解脫道論 戒相、功德與二分諸門
這一節在還債。
上一節開卷問了十六個問題，只答了第一個。這一節一口氣還了十筆，順序與那張目錄分毫不亂。
而每一筆的還法都不一樣。有的一句話打發：「受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後。」有的同樣三個目說了兩遍，兩遍所配的六個詞沒有一個重複。有的先引一句佛語，再自己排出十七個以「是」領起的功德目，末了用「無邊」二字收——他排了十七個，卻不肯報這個數。
有的排出三十四條障礙，然後只用一句話把整張表翻過來：反過來就是三十四個戒因。他不另排第二張表，也不代讀者翻。
最耐看的是問「戒是什麼義」那一筆。
論主先列五個：冷義、增上義、行義、自性義、苦樂性相應義。
接著又列三個：頭義、冷義、安義。
兩列合起來八個名目，而下文逐一解釋的，只有後面那三個。
被講的三個各有講法：頭義配一個譬喻——人沒了頭，諸根不再取塵，這叫死；比丘以戒為頭，頭斷則失諸善法，在佛法中也叫死。冷義配另一個譬喻——最上的冷栴檀塗上去，身熱就退；戒也這樣，滅犯戒恐畏的心熱。安義不用譬喻，直說：有戒的人風儀整肅，不生恐畏。
而前列那四個沒被講的——增上、行、自性、苦樂性相應——都是要先懂別的東西才懂得的術語。
所以那個「復次」不是補充，是換了一份能講的名單。前一份把戒放進論書的分類系統裡說，後一份把戒放到人身上說。兩份都給，只講後一份。
「冷義」是唯一橫跨兩列的，它是兩份名單的接點。
列一份完整的，講一份能講的。 這是本論反覆在做的事。讀的時候要分清哪些是被列的、哪些是被講的——沒講的不等於不存在，列了的不等於都會講。
本節末尾只做完「二種」，一連十組；「三種、四種」標在這裡，釋在下一節。刀又落在標與釋之間。
This section is repaying debts.
The preceding section opens the chapter with sixteen questions and answers only the first. This section repays ten of them in one breath, without the slightest disorder in the sequence of that table of contents.
And each debt is repaid differently. One is dispatched in a single sentence: “undertaking virtue is the beginning, not transgressing is the middle, and joy is the end.” Another states the same three headings twice, with not one of the six assigned terms repeated. Another first cites a saying of the Buddha, then arranges seventeen benefits introduced by “it is,” and finally closes with the word “boundless”—he has arranged seventeen, yet declines to state the number.
Another arranges thirty-four obstructions, then turns the whole table over in one sentence: reversed, they are the thirty-four causes of virtue. He neither arranges a second table nor turns each item over for the reader.
The most absorbing debt is the question, “what does virtue mean?”
The author first lists five: the meaning of coolness, the meaning of predominance, the meaning of conduct, the meaning of intrinsic nature, and the meaning of being associated with the nature of suffering and happiness.
He then lists another three: the meaning of a head, the meaning of coolness, and the meaning of security.
The two lists make eight headings in all, yet only the latter three are explained one by one below.
Each of the three that are explained has its own manner of explanation. The meaning of a head receives a simile—without a head, the faculties no longer take up their objects, and this is called death; a monk takes virtue as his head, and when that head is cut off, he loses all wholesome dhammas and is likewise said to be dead in the Buddha-Dhamma. The meaning of coolness receives another simile—the finest cooling sandalwood is applied and bodily heat recedes; virtue does the same, extinguishing the mental heat of fear caused by transgressing virtue. The meaning of security uses no simile but states directly: the bearing of a person with virtue is ordered and dignified, and fear does not arise.
But the four left unexplained in the first list—predominance, conduct, intrinsic nature, and association with the nature of suffering and happiness—are all technical categories whose understanding requires understanding something else first.
Thus “further” does not supplement the first list but substitutes one that can be explained. The former speaks of virtue within the treatise's classificatory system; the latter speaks of virtue in a person's life. Both are given, but only the latter is explained.
“The meaning of coolness” alone crosses between the two lists. It is their point of connection.
List what is complete, explain what can be explained. The treatise does this repeatedly. In reading it, distinguish what has been listed from what has been explained—what is not explained does not therefore fail to exist, and what is listed will not therefore all be explained.
At its end, this section completes only “twofold,” in ten successive sets; “threefold and fourfold” are established here and explained in the next section. Once again the cut falls between heading and explanation.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Characteristic and Benefits of Virtue and Its Twofold Classifications · Doorway · Summer 2026
阿羅漢優波底沙造，梁扶南三藏僧伽婆羅譯《解脫道論》〈分別戒品〉「戒相、功德與二分諸門」· 大正藏 T32n1648〔起 T32 0400c〕。段首〔T32 …〕＝大正藏頁·欄錨。
〔T32 0400c〕
問：云何名非威儀？答：謂破法。破法有三種：一、破波羅提木叉法；二、破緣法；三、破根法。云何破波羅提木叉法？謂無慚無愧，於如來離信。云何破緣法？答：命與形飾相應，離於知足。云何破根法？不閉六根門，離於念慧。以此三覆非威儀，是名戒相。何味者、起者、足處者？無過樂是味，無憂是起，三善行是足處。復次悅勝為味，不悔為起，覆諸根為足處。何戒功德者？不悔是戒功德。如世尊告阿難：不悔是善戒功德義。復次名戒者，是無過樂、是眾生上、是財為富貴、是處為佛地、是浴無水、是香普薰、是影隨形、是繖覆可覆、是聖種、是學無上、是善趣道。若人有戒，為有戒故，成就無畏、榮顯親友、聖所怜愍，是親友依、是善莊嚴、是領諸行、是功德處、是供養處、是可貴同學處，於諸善法不畏不退，成一切意願清淨雖死不忘，成伏解脫樂方便，如是無邊戒功德。戒者何義？答：冷義、增上義、行義、自性義、苦樂性相應義。復次頭義、冷義、安義。云何頭為戒義？答：如人無頭，一切諸根不復取塵，是時名死。如是比丘以戒為頭，若頭斷已失諸善法，於此佛法謂之為死。是頭為戒義。何者冷為戒義？如摩勝冷栴檀則除身熱、成就歡喜。如是戒為勝冷栴檀，能滅犯戒恐畏心熱、成就歡喜，是冷為戒義。何者安為戒義？答：若人有戒，風儀整肅不生恐畏，是安為戒義。行何差別者？修行精進受持頭陀，是行非戒；戒亦名行，戒名威儀，受亦名行。幾戒者？謂三種戒：善戒、不善戒、無記戒。云何善戒？謂善身口業及正命，無過患故，果報可愛。云何不善戒？謂惡身口業及邪命，有過患故，果報不可愛。云何無記戒？無漏身口業及清淨命，無有過患亦無果報。云何起戒者？善心所起善戒，不善心所起不善戒，無記心所起無記戒。何戒初中後者？受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後。戒有幾法障礙？幾戒因？答：三十四法是障礙道，三十四法是戒因。所謂忿、惱、覆、熱、慳、嫉、幻、諂、恨、競、慢、增上慢、傲慢、放逸、懶惰、貪欲、不知足、不從智、不正念、惡口、惡友、惡智、惡見、不忍、不信、無慚、無愧、營身口味、狎俗、親近女人、不敬師學、不攝諸根、於食不節、初夜後夜墯不禪誦。此三十四法是障礙道。若一一障礙，戒不成滿；若不成滿，必還退失。若反是法三十四種，是名戒因。戒有幾種者？謂有二種、三種、四種。云何二種？謂性戒、制戒。以身口所行，佛斷不行，是名性戒。身口可行，佛斷不行，是名制戒。性戒以信、精進能令具足。制戒以信、念持能令具足。復次戒有二種：退戒、得戒。云何名退？能滅非戒。云何名得？得眾善法。除諸非戒如斷光影，以斷非戒離於惡趣，以得正戒能趣善道，以斷非戒成就住分。復次戒有二種：世戒、出世戒。云何出世戒？如聖道果之所得戒是出世戒，所餘世戒。以世戒成就，故有具足。以出世戒成就，故有解脫。復次戒有二種：有量、無量。不具足戒，是名有量。若具足戒，以佛所斷，是名無量。復次戒有二種：有邊、無邊。云何有邊？若人為世利、為勝、為親友、為身、為命、為越所依而行受戒，彼戒利養為邊、稱譽為邊、身有為邊、命有為邊。云何無邊？此比丘為出利、為勝、為身、為命，如法受戒不起犯心，何況故犯，此謂無邊戒。復次戒有二種：有依、無依。云何有依？有相應戒依愛，戒盜相應戒依見，自譽毀他相應戒依慢，此有依戒。若成就解脫資用，是無依戒。若有依戒，非慧人所樂。若無依戒，是慧人所樂。復次戒有二種：梵行之初學微細戒。云何梵行之初？正業、正語、正命所攝戒，此謂梵行之初。有餘學戒，此謂輕戒。復次戒有二種：有心相應、無心相應。云何有心？謂初學梵行。云何無心？謂餘輕戒。聲聞於梵行之初堅戒上戒，於此輕戒得犯得起。何以故？佛不說此障於解脫。復次有二種戒，謂無犯戒、清淨戒。云何無犯？謂聲聞戒。云何清淨戒？佛及緣覺戒。復次戒有二種，謂時分戒及盡形戒。少時暫受不俱形命，謂時分戒。從師始誓乃至捨壽，謂盡形戒。時分戒者，果報有時。盡形戒者，果報無時。
The canonical text stands in Chinese only. This edition renders the essence, the plain reading, the exposition and the apparatus into English — never the sūtra itself. Switch to 漢讀本 or 並行雙語 above to read it.
