解脫道論 四諦方便與名色

The first passage of the final chapter begins with an account, not an introduction.

One sentence—“has clearly understood the aggregates, elements, sense bases, conditionality, and truths”—calls to mind the five doors of Chapter Eleven. Another—“has heard about precepts, ascetic practices, and meditation”—calls to mind the earlier road. Five matters already contemplated follow. What has been completed is arranged in two series of eight; what remains is only one matter: the four noble truths have not yet been distinguished.

The weight of the passage lies not in the eight, but in the one.

The author then proceeds plainly. Aggregates, sense bases, and elements are not explained again. The same mold is used three times—“as explained in detail in that method, so should this be understood”—sending the reader back to the previous chapter. Three statements in one mold, none omitted.

Then comes a first closing: only aggregates, sense bases, and elements; no being and no life; has been caused to arise and has obtained the perception of formations.

The pivot immediately follows: “At this point, what has arisen is reduced to two kinds, namely name and form.” Three classes are reduced to two.

After the reduction, the account is recalculated: the form aggregate is the form of the ten sense bases and ten elements; the four aggregates are the mind sense base and seven elements. These correspondences appeared in Chapter Eleven. There they were counted from sense bases and elements toward aggregates; here they are counted from aggregates toward sense bases and elements. The direction reverses because the movement is one of reduction: counting aggregates from sense bases and elements leaves the three classes spread open; counting sense bases and elements from aggregates gathers them as name-and-form.

Between the two closings stands a list of eleven differences between name and form. The first four give a statement to each side; the next seven say that one side “has none of these.” The final six form three pairs: form walks, eats, and laughs; name does not walk, eat, or laugh, but knows “I walk,” “I eat,” and “I laugh.” The three pairs are set out without commentary.

Then comes the second closing: only name-and-form; no being and no life; has been caused to arise and has obtained the perception of formations.

The two closings are unchanged. “No being and no life” occurs twice in the entire treatise, both times in this passage; “has obtained the perception of formations” likewise occurs twice, both times here.

This passage therefore offers one practical tool: when the treatise repeats a sentence unchanged, do not begin with the repeated sentence. First find what changes between the two occurrences. What changes is the work of the passage.

Here the three classes are replaced by name-and-form. After the second closing, the text immediately adds, “At this point everything has been reduced.” The movement of reduction is complete.

One point deserves a pause. Where in the treatise were the last two of the five contemplated matters—the simile of three hundred spears and the simile of love for one whose head is burning—taught? They cannot be found. The graph for “spear” and the phrase “head is burning” each occur only here; the first three items in the series do have internal places, with “beginningless birth and death” appearing in the conditionality method. The treatise nevertheless says that all five have been contemplated. This edition records the statement without supplying a source.

Another point also remains open. The opening includes “truths” among what has been clearly understood, but the fifth sentence says the four noble truths have not yet been distinguished. The verbs differ: “clearly understood” and “distinguished,” while the preceding chapter used “cause to arise.” The treatise gives no separate explanation of the three. Their wording is recorded without adjudication.

The final sentence turns: “From here, the conditions of suffering should be contemplated.” Name-and-form having been established, the next step is to examine its conditions.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Four Noble Truths Method and Name-and-Form · Doorway · Summer 2026

The Opening: Five Matters Completed, One Not Yet Completed

At this point, the meditator has already clearly understood the aggregates, elements, sense bases, conditionality, and truths, and has already heard about precepts, ascetic practices, and meditation.

Still an ordinary person and not yet liberated, the meditator fears the bad destinations. The meditator has therefore contemplated the fearfulness of the bad destinations, the fearfulness of beginningless birth and death, the impossibility of obtaining even a single instant, the simile of three hundred spears, and the simile of love for one whose head is burning.

The four noble truths have not yet been distinguished.

To distinguish the noble truths, one should apply the method, form the desire, and arouse courageous energy. One should direct the mind exclusively to its object and bring this work to fulfillment.

The opening gives two series: what has already been obtained and what has already been contemplated. “Truths” occurs in the first series of what has already been clearly understood, yet the final sentence says that “the four noble truths have not yet been distinguished.” This is recorded as it stands.

First Question: How Should It Be Done?

