistence that “this is truth,” and does not cling to clinging to a doctrine of self.

A person who sees consciousness as impermanent fully understands the nutriment of consciousness, abandons the inversion that sees permanence in what is impermanent, crosses the flood of ignorance, becomes disentangled from the yoke of ignorance, becomes free from the influx of ignorance, breaks the bodily tie of adherence to rules and observances, and does not cling to clinging to views.

Since seeing in terms of a killer and the rest brings such great benefit, the wise should therefore see the aggregates in terms of a killer and the rest.

In the Path of Purity, composed to gladden good people,

in the division on the development of wisdom,

the chapter named the Exposition of the Aggregates,

the fourteenth [is concluded].

Notes

¹ Purification of virtue and purification of mind: the first two of the seven purifications, whose full list appears in this chapter’s unit on the General Explanation of Wisdom; this passage cites only the first two as examples of the order of practice.

² With influxes and subject to clinging (sāsava・upādāniya): followed by the influxes and serving as an object for clinging; these two meanings distinguish the five aggregates subject to clinging from the five aggregates.

³ The sense of a mass (rāsaṭṭha): an aggregate is an aggregate because it gathers everything of a common kind into a single mass; the other side of this meaning—gathering together and summarizing—appears in this chapter’s unit on the Analysis Beginning with the Past.

⁴ The five aggregates of Dhamma: the five items beginning with virtue cited by the treatise form a classification distinct from the five beginning with form; the treatise judges them to be included within the formations aggregate, whose full inventory appears in this chapter’s unit on Formations.

⁵ The four nutriments, four inversions, four floods, four yokes, four influxes, four bodily ties, and four kinds of clinging: under each of the four ways of seeing, this passage pairs one item from each of these seven groups; the treatise names each item in succession without first labeling the groups as wholes.