非威儀與戒相
問：什麼叫作非威儀？
答：就是破法。破法有三種：一、破波羅提木叉法；二、破緣法；三、破根法。
什麼是破波羅提木叉法？就是無慚無愧，對如來離了信。
什麼是破緣法？答：性命與形飾相應，離於知足。
什麼是破根法？不關閉六根門，離於念與慧。
以這三個覆蓋非威儀，這就叫作戒相。
上一節末尾問「何戒相者」而只答了六個字，這裡把「非威儀」釋完，第二問才算還清。
味、起、足處
味是什麼？起是什麼？足處是什麼？
無過樂是味，無憂是起，三善行是足處。
復次：悅勝為味，不悔為起，覆諸根為足處。
同樣三目，論文接連說了兩遍，兩遍所配的都不相同。這裡照原樣錄，不代為併。
戒的功德
戒的功德是什麼？不悔是戒的功德。
如世尊告訴阿難：不悔是善戒的功德義。
復次，名為戒的，是無過樂、是眾生上、是財為富貴、是處為佛地、是浴無水、是香普薰、是影隨形、是繖覆可覆、是聖種、是學無上、是善趣道。
若人有戒，因為有戒的緣故，成就無畏、榮顯親友、為聖所憐愍，是親友的依止、是善的莊嚴、是領諸行、是功德處、是供養處、是可貴同學處，於諸善法不畏不退，成一切意願清淨、雖死不忘，成伏解脫樂的方便。
像這樣，是無邊的戒功德。
這一串以「是」領起的功德目，逐目實數共十七個。論文自己沒有出這個數，只以「無邊」收，這裡照原樣錄，不代為計。
戒的義
戒是什麼義？答：冷義、增上義、行義、自性義、苦樂性相應義。
復次：頭義、冷義、安義。
這裡照原樣記一件事：先列了五個義，接著「復次」又列三個義，兩列合起來八個名目；而下文逐一解釋的，只有復次那三個——頭、冷、安。前五個之中除「冷義」在兩列都有之外，其餘四個列而不釋。這裡不代為補釋。
怎麼說頭是戒義？答：如人沒有頭，一切諸根不再取塵，這時叫作死。這樣，比丘以戒為頭；若頭斷了，就失去諸善法，在這佛法中叫作死。這是頭為戒義。
什麼是冷為戒義？如以最上的冷栴檀塗抹，就除去身上的熱、成就歡喜。這樣，戒是最勝的冷栴檀，能滅犯戒恐畏的心熱、成就歡喜。這是冷為戒義。
什麼是安為戒義？答：若人有戒，風儀整肅、不生恐畏。這是安為戒義。
三個義各配一個說法，前兩個用譬喻，第三個直說。
行與戒的差別
行與戒有什麼差別？
修行精進、受持頭陀，是行不是戒；戒也叫作行，戒名為威儀，受也叫作行。
有幾種戒
有幾種戒？就是三種戒：善戒、不善戒、無記戒。
什麼是善戒？就是善的身口業以及正命，因為沒有過患，果報可愛。
什麼是不善戒？就是惡的身口業以及邪命，因為有過患，果報不可愛。
什麼是無記戒？無漏的身口業以及清淨的命，沒有過患，也沒有果報。
戒從何而起
戒從什麼所起？善心所起的是善戒，不善心所起的是不善戒，無記心所起的是無記戒。
戒的初、中、後
戒的初、中、後是什麼？受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後。
障礙與戒因：三十四法
戒有幾法障礙？有幾個戒因？
答：三十四法是障礙道，三十四法是戒因。
所謂忿、惱、覆、熱、慳、嫉、幻、諂、恨、競、慢、增上慢、傲慢、放逸、懶惰、貪欲、不知足、不從智、不正念、惡口、惡友、惡智、惡見、不忍、不信、無慚、無愧、營身口味、狎俗、親近女人、不敬師學、不攝諸根、於食不節、初夜後夜墯不禪誦。
這三十四法是障礙道。若一一障礙，戒就不成滿；若不成滿，必定還會退失。
若把這些法反過來，三十四種，就叫作戒因。
逐目實數，這一列正是三十四目，與所標的數相符。這裡照原樣錄。
戒有幾種：二種、三種、四種
戒有幾種？就是有二種、三種、四種。
以下先說二種，接連說了十組。
第一組：性戒、制戒。 以身口所行，佛斷令不行，叫作性戒。身口可行，佛斷令不行，叫作制戒。性戒以信、精進能令具足；制戒以信、念持能令具足。
第二組：退戒、得戒。 什麼叫退？能滅非戒。什麼叫得？得眾善法。除去諸非戒如斷光影；以斷非戒離於惡趣，以得正戒能趣善道；以斷非戒成就住分。
第三組：世戒、出世戒。 什麼是出世戒？如聖道果所得的戒，是出世戒；其餘的是世戒。以世戒成就，所以有具足；以出世戒成就，所以有解脫。
第四組：有量、無量。 不具足戒，叫作有量。若具足戒，以佛所斷，叫作無量。
第五組：有邊、無邊。 什麼是有邊？若人為世利、為勝、為親友、為身、為命、為越所依而受戒，那戒以利養為邊、稱譽為邊、身有為邊、命有為邊。什麼是無邊？此比丘為出利、為勝、為身、為命，如法受戒不起犯心，何況故犯——這叫無邊戒。
第六組：有依、無依。 什麼是有依？有相應戒依於愛，戒盜相應戒依於見，自譽毀他相應戒依於慢——這是有依戒。若成就解脫資用，是無依戒。若是有依戒，非慧人所樂；若是無依戒，是慧人所樂。
第七組：梵行之初、學微細戒。 什麼是梵行之初？正業、正語、正命所攝的戒，這叫梵行之初。其餘的學戒，這叫輕戒。
第八組：有心相應、無心相應。 什麼是有心？就是初學梵行。什麼是無心？就是其餘的輕戒。聲聞於梵行之初堅戒上戒；於這輕戒，得犯得起。何以故？佛不說這障礙解脫。
第九組：無犯戒、清淨戒。 什麼是無犯？就是聲聞戒。什麼是清淨戒？佛及緣覺的戒。
第十組：時分戒、盡形戒。 少時暫受、不與形命相俱，叫時分戒。從師開始立誓乃至捨壽，叫盡形戒。時分戒的果報有時，盡形戒的果報無時。
十組二分至此。這裡照原樣記一件事：領起這十組的話用了三種措辭——第一組作「云何二種」，中間八組作「復次戒有二種」，第九組作「復次有二種戒」。這裡不代為齊。
三種戒與四種戒不在本節，下一節接著說。
Improper Deportment and the Characteristic of Virtue
Question: what is called improper deportment?
Answer: it means a breach of the Dhamma. A breach of the Dhamma is of three kinds: first, a breach of the Pātimokkha Dhamma; second, a breach concerning conditions; third, a breach concerning the faculties.
What is a breach of the Pātimokkha Dhamma? It means having neither shame nor moral dread and having departed from faith in the Tathāgata.
What is a breach concerning conditions? Answer: one's life is bound up with adornment of appearance, and one has departed from contentment.
What is a breach concerning the faculties? One does not close the gates of the six faculties and has departed from mindfulness and wisdom.
When these three cover improper deportment, this is called the characteristic of virtue.
The preceding section ends by asking “what is the characteristic of virtue?” and answers with only six characters. Here “improper deportment” is fully explained, and only then is the second question repaid.
Flavor, Arising, and Footing
What is flavor? What is arising? What is footing?
Joy without fault is the flavor, freedom from sorrow is the arising, and the three wholesome courses of conduct are the footing.
Further: surpassing delight is the flavor, non-regret is the arising, and covering the faculties is the footing.
The same three headings are stated twice in succession, and what is assigned to them differs completely between the two statements. They are recorded here exactly as they stand and are not merged on the text's behalf.
The Benefits of Virtue
What are the benefits of virtue? Non-regret is the benefit of virtue.
As the Blessed One told Ānanda: non-regret is the meaning of the benefit of wholesome virtue.
Further, what is called virtue is joy without fault; it is highest among beings; as wealth, it is riches and honor; as a place, it is Buddha-ground; it is a bath without water; it is fragrance permeating everywhere; it is a shadow following form; it is a parasol covering what can be covered; it is a noble lineage; it is unsurpassed training; it is the path to a good destination.
If a person has virtue, then because of having virtue one accomplishes fearlessness, brings honor to relatives and friends, and is cherished by the noble ones; one is a support for friends, a wholesome adornment, a leader of all activities, a place of benefit, a place of offerings, and a valued place among fellow students; one does not fear or retreat from any wholesome dhamma; all one's intentions become pure and are not forgotten even at death; and one accomplishes the means to the happiness of subduing and liberation.
Such are the boundless benefits of virtue.
In this series of benefits introduced by “it is,” an actual item-by-item count gives seventeen. The treatise itself does not state this number and closes only with “boundless”; the list is recorded here exactly as it stands, without counting on the text's behalf.
The Meanings of Virtue
What does virtue mean? Answer: the meaning of coolness, the meaning of predominance, the meaning of conduct, the meaning of intrinsic nature, and the meaning of being associated with the nature of suffering and happiness.
Further: the meaning of a head, the meaning of coolness, and the meaning of security.
One thing is recorded here exactly as it stands: five meanings are first listed, followed by three more under “further,” making eight headings in the two lists together; yet the explanations below concern only the latter three—the head, coolness, and security. Of the first five, apart from “the meaning of coolness,” which occurs in both lists, the other four are listed without explanation. Nothing is supplied on their behalf here.
How is a head the meaning of virtue? Answer: when a person has no head, none of the faculties any longer takes up its objects; at that time the person is called dead. In the same way, a monk takes virtue as his head. If the head is cut off, he loses all wholesome dhammas and in this Buddha-Dhamma is said to be dead. This is the meaning of virtue as a head.
What is the meaning of virtue as coolness? Just as applying the finest cooling sandalwood removes bodily heat and brings joy, so virtue is the finest cooling sandalwood: it can extinguish the mental heat of fear caused by transgressing virtue and bring joy. This is the meaning of virtue as coolness.
What is the meaning of virtue as security? Answer: if a person has virtue, his bearing is ordered and dignified, and fear does not arise. This is the meaning of virtue as security.
Each of the three meanings receives one account. The first two use similes; the third speaks directly.
The Difference Between Conduct and Virtue
What is the difference between conduct and virtue?
Practising with energy and undertaking the ascetic practices are conduct, not virtue; virtue is also called conduct, virtue is called deportment, and undertaking is also called conduct.
How Many Kinds of Virtue Are There?
How many kinds of virtue are there? There are three kinds: wholesome virtue, unwholesome virtue, and indeterminate virtue.
What is wholesome virtue? It is wholesome bodily and verbal action together with right livelihood. Because it is faultless, its result is desirable.
What is unwholesome virtue? It is evil bodily and verbal action together with wrong livelihood. Because it has faults, its result is undesirable.
What is indeterminate virtue? It is influx-free bodily and verbal action together with purified livelihood. It has no fault and also no result.
From What Does Virtue Arise?
From what does virtue arise? A wholesome mind gives rise to wholesome virtue, an unwholesome mind gives rise to unwholesome virtue, and an indeterminate mind gives rise to indeterminate virtue.
The Beginning, Middle, and End of Virtue
What are the beginning, middle, and end of virtue? Undertaking virtue is the beginning, not transgressing is the middle, and joy is the end.
Obstructions and Causes of Virtue: Thirty-four Dhammas
How many dhammas obstruct virtue? How many are causes of virtue?
Answer: thirty-four dhammas form the path of obstruction, and thirty-four dhammas are causes of virtue.