Question: How should it be done?

Answer: At first the meditator should hear the four noble truths—whether in brief, in detail, or both briefly and in detail—and should retain them through hearing, meaning, and recitation.

The meditator then enters a secluded place and sits. With a mind neither distracted nor coming and going, the meditator should cause the four noble truths to arise.

First Cause the Truth of Suffering to Arise: Through Aggregates, Sense Bases, and Elements

First, one should cause the truth of suffering to arise—whether through the aggregates, the sense bases, or the elements.

The aggregate dhammas should be caused to arise through their own characteristic and through the characteristic of aggregates. As explained in detail in the aggregate method, so should this be understood.

The sense bases should be caused to arise through the characteristic of sense bases. As explained in detail in the sense-base method, so should this be understood.

The elements should be caused to arise through the characteristic of elements. As explained in detail in the element method, so should this be understood.

These three statements use one mold: first they name the approach, then the characteristic through which it is caused to arise, and finally each closes with “as explained in detail in that method, so should this be understood.” Three approaches and three closings, with none omitted. This is recorded as it stands.

First Closing: Only Aggregates, Sense Bases, and Elements

The meditator, having examined aggregates, sense bases, and elements in this way, sees only aggregates, sense bases, and elements: there is no being and no life. Having caused this to arise, the meditator has obtained the perception of formations.

Reduced to Two Kinds: Name and Form

At this point, what has arisen is reduced to two kinds, namely name and form.

In this account, the form aggregate is the form of the ten sense bases and ten elements. The four aggregates are the mind sense base and seven elements; these are called the dhamma sense base and dhamma element.

It is either name or form: the remaining name and the remaining form.

“The remaining name and the remaining form” is stated this way: through form there is emptiness; form is empty through name. Name is not separate from form, and form is not separate from name.

As the sound of a drum arises only in dependence on name-and-form, name arises in dependence on form, like a blind person and a lame person traveling far together.

Second Question: What Is the Difference Between Name and Form?

Question: What is the difference between name and form?

Answer:

Name has no body; form has a body.

Name has that which it knows; form has nothing that it knows.

Name turns lightly; form turns slowly.

Name has no mass; form has mass.

Name senses, knows, intends, and cognizes; form has none of these.

Form walks, leans, sits, lies down, bends, and stretches; name has none of these.

Name knows, “I walk, I lean, I sit, I lie down, I bend, and I stretch”; form has none of these.

Form drinks, eats, chews, and tastes; name has none of these.

Name knows, “I drink, I eat, I chew, and I taste”; form has none of these.

Form claps, plays, laughs, cries, and speaks in many ways; name has none of these.

Name knows, “I clap, I laugh, I play, I cry, and I speak in many ways”; form has none of these.

This is called the difference between name and form.

The first four items give a statement for each side and set the two positively against each other. The next seven instead say that one side “has none of these.” Within the last six, three pairs are laid out. In each pair the first statement says that form can perform certain actions while name has none of these; the next says that name knows “I perform those actions” while form has none of these. All three pairs are retained without omission.

Second Closing: Only Name-and-Form

The meditator, having examined name-and-form in this way, sees only name-and-form: there is no being and no life. Having caused this to arise, the meditator has obtained the perception of formations. At this point everything has been reduced.

The truth of suffering is caused to arise by causing purified knowledge and vision in accordance with reality to arise and by causing name-and-form to arise. This is the general statement of causing the truth of suffering to arise; it should be understood accordingly.

After causing the truth of suffering to arise in this way, the meditator forms the perception of a being. From here, the conditions of suffering should be contemplated.

One Repetition to Notice

“There is only a given set of dhammas, no being and no life; it has been caused to arise, and the perception of formations has been obtained”—this closing is used twice in the passage. The first time it gathers aggregates, sense bases, and elements; the second time it gathers name-and-form. Between them stands only the sentence, “At this point, what has arisen is reduced to two kinds, namely name and form.” After the second closing, the text immediately says, “At this point everything has been reduced.” This is recorded as it stands.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Four Noble Truths Method and Name-and-Form · Vernacular · Summer 2026

Chapter Twelve opens here. This is the first passage of the chapter and the first passage of the treatise’s final chapter.