They are anger, vexation, concealment, heat, stinginess, envy, deceit, flattery, resentment, contention, conceit, overestimation, arrogance, heedlessness, laziness, craving, discontent, not following wisdom, wrong mindfulness, harsh speech, bad friends, bad understanding, wrong view, impatience, lack of faith, shamelessness, lack of moral dread, seeking gratification through body and speech, intimacy with lay society, intimacy with women, disrespect for teachers and training, failure to restrain the faculties, immoderation in food, and neglecting meditation and recitation during the first and last watches of the night.
These thirty-four dhammas form the path of obstruction. If any single one obstructs, virtue is not brought to fulfillment; if it is not fulfilled, it will certainly regress and be lost.
If these dhammas are reversed, the corresponding thirty-four are called the causes of virtue.
By direct item-by-item count, this list contains exactly thirty-four items, matching the stated number. It is recorded here exactly as it stands.
How Many Classifications of Virtue: Twofold, Threefold, and Fourfold
How many classifications of virtue are there? They are twofold, threefold, and fourfold.
The text first explains the twofold classifications below, giving ten sets in succession.
First set: virtue by nature and prescribed virtue. Bodily and verbal conduct that the Buddha has prohibited from being performed is called virtue by nature. Bodily and verbal conduct that could otherwise be performed but that the Buddha has prohibited from being performed is called prescribed virtue. Virtue by nature is brought to fulfillment through faith and energy; prescribed virtue is brought to fulfillment through faith and mindful observance.
Second set: virtue of removal and virtue of acquisition. What is called removal? The capacity to extinguish what is not virtue. What is called acquisition? The acquisition of the various wholesome dhammas. Removing what is not virtue is like cutting off light and shadow; by cutting off what is not virtue one departs from evil destinations, and by acquiring right virtue one can proceed to a good destination; by cutting off what is not virtue one accomplishes the portion of stability.
Third set: worldly virtue and supramundane virtue. What is supramundane virtue? The virtue acquired through the noble path and its fruit is supramundane virtue; the remainder is worldly virtue. Through accomplishment in worldly virtue there is fulfillment; through accomplishment in supramundane virtue there is liberation.
Fourth set: limited and unlimited. Virtue that is not fulfilled is called limited. If virtue is fulfilled through what the Buddha has prohibited, it is called unlimited.
Fifth set: bounded and unbounded. What is bounded? If a person undertakes virtue for worldly gain, for superiority, for relatives and friends, for the body, for life, or to overstep what one depends on, that virtue is bounded by gain, bounded by praise, bounded by the conditioned body, and bounded by conditioned life. What is unbounded? This monk, for the sake of going beyond gain, superiority, body, and life, undertakes virtue in accordance with the Dhamma and does not give rise to a mind of transgression, much less transgress deliberately—this is called unbounded virtue.
Sixth set: dependent and independent. What is dependent? Virtue associated with something depends on craving; virtue associated with stealing virtue depends on views; virtue associated with praising oneself and disparaging others depends on conceit—this is dependent virtue. If it accomplishes the requisites of liberation, it is independent virtue. Dependent virtue is not delighted in by the wise; independent virtue is delighted in by the wise.
Seventh set: the beginning of the holy life and training in subtle virtue. What is the beginning of the holy life? Virtue comprising right action, right speech, and right livelihood is called the beginning of the holy life. The remaining virtue of training is called minor virtue.
Eighth set: associated with mind and not associated with mind. What is associated with mind? It is the beginning of training in the holy life. What is not associated with mind? It is the remaining minor virtue. A disciple holds firm virtue and higher virtue at the beginning of the holy life; with respect to this minor virtue, one may transgress and may rise again. Why? The Buddha did not say that this obstructs liberation.
Ninth set: virtue without transgression and purified virtue. What is without transgression? The virtue of disciples. What is purified virtue? The virtue of Buddhas and independently awakened ones.
Tenth set: virtue for a period and virtue for the whole of life. Undertaken temporarily for a short time and not together with the full span of embodied life, it is called virtue for a period. Vowed from the beginning before one's teacher until life is relinquished, it is called virtue for the whole of life. The result of virtue for a period has a time; the result of virtue for the whole of life has no time.
The ten twofold sets end here. One thing is recorded exactly as it stands: the formulas introducing these ten sets take three forms—the first says “what are the two kinds,” the middle eight say “further, virtue is of two kinds,” and the ninth says “further, there are two kinds of virtue.” Their wording is not made uniform here.
The threefold and fourfold classifications are not in this section; the next section continues with them.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Characteristic and Benefits of Virtue and Its Twofold Classifications · Vernacular · Summer 2026
這一段在還債
上一節是一張目錄：品首一口氣問了十六個問題，答只給了第一個。
這一節開始還。而且還得很密——底本一段不分，一千兩百多字，一口氣還了十個標。
看它還的次序：先補完上一節欠的「何戒相者」，接著「何味者、起者、足處者」〔T32 401a03–04〕、「何戒功德者」〔T32 401a06〕、「戒者何義」〔T32 401a15〕、「行何差別者」〔T32 401a24〕、「幾戒者」〔T32 401a26〕、「云何起戒者」〔T32 401b01–02〕、「何戒初中後者」〔T32 401b03〕、「戒有幾法障礙」〔T32 401b04〕、「戒有幾種者」〔T32 401b12–13〕。
十筆，一筆不亂，順序與品首那張目錄完全一致。
而真正值得看的，是每一筆的還法都不一樣。
有的一句話就打發（「受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後」〔T32 401b03–04〕）。有的同樣三個目要說兩遍。有的先引一句佛語再自己排十七目。有的列出五個名目卻只解釋三個。有的排出三十四條。有的一口氣開十組二分。
同一段、同一位論主、同樣是還債，十筆用了十種格式。這就是本節的弧。
格式就是分量
論主從來不說「這一項要緊、那一項可略」。但他用格式說了。
「云何起戒者？善心所起善戒」〔T32 401b01–02〕——三句話，因為上一問剛把善、不善、無記三戒分完，這裡只要把心與戒對上就夠了，不必再立新目。
「何戒初中後者」〔T32 401b03〕——一句話，三個詞。
而「戒有幾法障礙」〔T32 401b04〕就排了三十四條，「戒有幾種者」〔T32 401b12–13〕開出十組。
這裡就有一個可以帶走的讀法：讀本論的問答，先看那一問的答佔了多少篇幅、用了什麼格式，再看它的內容。 格式是論主唯一的重音記號——他不寫「此為要義」，他用二十倍的篇幅寫。
反過來也成立：一句話還掉的，不必當作被草草處理。 它可能只是前一問已經把地基打好了，這裡只需接一句。
先把上一節欠的還掉
上一節末句是「威儀除非威儀」，六個字，用了一個沒解釋的詞。
本節第一句就接：「問：云何名非威儀？答：謂破法」〔T32 400c27〕。
破法有三：「破法有三種：一、破波羅提木叉法；二、破緣法；三、破根法」〔T32 400c27–29〕。三目各給一句釋——破波羅提木叉法是無慚無愧、於如來離信；破緣法是命與形飾相應、離於知足；破根法是不閉六根門、離於念慧。
然後收：「以此三覆非威儀，是名戒相」〔T32 401a03〕。
到這裡，品首的第二問才算真的還完。它跨了兩節：標在上一節末尾，釋在這一節開頭。 這種切法在本論裡是常態，讀時要習慣把一個標與它的釋分開來找。
同樣三個目，說了兩遍
「何味者、起者、足處者」〔T32 401a03–04〕這一筆的還法很特別。
第一遍：無過樂是味，無憂是起，三善行是足處。
第二遍：「復次悅勝為味，不悔為起，覆諸根為足處」〔T32 401a05–06〕。
同樣三個位置，兩遍所填的六個詞，沒有一個相同。而論文既不說哪一遍是正、哪一遍是別，也不把兩遍合起來講。
這裡不必去調和。本論的「復次」常常不是補充，是換一副說法重來一次；兩遍並列著，就是兩份答案並列著。讀者要做的是把兩份都記下來，不是挑一份。
引一句佛語，然後自己排十七目
「何戒功德者」〔T32 401a06〕這一筆的還法又不同：先給一個極短的答，再引佛語，再自己排長列。
短答是「不悔是戒功德」〔T32 401a06〕——這一語全論只出現這一次。
引語是「如世尊告阿難：不悔是善戒功德義」〔T32 401a06–07〕——這也是全論唯一的一處引式，不出經名。
引完，論主自己接手，從「復次名戒者，是無過樂、是眾生上」〔T32 401a07–08〕一路排下去：是財為富貴、是處為佛地、是浴無水、是香普薰、是影隨形、是繖覆可覆、是聖種、是學無上、是善趣道；然後換一個句子起頭，說有戒的人成就無畏、榮顯親友、為聖所憐愍，是親友依、是善莊嚴、是領諸行、是功德處、是供養處、是可貴同學處。
以「是」領起的目，逐目數，共十七個。
然後收一句：「如是無邊戒功德」〔T32 401a15〕。
論主自己不數。 他排了十七目，卻用「無邊」二字收——這是一個明白的表態：這一列不是要窮盡，是要示其不可窮盡。所以我們數出十七，是為了知道論文實際給了多少；但不能把「十七」當成一個論主立的數目。
五個義列出來，只講三個
「戒者何義」〔T32 401a15〕這一筆最值得停下來問。
論主先答：「答：冷義、增上義、行義、自性義、苦樂性相應義」〔T32 401a15–16〕——五個義。
緊接著又說：「復次頭義、冷義、安義」〔T32 401a16–17〕——三個義。
兩列合起來八個名目。而下文逐一解釋的，只有後面那三個：頭、冷、安。
前列的增上義、行義、自性義、苦樂性相應義，列出來就不再提。
為什麼？
論文沒有說。但把它的動作看清楚，答案就在動作裡。
先看那三個被講的義怎麼講：
頭義配一個譬喻：「如人無頭，一切諸根不復取塵」〔T32 401a17–18〕——人沒了頭，諸根就不再取塵，這叫死；比丘以戒為頭，頭斷了就失諸善法，在佛法中也叫死。
冷義配另一個譬喻：「如摩勝冷栴檀則除身熱、成就歡喜」〔T32 401a20–21〕——最上的冷栴檀塗上去，身熱就退、歡喜就生；戒也這樣，滅犯戒恐畏的心熱。
安義不用譬喻，直說：「若人有戒，風儀整肅不生恐畏，是安為戒義」〔T32 401a23–24〕。
三個義，兩個配譬喻、一個直說；三個都能讓一個沒讀過阿毘曇的人立刻懂。
而前列那五個——增上、行、自性、苦樂性相應——是術語，要懂它們得先懂別的東西。
所以那個「復次」不是補充，是換了一份可以講的名單。前五個是把「戒」放進論書的分類系統裡說，後三個是把「戒」放到人身上說。論主兩份都給，但他只講後一份。
而「冷義」在兩列都出現——它是唯一橫跨兩份名單的。這也說得通：冷義既是可以配譬喻講的，也是前列裡就有的；它是兩份名單的接點。
這一節因此示範了本論的一個習慣：列一份完整的，講一份能講的。 讀的時候要分清哪些是被列的、哪些是被講的，不要以為沒講的就不存在，也不要以為列了的都會講。
三筆快帳，各有各的理由
戒義那一筆講完之後，接連三筆還得極快，值得一起看。
第一筆是「行何差別者？修行精進受持頭陀，是行非戒」〔T32 401a24–25〕——問行與戒有什麼差別。
論主答得很怪：他先說修行精進、受持頭陀是行不是戒；接著又說戒也叫作行，戒名為威儀，受也叫作行。
一問而三面並出：一面把行推出戒外，一面把戒收進行內，一面把受也算作行。三面互相牴觸，而論文一句話也不調停，不說哪一面是究竟義。
這不是含糊。它是在說：「行」這個字在本論裡本來就不是一個界線清楚的詞，用在不同地方指不同的東西。與其定一個界，不如把三種用法都擺出來，讓讀者遇到「行」字時自己看上下文。後文〈分別行品〉整品都在用這個字，讀到那裡時回頭看這一句，就知道論主早就打過招呼。
第二筆是「幾戒者？謂三種戒：善戒、不善戒、無記戒」〔T32 401a26–27〕。
三目逐一有釋，而三個釋文用的是同一個模子：善戒是善的身口業及正命，因為無過患，所以果報可愛；不善戒是惡的身口業及邪命，因為有過患，所以果報不可愛；無記戒是無漏的身口業及清淨命，沒有過患，也沒有果報。
三目各以「果報」為分界——可愛、不可愛、無果報。而三個釋文的結構完全一樣：業與命是什麼、有無過患、果報如何。讀到這種整齊的三段式，就知道論主這一筆是在建一個乾淨的三分，不打算節外生枝。
第三筆是「云何起戒者？善心所起善戒」〔T32 401b01–02〕，其下依次是不善心起不善戒、無記心起無記戒。
這一筆只有三句，因為地基上一筆已經打好了：三戒剛分完，這裡只要把三種心與三種戒對上就完事。它沒有立任何新目。
這正是前面那個讀法的反面用法：一句話還掉的，不必當作草率。看它的鄰居——如果前一筆剛好把目立齊了，這一筆的短就是省，不是略。
還有第四筆更短：「何戒初中後者？受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後」〔T32 401b03–04〕。一句話，三個詞，不再解釋。
值得順帶記一筆的是：〈因緣品〉末尾也講過初、中、後——那裡是「以戒為初，以定為中，以慧為後」〔T32 400b11–12〕，配的是三學；這裡配的是受戒、不越、歡喜，是持戒的三個時分。同一組「初中後」，兩品所配全不相同，而論文從不把兩處連起來說。 這種同名異配在本論裡很常見，讀時要按各處的上下文各記一份，不要把前面的答案帶到後面來。
三十四法：一張表，正反兩用
「戒有幾法障礙？幾戒因？」〔T32 401b04–05〕這一問其實是兩問，而論主一句話同時答完：「答：三十四法是障礙道，三十四法是戒因」〔T32 401b05–06〕。
同一個數目，同時是障礙的數目和戒因的數目。
然後他只排一次表，從「所謂忿、惱、覆、熱、慳、嫉」〔T32 401b06〕起，一路排到「初夜後夜墯不禪誦」〔T32 401b10〕。逐目數，正是三十四目——這是本節唯一一處，論主自報的數與實列相符。
排完，先收作障礙：「此三十四法是障礙道」〔T32 401b10–11〕。
再用一句話把它翻過來：「若反是法三十四種，是名戒因」〔T32 401b12〕。
一張表，正著讀是障礙，反著讀是戒因。 論主不另排第二張表，也不逐目說反面是什麼——他讓讀者自己翻。
這是很經濟的寫法，也是很有要求的寫法：它假定讀者能把「忿」翻成「不忿」、把「惡友」翻成「善友」。而論主不代翻。
中間那句「若一一障礙，戒不成滿」〔T32 401b11〕也值得留意——不是幾條一起才算障礙，是任何一條都算。三十四條，一條不過，戒就不成滿。
十組二分，誰也不推出誰
最後一筆是「戒有幾種者」〔T32 401b12–13〕。答是三個數：二種、三種、四種。
本節只做二種，而二種一做就是十組。
性戒／制戒〔T32 401b13–14〕——佛所斷的身口所行是性戒，本可行而佛斷令不行是制戒。
退戒／得戒〔T32 401b17〕——滅非戒是退，得眾善法是得。
世戒／出世戒〔T32 401b20–21〕——聖道果所得是出世，其餘是世。
有量／無量〔T32 401b23–24〕——不具足是有量，具足是無量。
有邊／無邊〔T32 401b25–26〕——為世利受戒的，戒以利養、稱譽、身有、命有為邊；如法受戒不起犯心的，是無邊。
有依／無依〔T32 401c01–02〕——依愛、依見、依慢的是有依；成就解脫資用的是無依。而論主在這一組加了一句評語：有依戒非慧人所樂，無依戒是慧人所樂。
梵行之初／微細戒〔T32 401c06〕——正業正語正命所攝是梵行之初，其餘學戒是輕戒。
有心相應／無心相應〔T32 401c08–09〕——初學梵行是有心，其餘輕戒是無心。這一組後面還跟了一句理由：於輕戒得犯得起，因為佛不說這障礙解脫。
無犯戒／清淨戒〔T32 401c12–13〕——聲聞戒是無犯，佛及緣覺戒是清淨。
時分戒／盡形戒〔T32 401c14〕——少時暫受是時分，從師立誓至捨壽是盡形；果報一個有時、一個無時〔T32 401c16–17〕。
十組。
這十組彼此不推出，也拼不成一張更大的表。 性／制是按誰所制分的，有邊／無邊是按動機分的，時分／盡形是按時限分的，無犯／清淨是按人位分的。它們共用的只有「二」這個數目。
所以讀的時候不要試著把十組疊起來——疊不攏，而疊不攏不是傳本有缺，是體例如此。「二種」在這裡不是一個分類，是一個切法的粒度：論主拿同一塊料，用十把不同的刀各切一次。
領起的話有三種寫法
還有一件小事，數一數才看得見。
領起這十組的話並不統一：第一組作「云何二種？謂性戒、制戒」〔T32 401b13–14〕，中間八組都作「復次戒有二種」，第九組卻作「復次有二種戒」〔T32 401c12〕——「戒」與「有」的位置換了。
八比一比一。
這種參差在本論裡到處都是（前一節標三個目而收四個，前一品兩組三目各缺一個收句）。要緊的不是去統一它，而是認得出它是常態：本論的句式從來不是逐字齊整的模板，而讀者一旦習慣了模板，反而會被這種參差絆倒，誤以為某處脫了字。
末組留了一刀給下一節
本節到「盡形戒者，果報無時」〔T32 401c16–17〕為止。
而「三種、四種」在段首就已經標出來了〔T32 401b12–13〕，這一節卻只做了二種。
下一節第一句是：「何者為三？謂止惡不犯」〔T32 401c17〕。
又是一刀落在標與釋之間。 上一節末句立「非威儀」而本節開頭釋之，本節標「三種、四種」而下一節開頭釋之——同一個手法，連用兩次。
認出這個節奏，〈分別戒品〉就不再是一堆分類表了：它是一張目錄，加上一串按問答呼吸切開的還債紀錄。
回頭看這一節
把十筆放在一起看，本節其實示範了本論處理材料的全部手法。
要把一個詞界定清楚時，它拆三目再收（破法三種）。要說一件事有兩種講法時，它並列而不調停（味起足處的兩遍）。要說一件事無窮無盡時，它排十七個再說「無邊」。要說一份名單裡只有一部分能講給人聽時，它把完整的列出來、把能講的講掉。要說一組東西正反兩面都成立時，它排一次表，然後用一句話把表翻過來。要說某個數目底下有很多種切法時，它一連開十組，而不把十組併成一張總表。
沒有一種手法是為了省事。 每一種都在傳達一件用文字直說會失真的事——名單的完整與可講的有限不是同一件事，正面的表與反面的表不是同一張表，十種切法不是一個體系。
所以讀本論，除了讀它說了什麼，還要讀它怎麼說。格式本身就是內容的一部分；而這一節，是全論裡格式變化最密的一段之一。
This Passage Is Repaying Debts
The preceding section is a table of contents: the chapter opens by asking sixteen questions in one breath, and the answer supplies only the first.
This section begins to repay them. It does so densely—the base text is one undivided passage of more than twelve hundred characters, and in a single sweep it repays ten headings.
Look at the order of repayment: first it completes the “what is the characteristic of virtue” left owing by the preceding section; then come “what are its flavor, arising, and footing” 〔T32 401a03–04〕, “what are the benefits of virtue” 〔T32 401a06〕, “what does virtue mean” 〔T32 401a15〕, “what is the difference in conduct” 〔T32 401a24〕, “how many kinds of virtue are there” 〔T32 401a26〕, “from what does virtue arise” 〔T32 401b01–02〕, “what are the beginning, middle, and end of virtue” 〔T32 401b03〕, “how many dhammas obstruct virtue” 〔T32 401b04〕, and “how many classifications of virtue are there” 〔T32 401b12–13〕.
Ten debts, none out of order, in exactly the sequence of the table of contents at the chapter's opening.
What is truly worth seeing is that every debt is repaid in a different way.
One is dispatched in a single sentence (“undertaking virtue is the beginning, not transgressing is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 401b03–04〕). Another states the same three headings twice. Another first cites a saying of the Buddha and then arranges seventeen items of its own. Another lists five meanings but explains only three. Another sets out thirty-four entries. Another opens ten sets of twofold classification in one sweep.
Within one passage, by one author, all repaying debts of the same kind, ten headings take ten different forms. This is the arc of the section.
Form Is Weight
The author never says, “this item is important, that one may be treated briefly.” But he says it through form.
“From what does virtue arise? A wholesome mind gives rise to wholesome virtue” 〔T32 401b01–02〕—three sentences, because the preceding question has just finished distinguishing wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate virtue. Here it is enough to align mind with virtue; no new heading need be established.
“What are the beginning, middle, and end of virtue” 〔T32 401b03〕—one sentence, three terms.