The central observation can be stated at once: one closing formula is used twice without alteration. The first gathers aggregates, sense bases, and elements; the second gathers name-and-form. Between the two stands only the sentence, “At this point, what has arisen is reduced to two kinds, namely name and form” 〔T32 453c16〕. The closing does not change; only the dhammas being gathered change. That change is the work of the passage.

The Opening First Takes Account

The treatise does not begin by explaining the four noble truths. It first takes account: “At this point, the meditator has clearly understood the aggregates, elements, sense bases, conditionality, and truths” 〔T32 453c01〕, followed by “has heard about precepts, ascetic practices, and meditation.”

Together these two series name the whole road by which the treatise has reached this point. The first five names—aggregates, elements, sense bases, conditionality, and truths—are the five methods of Chapter Eleven. Each of that chapter’s five doors has a corresponding statement that it “has ended” 〔448c24·449c24·450a16·451c27·453b27〕, neither more nor fewer. The second series—precepts, ascetic practices, and meditation—names earlier work.

The author does not write a separate introduction. With one statement of what “has been obtained,” the preceding chapters are called to mind.

Five matters “already contemplated” follow: “has contemplated the fearfulness of the bad destinations, has contemplated the fearfulness of beginningless birth and death, has contemplated the impossibility of obtaining even a single instant” 〔T32 453c02–04〕, and “has contemplated the simile of three hundred spears and the simile of love for one whose head is burning” 〔T32 453c04〕.

Only after these five does the word “not yet” appear: “has not yet distinguished the four noble truths; to distinguish the noble truths, one should apply the method, form the desire, and arouse courageous energy” 〔T32 453c04–06〕. The account closes, “One should direct the mind exclusively to its object and bring this work to fulfillment” 〔T32 453c06〕.

What has been completed is arranged in two series of eight items; what remains is a single matter. The passage’s center of gravity lies not in the eight, but in the one.

Pause: Where Did the Treatise Teach Those Two Similes?

Two of the five contemplated matters call for a pause.

The “simile of three hundred spears” and the “simile of love for one whose head is burning” 〔T32 453c04〕 are said to have been contemplated. Where, then, did an earlier chapter of the treatise teach them?

A measured search finds no occurrence. The graph “spear” occurs only here in the entire treatise, and “head is burning” likewise occurs only here. “Three hundred” occurs twice elsewhere, but both instances concern three hundred bones 〔433b09·434a22〕 and have nothing to do with this simile.

The first three items in the same list are different. “Bad destination” occurs twenty-two times in the treatise, “single instant” twelve times, and “beginningless birth and death” twice—the other instance being in the conditionality method of Chapter Eleven 〔T32 450c21〕. The first three have an identifiable place in the treatise; the final two do not.

This passage cannot answer the question. Only two facts are checkable: the latter two similes have no source within the treatise, and the treatise nevertheless includes them among what “has been contemplated.”

This edition records without supplying. It does not identify a source for the two similes on the author’s behalf, nor does it delete or demote the lines because a source cannot be found. The treatise says they have been contemplated; the edition records both that claim and the absence of an internal source.

Reading Practice: Find What Changes Between the Two Occurrences

The passage’s structure can now be read.

The second section answers “How should it be done?” 〔T32 453c06–07〕. Hearing comes first, retention next, and sitting afterward: “whether in brief, in detail, or both briefly and in detail; through hearing, meaning, and recitation, it should be retained” 〔T32 453c07–08〕; “The meditator then enters a secluded place and sits. With a mind neither distracted nor coming and going, the four noble truths should be caused to arise” 〔T32 453c08–10〕.

The truth of suffering is then caused to arise by retracing an old road: “First the truth of suffering should be caused to arise, whether through the aggregates, the sense bases, or the elements” 〔T32 453c10–11〕.

Three approaches use one mold: “As explained in detail in the aggregate method, so should this be understood” 〔T32 453c11–12〕; “The sense bases should be caused to arise through the characteristic of sense bases. As explained in detail in the sense-base method, so should this be understood” 〔T32 453c12–13〕; and “The elements should be caused to arise through the characteristic of elements. As explained in detail in the element method, so should this be understood” 〔T32 453c13–14〕.