But “how many dhammas obstruct virtue” 〔T32 401b04〕 draws up thirty-four entries, and “how many classifications of virtue are there” 〔T32 401b12–13〕 opens ten sets.
Here is a way of reading that can be carried away: when reading this treatise's questions and answers, first look at how much space an answer occupies and what form it takes; then look at its content. Form is the author's only mark of stress—he does not write “this is the essential meaning”; he writes at twenty times the length.
The converse also holds: what is repaid in one sentence need not have been treated carelessly. It may simply be that the preceding question has already laid the foundation and only one connecting sentence is needed here.
First Repay What the Preceding Section Left Owing
The preceding section ends with “deportment excluding improper deportment,” six characters containing an unexplained expression.
The first sentence of this section immediately continues: “Question: what is called improper deportment? Answer: it means a breach of the Dhamma” 〔T32 400c27〕.
A breach of the Dhamma has three forms: “a breach of the Dhamma is of three kinds: first, a breach of the Pātimokkha Dhamma; second, a breach concerning conditions; third, a breach concerning the faculties” 〔T32 400c27–29〕. Each receives one sentence of explanation—a breach of the Pātimokkha Dhamma is having neither shame nor moral dread and having departed from faith in the Tathāgata; a breach concerning conditions is having life bound up with adornment of appearance and having departed from contentment; a breach concerning the faculties is not closing the gates of the six faculties and having departed from mindfulness and wisdom.
It then concludes: “when these three cover improper deportment, this is called the characteristic of virtue” 〔T32 401a03〕.
Only here is the second question at the chapter's opening truly repaid. It crosses two sections: the heading stands at the end of the preceding section, while the explanation opens this one. This kind of division is normal in the treatise. In reading it one must become accustomed to looking separately for a heading and its explanation.
The Same Three Headings, Stated Twice
The repayment of “what are its flavor, arising, and footing” 〔T32 401a03–04〕 takes a distinctive form.
The first statement: joy without fault is the flavor, freedom from sorrow is the arising, and the three wholesome courses of conduct are the footing.
The second: “further: surpassing delight is the flavor, non-regret is the arising, and covering the faculties is the footing” 〔T32 401a05–06〕.
The same three positions are filled twice, and none of the six terms assigned to them is the same. The treatise neither says which statement is principal and which alternative, nor joins the two together in an explanation.
There is no need to harmonize them. In this treatise, “further” often does not supplement an answer but begins the answer over again in another formulation; the two statements stand side by side as two answers. The reader's task is to retain both, not choose one.
Citing One Saying of the Buddha, Then Arranging Seventeen Items
The repayment of “what are the benefits of virtue” 〔T32 401a06〕 takes yet another form: first an exceedingly brief answer, then a saying of the Buddha, and then a long series arranged by the author.
The brief answer is “non-regret is the benefit of virtue” 〔T32 401a06〕—these words occur only once in the entire treatise.
The citation is “as the Blessed One told Ānanda: non-regret is the meaning of the benefit of wholesome virtue” 〔T32 401a06–07〕—this too is the only citation in this form anywhere in the treatise, and it gives no scripture title.
After the citation, the author takes over. From “further, what is called virtue is joy without fault; it is highest among beings” 〔T32 401a07–08〕 the series continues: as wealth, it is riches and honor; as a place, it is Buddha-ground; it is a bath without water; it is fragrance permeating everywhere; it is a shadow following form; it is a parasol covering what can be covered; it is a noble lineage; it is unsurpassed training; it is the path to a good destination. Then a new sentence begins: a person with virtue accomplishes fearlessness, brings honor to relatives and friends, and is cherished by the noble ones; one is a support for friends, a wholesome adornment, a leader of all activities, a place of benefit, a place of offerings, and a valued place among fellow students.
Count, item by item, those introduced by “it is”: there are seventeen.
The passage then closes with a single sentence: “such are the boundless benefits of virtue” 〔T32 401a15〕.
The author does not give a count. He arranges seventeen items but closes with the word “boundless”—an explicit indication that the list does not mean to exhaust the subject but to show that it cannot be exhausted. Our count of seventeen tells us how many the text actually supplies; it cannot be turned into a number established by the author.
Five Meanings Listed, Only Three Explained
The repayment of “what does virtue mean” 〔T32 401a15〕 is the one at which it is most worthwhile to stop and ask a question.
The author first answers: “answer: the meaning of coolness, the meaning of predominance, the meaning of conduct, the meaning of intrinsic nature, and the meaning of being associated with the nature of suffering and happiness” 〔T32 401a15–16〕—five meanings.
He immediately continues: “further: the meaning of a head, the meaning of coolness, and the meaning of security” 〔T32 401a16–17〕—three meanings.
The two lists make eight headings in all. Yet only the latter three—the head, coolness, and security—are explained one by one below.
The predominance, conduct, intrinsic nature, and association with the nature of suffering and happiness from the first list are stated and never mentioned again.
Why?
The treatise does not say. But once its action is seen clearly, the answer lies in the action itself.
First see how the three meanings that are explained are treated.
The meaning of a head is paired with a simile: “when a person has no head, none of the faculties any longer takes up its objects” 〔T32 401a17–18〕—without a head, a person's faculties no longer take up their objects, and the person is called dead; a monk takes virtue as his head, and if that head is cut off, he loses all wholesome dhammas and is likewise said to be dead in the Buddha-Dhamma.
The meaning of coolness is paired with another simile: “just as applying the finest cooling sandalwood removes bodily heat and brings joy” 〔T32 401a20–21〕—the finest cooling sandalwood is applied, bodily heat recedes, and joy arises; virtue does the same, extinguishing the mental heat of fear caused by transgressing virtue.
The meaning of security uses no simile but states directly: “if a person has virtue, his bearing is ordered and dignified, and fear does not arise; this is the meaning of virtue as security” 〔T32 401a23–24〕.
Three meanings: two paired with similes, one stated directly; all three are immediately intelligible to someone who has never read abhidhamma.
The five in the first list—predominance, conduct, intrinsic nature, and association with the nature of suffering and happiness—are technical categories whose understanding requires understanding something else first.
Thus “further” does not supplement the first list; it substitutes a list that can be explained. The first five place virtue within the treatise's classificatory system; the latter three place virtue in a person's life. The author gives both but explains only the latter.
And “the meaning of coolness” occurs in both lists—it alone crosses from one list to the other. This too makes sense: coolness can both be explained by a simile and stand among the first list's categories; it is the joining point of the two lists.
This section therefore demonstrates one of the treatise's habits: it lists what is complete and explains what can be explained. In reading, one must distinguish what has been listed from what has been explained. Do not suppose that what is not explained does not exist, or that everything listed will be explained.
Three Debts Repaid Quickly, Each for Its Own Reason
After the debt concerning the meanings of virtue has been repaid, three debts are repaid in rapid succession. They are worth considering together.
The first is “what is the difference in conduct? Practising with energy and undertaking the ascetic practices are conduct, not virtue” 〔T32 401a24–25〕—the question asks how conduct and virtue differ.
The author's answer is peculiar: first he says that practising with energy and undertaking the ascetic practices are conduct, not virtue; then he says that virtue is also called conduct, that virtue is called deportment, and that undertaking is also called conduct.
One question brings out three aspects at once: in one, conduct is pushed outside virtue; in another, virtue is gathered into conduct; in another, undertaking is also reckoned as conduct. The three pull against one another, yet the text offers no reconciliation and does not say which is the final meaning.
This is not vagueness. It says that “conduct” is not, in this treatise, a word with a sharply bounded meaning: it denotes different things in different places. Rather than set one boundary, the author displays three uses and leaves the reader to look to context whenever the word occurs. The whole Chapter on the Distinction of Conduct later in the treatise uses this word throughout. When one reaches it and looks back at this sentence, one sees that the author already gave warning.
The second is “how many kinds of virtue are there? There are three kinds: wholesome virtue, unwholesome virtue, and indeterminate virtue” 〔T32 401a26–27〕.
Each of the three is explained, and the three explanations use the same template: wholesome virtue is wholesome bodily and verbal action together with right livelihood; because it is faultless, its result is desirable. Unwholesome virtue is evil bodily and verbal action together with wrong livelihood; because it has faults, its result is undesirable. Indeterminate virtue is influx-free bodily and verbal action together with purified livelihood; it has no fault and no result.
Each of the three takes “result” as its dividing line—desirable, undesirable, no result. The three explanations have exactly the same structure: what the action and livelihood are, whether a fault is present, and what the result is. When this orderly three-part shape appears, one can see that the author is establishing a clean threefold distinction and does not intend to branch aside.
The third is “from what does virtue arise? A wholesome mind gives rise to wholesome virtue” 〔T32 401b01–02〕, followed in order by an unwholesome mind giving rise to unwholesome virtue and an indeterminate mind giving rise to indeterminate virtue.
This debt takes only three sentences because the preceding debt has already laid its foundation: the three kinds of virtue have just been distinguished, and here only the three kinds of mind need to be aligned with them. It establishes no new heading.
This is the reverse use of the earlier reading method: what is repaid in a single sentence need not be hasty. Look to its neighbor—if the preceding debt has just established all the headings, the brevity here is economy, not omission.
There is a fourth debt shorter still: “what are the beginning, middle, and end of virtue? Undertaking virtue is the beginning, not transgressing is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 401b03–04〕. One sentence, three terms, with no further explanation.
It is worth noting in passing that the end of the Chapter on Causes and Conditions also speaks of beginning, middle, and end—there it says, “with virtue as the beginning, concentration as the middle, and wisdom as the end” 〔T32 400b11–12〕, coordinating the threefold training. Here the terms are undertaking virtue, not transgressing, and joy: the three phases of keeping virtue. The same group “beginning, middle, and end” is assigned wholly different things in the two chapters, and the treatise never links the two passages itself. This same name with different assignments is common in the work. Each occurrence must be retained according to its own context; the earlier answer must not be carried into the later one.
Thirty-four Dhammas: One Table Used Both Ways
“How many dhammas obstruct virtue? How many are causes of virtue?” 〔T32 401b04–05〕 is actually two questions, yet the author answers both in one sentence: “answer: thirty-four dhammas form the path of obstruction, and thirty-four dhammas are causes of virtue” 〔T32 401b05–06〕.
The same number is at once the number of obstructions and the number of causes of virtue.
He then arranges a table only once, beginning with “anger, vexation, concealment, heat, stinginess, envy” 〔T32 401b06〕 and continuing to “neglecting meditation and recitation during the first and last watches of the night” 〔T32 401b10〕. Counted one by one, there are exactly thirty-four entries—the only place in this section where a number stated by the author agrees with the number actually listed.
When the list is complete, he first concludes in terms of obstruction: “these thirty-four dhammas form the path of obstruction” 〔T32 401b10–11〕.