The formula “explained in detail; so should this be understood” occurs three times in the entire treatise, all three here 〔453c12·453c13·453c14〕. The author repeats no explanation, but sends the reader back to Chapter Eleven.

After the three approaches comes the first closing: “only aggregates, sense bases, and elements; no being and no life” 〔T32 453c15〕, and “has been caused to arise and has obtained the perception of formations” 〔T32 453c15–16〕.

The pivot follows immediately: “At this point, what has arisen is reduced to two kinds, namely name and form” 〔T32 453c16〕.

Three classes are reduced to two. The phrase “reduced to two kinds and caused to arise” occurs only here in the entire treatise.

After the reduction, the treatise recalculates the relation of aggregates, sense bases, and elements: “The form aggregate is the form of the ten sense bases and ten elements; the four aggregates are the mind sense base and seven elements, called the dhamma sense base and dhamma element” 〔T32 453c17–18〕.

These numbers are not new. The inclusion section of Chapter Eleven’s sense-base method says, “Here the ten sense bases are included in the form aggregate” 〔T32 449c17–18〕 and “the mind sense base is included in seven elements” 〔T32 449c19〕. The element method says, “Here the ten elements are included in the form aggregate” 〔T32 450a02〕 and “seven elements are included in the mind sense base” 〔T32 450a04〕. The same correspondences are counted from sense bases and elements toward aggregates there, but from aggregates toward sense bases and elements here—the direction is reversed.

It is reversed because the purpose is reduction. Counting aggregates from sense bases and elements yields the three classes spread open; counting sense bases and elements from the aggregates yields name-and-form gathered together.

Four contrasting statements follow: “The remaining name and the remaining form are empty through form; form is empty through name” 〔T32 453c18–19〕, and “name is not separate from form; form is not separate from name” 〔T32 453c19–20〕. Emptiness and non-separation appear together, but the treatise does not explain how they are to be coordinated. This edition records without deciding.

The second section closes with two similes: “As the sound of a drum arises only in dependence on name-and-form, name arises in dependence on form, like a blind person and a lame person traveling far” 〔T32 453c20–21〕. The graph for “lame” occurs only here in the entire treatise. The drum, however, will sound again—three times in this chapter’s verses 〔456a12·456a15·456a25〕.

The reading practice is now ready: when the treatise repeats the same statement unchanged, do not begin with the repeated statement. First find what changed between the two occurrences.

The Difference Between Name and Form: Form Acts; Name Knows “I Act”

The third section asks, “Question: What is the difference between name and form? Answer: Name has no body; form has a body” 〔T32 453c21–22〕.

The answer gives eleven items in two forms.

The first four give a predicate to each side and place them in positive opposition: bodiless against embodied; “name has that which it knows; form has nothing that it knows” 〔T32 453c22〕; and “name turns lightly; form turns slowly. Name has no mass; form has mass” 〔T32 453c22–23〕.

The form changes with the fifth item: “Name senses, knows, intends, and cognizes; form has none of these” 〔T32 453c23–24〕. It no longer gives a separate positive statement, but says only that the other side lacks these things. “Has none of these” occurs nine times in the whole treatise, seven of them in this passage 〔453c24（二見）·453c25·453c26·453c27·453c28·453c29〕.

The final six items form three pairs:

“Form walks, leans, sits, lies down, bends, and stretches; name has none of these” 〔T32 453c24〕 / “Name knows, ‘I walk, I lean, I sit, I lie down, I bend, and I stretch’; form has none of these” 〔T32 453c24–25〕.

“Form drinks, eats, chews, and tastes; name has none of these” 〔T32 453c25–26〕 / “Name knows, ‘I drink, I eat, I chew, and I taste’; form has none of these” 〔T32 453c26–27〕.

“Form claps, plays, laughs, cries, and speaks in many ways; name has none of these” 〔T32 453c27–28〕 / “Name knows, ‘I clap, I laugh, I play, I cry, and I speak in many ways’; form has none of these” 〔T32 453c28–29〕.

In all three pairs the first statement belongs to form, the second to name, and the second consistently adds “I.” “Knows I” occurs five times in the treatise and three times here 〔453c25·453c26·453c28〕.

Form walks, eats, and laughs. Name does not walk, eat, or laugh; name only knows, “I walk,” “I eat,” and “I laugh.” The treatise adds no comment; it simply sets out the three pairs.

The list closes, “This is called the difference between name and form” 〔T32 453c29〕.

Second Closing: What Changes Is the Dhamma Gathered

Now return to the central observation.

“Only name-and-form; no being and no life” 〔T32 454a01〕; “has been caused to arise and has obtained the perception of formations. At this point everything has been reduced” 〔T32 454a01–02〕.

Set this beside the first closing:

First—only aggregates, sense bases, and elements; no being and no life; has been caused to arise and has obtained the perception of formations.

Second—only name-and-form; no being and no life; has been caused to arise and has obtained the perception of formations.

“No being and no life” occurs twice in the whole treatise, both times here; “has obtained the perception of formations” also occurs twice in the whole treatise, both times here 〔453c15·454a01〕 〔453c15–16·454a01–02〕. The same closing is used twice, word for word.

What changes between the two is the replacement of the three classes by name-and-form. The work of the whole passage lies in that change.

Immediately after the second closing, the treatise adds, “At this point everything has been reduced” 〔T32 454a02〕. Here the word “reduced” reaches its close. This sentence too occurs only once in the treatise.

Only then comes the general statement of the truth of suffering: “The truth of suffering is caused to arise by causing purified knowledge and vision in accordance with reality to arise and by causing name-and-form to arise” 〔T32 454a02–03〕; “This is the general statement of causing the truth of suffering to arise; it should be understood accordingly” 〔T32 454a03〕. The final sentence turns toward the next passage: “After causing the truth of suffering to arise in this way, the meditator forms the perception of a being. From here, the conditions of suffering should be contemplated” 〔T32 454a03–05〕.

A Second Pause: If Truths Were Clearly Understood, Why Are the Four Noble Truths Not Yet Distinguished?

One more point calls for a pause.

The opening sentence includes “truths” among what has been clearly understood 〔T32 453c01〕, but the fifth says, “has not yet distinguished the four noble truths” 〔T32 453c04–05〕. In one passage, truths are counted among what has been completed and among what has not.

What can be checked is that the verbs differ: the former says “clearly understood,” the latter “distinguished.” Chapter Eleven’s own closing says, “Through this practice, cause knowledge concerning the noble truths to arise. This is called the noble-truth method” 〔T32 453b27〕, using “cause to arise.”

The treatise gives no separate section distinguishing the three verbs. This edition records without deciding. It notes only this verifiable difference of wording; what “distinguishing” entails will be disclosed by the remainder of Chapter Twelve.

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Take away three things. One observation: the passage uses one closing unchanged twice, first for aggregates, sense bases, and elements 〔T32 453c15〕 and then for name-and-form 〔T32 454a01〕. The phrases “no being and no life” and “has obtained the perception of formations” each occur twice in the entire treatise, both occurrences here. Between them stands only “At this point, what has arisen is reduced to two kinds, namely name and form” 〔T32 453c16〕. What changes is the work of the passage. One reading practice: when the treatise repeats a sentence unchanged, find first what changes between the two occurrences; here that move reveals the structure. Two pauses: first, the “simile of three hundred spears” and the “simile of love for one whose head is burning” 〔T32 453c04〕 have no source elsewhere in this treatise—the graphs “spear” and “head is burning” each occur only here—so the edition records without supplying. Second, the opening counts “truths” among what has been clearly understood, then says the four noble truths have not yet been distinguished. The two verbs differ, and the difference is recorded without decision.

Three smaller points also matter. Aggregates, sense bases, and elements each point back to Chapter Eleven with “as explained in detail in that method, so should this be understood,” a formula whose three occurrences in the whole treatise are all here. The numbers in “the form aggregate is the form of the ten sense bases and ten elements; the four aggregates are the mind sense base and seven elements” 〔T32 453c17〕 match Chapter Eleven’s inclusion sections but run in the opposite direction. Finally, the eleven differences between name and form begin with four positive oppositions; the next seven say that the other side “has none of these,” and the last six form three pairs in which form acts while name knows “I act.”

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Four Noble Truths Method and Name-and-Form · Exposition · Summer 2026