Then one sentence turns it over: “if these dhammas are reversed, the corresponding thirty-four are called the causes of virtue” 〔T32 401b12〕.
One table: read in the stated direction, obstructions; read in reverse, causes of virtue. The author does not arrange a second table or state the opposite of each item—he lets the reader turn them over.
This is economical writing, and demanding writing. It assumes that the reader can turn “anger” into “non-anger” and “bad friend” into “good friend.” The author does not do the turning for us.
The intervening sentence, “if any single one obstructs, virtue is not brought to fulfillment” 〔T32 401b11〕, also deserves attention—not several together, but any one is an obstruction. Of the thirty-four, if even one is not passed, virtue is not fulfilled.
Ten Twofold Sets, None Entailed by Another
The final debt is “how many classifications of virtue are there” 〔T32 401b12–13〕. The answer gives three numbers: twofold, threefold, and fourfold.
This section treats only the twofold classifications, and it gives ten sets at once.
Virtue by nature / prescribed virtue 〔T32 401b13–14〕—bodily and verbal conduct whose performance the Buddha has prohibited is virtue by nature; conduct that could otherwise be performed but whose performance the Buddha has prohibited is prescribed virtue.
Virtue of removal / virtue of acquisition 〔T32 401b17〕—extinguishing what is not virtue is removal; acquiring the various wholesome dhammas is acquisition.
Worldly virtue / supramundane virtue 〔T32 401b20–21〕—what is acquired through the noble path and its fruit is supramundane; the remainder is worldly.
Limited / unlimited 〔T32 401b23–24〕—what is not fulfilled is limited; what is fulfilled is unlimited.
Bounded / unbounded 〔T32 401b25–26〕—when virtue is undertaken for worldly gain, it is bounded by gain, praise, conditioned body, and conditioned life; when it is undertaken in accordance with the Dhamma without giving rise to a mind of transgression, it is unbounded.
Dependent / independent 〔T32 401c01–02〕—what depends on craving, views, and conceit is dependent; what accomplishes the requisites of liberation is independent. Here the author adds a judgment: dependent virtue is not delighted in by the wise; independent virtue is delighted in by the wise.
The beginning of the holy life / subtle virtue 〔T32 401c06〕—what comprises right action, right speech, and right livelihood is the beginning of the holy life; the remaining virtue of training is minor virtue.
Associated with mind / not associated with mind 〔T32 401c08–09〕—the beginning of training in the holy life is associated with mind; the remaining minor virtue is not associated with mind. This set also carries a reason: with respect to minor virtue, one may transgress and may rise again, because the Buddha did not say that this obstructs liberation.
Virtue without transgression / purified virtue 〔T32 401c12–13〕—the virtue of disciples is without transgression; the virtue of Buddhas and independently awakened ones is purified.
Virtue for a period / virtue for the whole of life 〔T32 401c14〕—what is temporarily undertaken for a short time is for a period; what is vowed before one's teacher until life is relinquished is for the whole of life. One result has a time, the other no time 〔T32 401c16–17〕.
Ten sets.
These ten sets do not entail one another, nor can they be assembled into one larger table. Nature / prescription divides according to what has been prohibited; bounded / unbounded according to motive; period / whole of life according to duration; without transgression / purified according to the person's attainment. The only thing they share is the number “two.”
So do not try to stack the ten sets together when reading—they will not align, and their failure to align is not a defect in transmission but the form of the work. “Twofold” here is not one classification but a granularity of division: the author takes the same material and cuts it once with each of ten different knives.
The Introductory Formula Has Three Forms
There is one small matter visible only after counting.
The formula introducing the ten sets is not uniform: the first says, “what are the two kinds? Virtue by nature and prescribed virtue” 〔T32 401b13–14〕; the middle eight all say, “further, virtue is of two kinds”; but the ninth says, “further, there are two kinds of virtue” 〔T32 401c12〕—the positions of “virtue” and “there are” exchange.
Eight to one to one.
Such variation occurs throughout the treatise (the preceding section names three headings but concludes with four; the preceding chapter has two groups of three headings, each lacking one concluding formula). What matters is not to make it uniform but to recognize it as normal: the treatise's sentences are never a word-for-word template, and readers who have become accustomed to the template are precisely those who will trip over the variation and imagine that a character has fallen out.
The Last Set Leaves One Cut for the Next Section
This section ends at “the result of virtue for the whole of life has no time” 〔T32 401c16–17〕.
But “threefold and fourfold” were already named at the beginning of this passage 〔T32 401b12–13〕, while this section has treated only the twofold.
The first sentence of the next section is: “what are the three? Refraining from evil and not transgressing” 〔T32 401c17〕.
Once more the cut falls between heading and explanation. The preceding section ends by establishing “improper deportment” and this section begins by explaining it; this section establishes “threefold and fourfold” and the next begins by explaining them—the same procedure used twice in succession.
Once this rhythm is recognized, the Chapter on the Distinction of Virtue ceases to look like a heap of classificatory tables. It is a table of contents followed by a record of debts repaid, cut according to the breathing of question and answer.
Looking Back at This Section
Seen together, the ten repayments in this section demonstrate all the ways in which the treatise handles its material.
To define a term clearly, it divides it into three and concludes (the three breaches of the Dhamma). To say that a matter has two formulations, it places them side by side without reconciliation (the two statements of flavor, arising, and footing). To say that a matter is inexhaustible, it arranges seventeen and then says “boundless.” To say that only part of a list can be explained to a person, it lists the complete one and explains the one that can be explained. To say that one group functions in both positive and negative directions, it arranges the table once and turns it over in a single sentence. To say that many ways of cutting fall under one number, it opens ten sets in succession and never combines them into a master table.
None of these methods is used merely to save trouble. Each conveys something that would be distorted if stated directly—the completeness of a list is not the same as the limits of what can be explained; the positive and negative forms of a table are not two tables; ten ways of cutting are not one system.
Thus, in reading this treatise, one must read not only what it says but how it says it. Form itself is part of the content; and this section is one of the places in the whole treatise where form changes most densely.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Characteristic and Benefits of Virtue and Its Twofold Classifications · Exposition · Summer 2026
考據Apparatus
全段定位 本段出自《解脫道論》卷第一〈分別戒品〉，承前單元末所立而未釋之「非威儀」：起於「問：云何名非威儀？答：謂破法」〔T32 400c27〕，訖於「盡形戒者，果報無時」〔T32 401c16–17〕。底本一段〔T32 400c27–401c17〕，一千二百餘字不分段。本段一段之內連還十標（見目一）。
一、科判定位
底本一段不分，內含十一轉；前十轉各還品首總問之一標：
| 節 | 所還之標（各繫其錨） | 經文起訖逐字 |
|---|---|---|
| 非威儀與戒相 | 「何戒相者」〔T32 400c26〕之續 | 「問：云何名非威儀？答：謂破法」〔T32 400c27〕…「以此三覆非威儀，是名戒相」〔T32 401a03〕 |
| 味·起·足處 | 「何味者、起者、足處者」〔T32 401a03–04〕 | 「無過樂是味，無憂是起，三善行是足處」〔T32 401a04–05〕·「復次悅勝為味，不悔為起，覆諸根為足處」〔T32 401a05–06〕 |
| 功德 | 「何戒功德者」〔T32 401a06〕 | 「不悔是戒功德」〔T32 401a06〕…「如是無邊戒功德」〔T32 401a15〕 |
| 戒義 | 「戒者何義」〔T32 401a15〕 | 「答：冷義、增上義、行義、自性義、苦樂性相應義」〔T32 401a15–16〕…「若人有戒，風儀整肅不生恐畏，是安為戒義」〔T32 401a23–24〕 |
| 行之差別 | 「行何差別者」〔T32 401a24〕 | 「修行精進受持頭陀，是行非戒」〔T32 401a24–25〕以下 |
| 幾戒 | 「幾戒者」〔T32 401a26〕 | 「謂三種戒：善戒、不善戒、無記戒」〔T32 401a26–27〕以下 |
| 所起 | 「云何起戒者」〔T32 401b01–02〕 | 「善心所起善戒」〔T32 401b02〕以下 |
| 初中後 | 「何戒初中後者」〔T32 401b03〕 | 「受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後」〔T32 401b03–04〕 |
| 障礙與戒因 | 「戒有幾法障礙」〔T32 401b04〕 | 「答：三十四法是障礙道，三十四法是戒因」〔T32 401b05–06〕…「若反是法三十四種，是名戒因」〔T32 401b12〕 |
| 幾種戒 | 「戒有幾種者」〔T32 401b12–13〕 | 「謂有二種、三種、四種」〔T32 401b13〕 |
| 二分諸門十組（段末） | — | 「云何二種？謂性戒、制戒」〔T32 401b13–14〕…「盡形戒者，果報無時」〔T32 401c16–17〕 |
單元界與問答界之相合：起於次問之釋（承前單元末句所立而未釋之「非威儀」），訖於二分末組之收；其下即「何者為三？謂止惡不犯」〔T32 401c17〕，為次單元之始——三種戒之標在本段〔T32 401b12–13〕而其釋在次段，切點落在標與釋之間，與前單元同其式。段內無自答文中間切斷者。
十標之還法各異：一句話帶過者（所起·初中後）·二遍並說者（味起足處）·引佛語者（功德）·標而不盡釋者（戒義）·排長列者（障礙三十四）·開十組者（幾種）。誌其實，不代齊。
全段定位錨
〔T32, 400c27–401c17〕
二、詞義與譯語（逐字各繫其錨）
| 名相 | 本段用法 | 章內接點（可核） |
|---|---|---|
| 非威儀·破法三種 | 「破法有三種：一、破波羅提木叉法；二、破緣法；三、破根法」〔T32 400c27–29〕 | 三目逐一為釋，收作「以此三覆非威儀，是名戒相」〔T32 401a03〕——前單元所標之第二問至此還清 |
| 味·起·足處之二遍 | 初遍「無過樂是味，無憂是起，三善行是足處」〔T32 401a04–05〕；次遍「復次悅勝為味，不悔為起，覆諸根為足處」〔T32 401a05–06〕 | 同三目而二遍所配全不相同；論文不判其孰為正——照錄不代併 |
| 戒功德 | 「何戒功德者？不悔是戒功德」〔T32 401a06〕 | 「不悔是戒功德」全論唯一見；其下引佛語一，再開功德長列 |
| 功德長列 | 自「復次名戒者，是無過樂、是眾生上」〔T32 401a07–08〕至「如是無邊戒功德」〔T32 401a15〕 | 以「是」領起之目逐目實數十七；論文不出其數而以「無邊」收——照錄不代計。「生」字為訂正之讀（見目三） |
| 戒義之標與釋 | 標五義「冷義、增上義、行義、自性義、苦樂性相應義」〔T32 401a15–16〕；復次三義「頭義、冷義、安義」〔T32 401a17〕 | 二列合八目而唯復次之三有釋（頭·冷·安）；「冷義」為二列共有者，亦唯此一目兩列皆在。前列之增上·行·自性·苦樂性相應四目列而不釋——照錄不代補釋 |
| 三義之釋 | 頭「如人無頭，一切諸根不復取塵」〔T32 401a17–18〕·冷「如摩勝冷栴檀則除身熱、成就歡喜」〔T32 401a20–21〕·安「若人有戒，風儀整肅不生恐畏，是安為戒義」〔T32 401a23–24〕 | 前二目取譬、第三目直說。「如人無頭」「如摩勝冷栴檀」各全論唯一見 |
| 行之差別 | 「行何差別者？修行精進受持頭陀，是行非戒」〔T32 401a24–25〕 | 其下續云戒亦名行、戒名威儀、受亦名行——一問而三面並出，論文不判其界 |
| 三種戒（善·不善·無記） | 「幾戒者？謂三種戒：善戒、不善戒、無記戒」〔T32 401a26–27〕 | 三目逐一為釋，各以「果報」為別：可愛·不可愛·無果報 |
| 起戒 | 「云何起戒者？善心所起善戒」〔T32 401b01–02〕以下 | 三目與上節三戒一一相承——答之目數與前節同，論文不更立 |
| 初中後 | 「何戒初中後者？受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後」〔T32 401b03–04〕 | 一句還一標，不更釋。與前品〈因緣品〉之初中後善〔T32 400b10–11〕同名而所配全異——論文不自繫 |
| 三十四法 | 標作「三十四法是障礙道，三十四法是戒因」〔T32 401b05–06〕；列自「所謂忿、惱、覆、熱、慳、嫉」〔T32 401b06〕至「初夜後夜墯不禪誦」〔T32 401b10〕；收作「此三十四法是障礙道」〔T32 401b10–11〕、「若反是法三十四種，是名戒因」〔T32 401b12〕 | 逐目實數三十四，與標數相符。一列而兩用：正列為障礙、反之即為戒因，論文不另列戒因之目。「墯」「一一」二字為訂正之讀（見目三） |
| 二分諸門 | 標作「戒有幾種者？謂有二種、三種、四種」〔T32 401b12–13〕；二分十組自「云何二種？謂性戒、制戒」〔T32 401b13–14〕至「復次戒有二種，謂時分戒及盡形戒」〔T32 401c14〕 | 二分實出十組：性／制·退／得·世／出世·有量／無量·有邊／無邊·有依／無依·梵行之初／微細·有心相應／無心相應·無犯／清淨·時分／盡形。十組不相推出，亦不合為一表——照錄不代併 |
| 二分之領起三式 | 「云何二種」一見〔T32 401b13–14〕·「復次戒有二種」八見·「復次有二種戒」一見〔T32 401c12–13〕 | 十組而領起之語三式；照錄不代齊 |
| 二分之末組 | 「時分戒者，果報有時。盡形戒者，果報無時」〔T32 401c16–17〕 | 十組之中唯此組以果報作別；其下即次單元之三種戒 |
三、校記與異讀
本段範圍內大正藏校記十三處，均誌而不改；其中三處為校本訂正之讀，本文從訂正（詳下）：
| 錨 | 底本／本文之讀 | 異讀 | 見證 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 401a07 | 是善戒（不悔是善戒功德義） | 戒善是 | 〔記而未採〕 |
| 401a08 | 生（是眾生上） | 姓 | 【CB】訂正／【大】原讀 |
| 401a09 | 浴（是浴無水） | 俗 | 【明】 |
| 401a11 | 戒（為有戒故） | 戒是 | 【宮】 |
| 401a11 | 怜（聖所怜愍） | 憐 | 【明】 |
| 401a14 | 成（成一切意願清淨） | 成就 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
| 401a20 | 頭為戒（是頭為戒義） | 戒為頭 | 〔記而未採〕 |
| 401b10 | 墯（初夜後夜墯不禪誦） | 墮／惰 | 【CB】【麗-CB】訂正／【大】作墮／【宋】【元】【明】【宮】作惰 |
| 401b11 | 一一（若一一障礙） | 二 | 【CB】訂正／【大】原讀 |
| 401b25 | 以（以佛所斷） | 似 | 【明】【宮】 |
| 401c02 | 應（有相應戒依愛） | 〔－〕 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
| 401c06 | 學（梵行之初學微細戒） | 學學 | 【明】 |
| 401c07 | 攝（正業、正語、正命所攝戒） | 謂 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
訂正之讀三條（本文不從大正）：
- 401a08——大正作「是眾姓上」，校本訂正作「是眾生上」，宋元明宮四本同校本。本文從訂正之讀。
- 401b10——大正作「墮」，校本訂正作「墯」；宋元明宮四本作「惰」。本文從訂正之讀；三讀之義並非同一，誌而不判。
- 401b11——大正作「若二障礙」，校本訂正作「若一一障礙」，宮宋元明四本同校本。本文從訂正之讀。此條關乎文義：作「二」則須二法並障戒乃不滿，作「一一」則任一法障即不滿；上文正列三十四目，「一一」與其列之體例相貫，且諸本一致，唯大正孤作「二」——傾向從訂正之讀（碑面已自帶）。
誌錄不判三事：
- 401a07「是善戒」——校記所記之異讀作「戒善是」，而校本正文仍作「是善戒」，記而未採；本文從碑面。
- 401a20「頭為戒」——同上，異讀作「戒為頭」而校本未採；本文從碑面，與上文「云何頭為戒義」〔T32 401a17〕之字序相貫。
- 401c02「應」四本無之——若從四本則作「有相戒依愛」，與下文「戒盜相應戒」「自譽毀他相應戒」之「相應」不一；並錄不判，本文從碑面。
校本零命中二項：本段缺字（造字）零命中；行內夾註零命中。
四、論主引據
本段引據一見：「如世尊告阿難：不悔是善戒功德義」〔T32 401a06–07〕。全論唯一見；不出經名，亦不更釋。其位在功德長列之前——先引一語，再自開十七目。全段無「如阿毘曇說」等他式（前單元則有其一）。
五、譬喻·修辭
- 二喻並出而各釋一義：「如人無頭，一切諸根不復取塵」〔T32 401a17–18〕釋頭義·「如摩勝冷栴檀則除身熱、成就歡喜」〔T32 401a20–21〕釋冷義；第三義（安）不取譬而直說〔T32 401a23–24〕。二喻各全論唯一見。
- 同三目而二遍異配〔T32 401a03–06〕：味·起·足處二遍所配全不相同，中以「復次」領起。
- 以「是」領起之疊列〔T32 401a07–15〕：功德十七目句式一貫，中不夾釋；收以「如是無邊戒功德」——列而不計其數。
- 一列兩用〔T32 401b06–12〕：三十四法正列為障礙、反之即為戒因；論文不另列戒因之目，唯以「若反是法」一語轉之。
- 十組二分之疊起〔T32 401b13–401c17〕：每組各立一對，組間不相推出、不相攝；領起之語三式並用。
- 標而不釋以帶次段〔T32 401b12–13〕：「三種、四種」標於本段而釋在次段以下——與前單元同其式。
六、章內互讀
- 前指：本段開卷所釋之「非威儀」，即前單元末句「威儀除非威儀」〔T32 400c26–27〕所立而未釋者——二單元之切點正在標與釋之間。
- 前指：「不悔是戒功德」〔T32 401a06〕與前品〈因緣品〉之「無過樂」〔T32 400b18–19〕同名；本段亦以「是無過樂」列為功德之首目〔T32 401a07–08〕。論文不自繫其應——誌其實，不代判。
- 前指：本段「受戒是初，不越是中，歡喜是後」〔T32 401b03–04〕與前品「以戒為初，以定為中，以慧為後」〔T32 400b11–12〕同以初中後為目而所配全異；論文不自繫。
- 後指：「三種、四種」〔T32 401b13〕之釋在次單元（三種）與其後二單元（四種）。
- 後指：本段二分之「梵行之初」〔T32 401c06–07〕以正業·正語·正命為攝，與前品戒陰之目〔T32 400a15–16〕同；論文不自繫。
七、傳本
作者、譯者與傳本諸問題，本編不於考據內立說。
Location of the whole passage This passage comes from fascicle one, Chapter on the Distinction of Virtue, of the Path of Freedom. It continues the “improper deportment” established but not explained at the end of the preceding unit: it begins with “Question: what is called improper deportment? Answer: it means a breach of the Dhamma” 〔T32 400c27〕 and ends with “virtue for the whole of life: its result has no time” 〔T32 401c16–17〕. The base text is one undivided passage of more than twelve hundred characters 〔T32 400c27–401c17〕. Within this one passage, ten headings are repaid in succession (see section 1).
1. Structural Location
The base text is one undivided passage containing eleven transitions; each of the first ten repays one heading from the chapter's opening questions:
| Section | Heading repaid (each with its anchor) | Verbatim textual limits |
|---|---|---|
| Improper deportment and the characteristic of virtue | Continuation of “what is the characteristic of virtue” 〔T32 400c26〕 | “Question: what is called improper deportment? Answer: it means a breach of the Dhamma” 〔T32 400c27〕 … “when these three cover improper deportment, this is called the characteristic of virtue” 〔T32 401a03〕 |
| Flavor · arising · footing | “What are its flavor, arising, and footing” 〔T32 401a03–04〕 | “Joy without fault is the flavor, freedom from sorrow is the arising, and the three wholesome courses of conduct are the footing” 〔T32 401a04–05〕 · “Further: surpassing delight is the flavor, non-regret is the arising, and covering the faculties is the footing” 〔T32 401a05–06〕 |
| Benefits | “What are the benefits of virtue” 〔T32 401a06〕 | “Non-regret is the benefit of virtue” 〔T32 401a06〕 … “Such are the boundless benefits of virtue” 〔T32 401a15〕 |
| Meanings of virtue | “What does virtue mean” 〔T32 401a15〕 | “Answer: the meaning of coolness, the meaning of predominance, the meaning of conduct, the meaning of intrinsic nature, and the meaning of being associated with the nature of suffering and happiness” 〔T32 401a15–16〕 … “If a person has virtue, his bearing is ordered and dignified, and fear does not arise; this is the meaning of virtue as security” 〔T32 401a23–24〕 |
| Difference in conduct | “What is the difference in conduct” 〔T32 401a24〕 | “Practising with energy and undertaking the ascetic practices are conduct, not virtue” 〔T32 401a24–25〕 and what follows |
| How many kinds of virtue | “How many kinds of virtue are there” 〔T32 401a26〕 | “There are three kinds of virtue: wholesome virtue, unwholesome virtue, and indeterminate virtue” 〔T32 401a26–27〕 and what follows |
| From what it arises | “From what does virtue arise” 〔T32 401b01–02〕 | “A wholesome mind gives rise to wholesome virtue” 〔T32 401b02〕 and what follows |
| Beginning, middle, and end | “What are the beginning, middle, and end of virtue” 〔T32 401b03〕 | “Undertaking virtue is the beginning, not transgressing is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 401b03–04〕 |
| Obstructions and causes of virtue | “How many dhammas obstruct virtue” 〔T32 401b04〕 | “Answer: thirty-four dhammas form the path of obstruction, and thirty-four dhammas are causes of virtue” 〔T32 401b05–06〕 … “If these dhammas are reversed, the corresponding thirty-four are called the causes of virtue” 〔T32 401b12〕 |
| How many classifications of virtue | “How many classifications of virtue are there” 〔T32 401b12–13〕 | “They are twofold, threefold, and fourfold” 〔T32 401b13〕 |
| Ten sets of twofold classification (end of passage) | — | “What are the two kinds? Virtue by nature and prescribed virtue” 〔T32 401b13–14〕 … “Virtue for the whole of life: its result has no time” 〔T32 401c16–17〕 |
The unit boundary coincides with a question-and-answer boundary: it begins with the explanation of the next question (continuing “improper deportment,” which was established but not explained in the last sentence of the preceding unit) and ends with the conclusion of the final twofold classification. Next comes “what are the three? Refraining from evil and not transgressing” 〔T32 401c17〕, the beginning of the next unit—the heading “threefold virtue” occurs in this passage 〔T32 401b12–13〕, while its explanation is in the next, so the cut falls between heading and explanation, in the same form as the preceding unit. No answer is cut in the middle within the passage.
Each of the ten headings is repaid in a different way: some in a single sentence (arising · beginning, middle, and end), one by two statements side by side (flavor, arising, and footing), one by citing a saying of the Buddha (benefits), one by listing without explaining everything (the meanings of virtue), one by arranging a long series (the thirty-four obstructions), and one by opening ten sets (classifications). The facts are recorded without making their forms uniform.
Anchor for the whole passage
〔T32, 400c27–401c17〕
2. Terms and Translation (Every Citation Anchored)
| Term | Use in this passage | Checkable connection within the chapter |
|---|---|---|
| Improper deportment · three breaches of the Dhamma | “A breach of the Dhamma is of three kinds: first, a breach of the Pātimokkha Dhamma; second, a breach concerning conditions; third, a breach concerning the faculties” 〔T32 400c27–29〕 | Each of the three receives an explanation, concluding with “when these three cover improper deportment, this is called the characteristic of virtue” 〔T32 401a03〕—the second question established in the preceding unit is repaid here |
| Two statements of flavor · arising · footing | First, “joy without fault is the flavor, freedom from sorrow is the arising, and the three wholesome courses of conduct are the footing” 〔T32 401a04–05〕; then, “further: surpassing delight is the flavor, non-regret is the arising, and covering the faculties is the footing” 〔T32 401a05–06〕 | The same three headings receive wholly different assignments in the two statements; the treatise does not adjudicate which is principal—recorded without combining them |
| Benefit of virtue | “What are the benefits of virtue? Non-regret is the benefit of virtue” 〔T32 401a06〕 | “Non-regret is the benefit of virtue” occurs only once in the entire treatise; it is followed by one saying of the Buddha and then a long series of benefits |
| Long series of benefits | From “further, what is called virtue is joy without fault; it is highest among beings” 〔T32 401a07–08〕 to “such are the boundless benefits of virtue” 〔T32 401a15〕 | An item-by-item count of those introduced by “it is” gives seventeen; the treatise does not state that number but closes with “boundless”—recorded without counting on the text's behalf. The character 生, “beings,” follows a corrected reading (see section 3) |
| Headings and explanations of the meanings of virtue | Five meanings are named: “the meaning of coolness, the meaning of predominance, the meaning of conduct, the meaning of intrinsic nature, and the meaning of being associated with the nature of suffering and happiness” 〔T32 401a15–16〕; then three: “the meaning of a head, the meaning of coolness, and the meaning of security” 〔T32 401a17〕 | The two lists make eight headings, while only the latter three are explained (head · coolness · security); “the meaning of coolness” is common to both lists and is the only item present in both. Of the first list, predominance · conduct · intrinsic nature · association with the nature of suffering and happiness are listed but not explained—recorded without supplying explanations |
| Explanations of the three meanings | Head: “when a person has no head, none of the faculties any longer takes up its objects” 〔T32 401a17–18〕 · coolness: “just as applying the finest cooling sandalwood removes bodily heat and brings joy” 〔T32 401a20–21〕 · security: “if a person has virtue, his bearing is ordered and dignified, and fear does not arise; this is the meaning of virtue as security” 〔T32 401a23–24〕 | The first two use similes; the third states its meaning directly. “When a person has no head” and “just as applying the finest cooling sandalwood” each occur only once in the entire treatise |
| Difference in conduct | “What is the difference in conduct? Practising with energy and undertaking the ascetic practices are conduct, not virtue” 〔T32 401a24–25〕 | It continues by saying that virtue is also called conduct, that virtue is called deportment, and that undertaking is also called conduct—three aspects in response to one question, with no boundary adjudicated by the treatise |
| Three kinds of virtue (wholesome · unwholesome · indeterminate) | “How many kinds of virtue are there? There are three kinds: wholesome virtue, unwholesome virtue, and indeterminate virtue” 〔T32 401a26–27〕 | Each of the three receives an explanation, distinguished by “result”: desirable · undesirable · no result |
| Arising of virtue | “From what does virtue arise? A wholesome mind gives rise to wholesome virtue” 〔T32 401b01–02〕 and what follows | The three items follow the preceding three kinds of virtue one by one—the number of items in the answer is the same as in the preceding section, with no new set established by the treatise |
| Beginning, middle, and end | “What are the beginning, middle, and end of virtue? Undertaking virtue is the beginning, not transgressing is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 401b03–04〕 | One sentence repays one heading, with no further explanation. This shares the names beginning, middle, and end with the preceding Chapter on Causes and Conditions 〔T32 400b10–11〕 but assigns them wholly different things—the treatise does not connect the passages itself |
| Thirty-four dhammas | Established as “thirty-four dhammas form the path of obstruction, and thirty-four dhammas are causes of virtue” 〔T32 401b05–06〕; listed from “anger, vexation, concealment, heat, stinginess, envy” 〔T32 401b06〕 to “neglecting meditation and recitation during the first and last watches of the night” 〔T32 401b10〕; concluded as “these thirty-four dhammas form the path of obstruction” 〔T32 401b10–11〕 and “if these dhammas are reversed, the corresponding thirty-four are called the causes of virtue” 〔T32 401b12〕 | An item-by-item count gives thirty-four, matching the stated number. One list used twice: as stated, obstructions; reversed, causes of virtue. The treatise does not separately list the causes. The characters 墯 and 一一 follow corrected readings (see section 3) |
| Twofold classifications | Established as “how many classifications of virtue are there? They are twofold, threefold, and fourfold” 〔T32 401b12–13〕; the ten twofold sets run from “what are the two kinds? Virtue by nature and prescribed virtue” 〔T32 401b13–14〕 to “further, virtue is of two kinds: virtue for a period and virtue for the whole of life” 〔T32 401c14〕 | Ten twofold sets actually occur: nature / prescription · removal / acquisition · worldly / supramundane · limited / unlimited · bounded / unbounded · dependent / independent · beginning of the holy life / subtle · associated with mind / not associated with mind · without transgression / purified · period / whole of life. The ten sets neither entail one another nor combine into one table—recorded without merging them |
| Three formulas introducing the twofold classifications | “What are the two kinds” once 〔T32 401b13–14〕 · “further, virtue is of two kinds” eight times · “further, there are two kinds of virtue” once 〔T32 401c12–13〕 | Ten sets introduced by three formulas; recorded without making their wording uniform |
| Final twofold set | “Virtue for a period: its result has a time. Virtue for the whole of life: its result has no time” 〔T32 401c16–17〕 | The only one of the ten sets distinguished by result; immediately afterwards begins the next unit's threefold virtue |
3. Textual Notes and Divergent Readings
Thirteen textual notes fall within the range of this passage. All are recorded without emendation; three contain corrected readings, which the text follows (details below):
| Anchor | Base text / reading of this text | Divergent reading | Witnesses |
|---|---|---|---|
| 401a07 | 是善戒 (“non-regret is the meaning of the benefit of wholesome virtue”) | 戒善是 | 〔記而未採〕 |
| 401a08 | 生 (“it is highest among beings”) | 姓 | 【CB】 correction / 【大】 original reading |
| 401a09 | 浴 (“it is a bath without water”) | 俗 | 【明】 |
| 401a11 | 戒 (“because of having virtue”) | 戒是 | 【宮】 |
| 401a11 | 怜 (“cherished by the noble ones”) | 憐 | 【明】 |
| 401a14 | 成 (“all one's intentions become pure”) | 成就 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
| 401a20 | 頭為戒 (“this is the meaning of virtue as a head”) | 戒為頭 | 〔記而未採〕 |
| 401b10 | 墯 (“neglecting meditation and recitation during the first and last watches of the night”) | 墮 / 惰 | 【CB】【麗-CB】 correction / 【大】 reads 墮 / 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 read 惰 |
| 401b11 | 一一 (“if any single one obstructs”) | 二 | 【CB】 correction / 【大】 original reading |
| 401b25 | 以 (“through what the Buddha has prohibited”) | 似 | 【明】【宮】 |
| 401c02 | 應 (“virtue associated with something depends on craving”) | 〔－〕 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
| 401c06 | 學 (“training in the beginning of the holy life and subtle virtue”) | 學學 | 【明】 |
| 401c07 | 攝 (“virtue comprising right action, right speech, and right livelihood”) | 謂 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
Three corrected readings (where the text does not follow the original Taishō reading):
- 401a08—the original Taishō reads “it is highest among the various surnames,” while the corrected edition reads “it is highest among beings”; the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Gong witnesses agree with the corrected edition. The text follows the corrected reading.
- 401b10—the original Taishō reads 墮, and the corrected edition has 墯; the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Gong witnesses read 惰. The text follows the corrected reading. The meanings of the three readings are not identical; they are recorded without adjudication.
- 401b11—the original Taishō reads “if two obstruct,” while the corrected edition reads “if any single one obstructs”; the Gong, Song, Yuan, and Ming witnesses agree with the corrected edition. The text follows the corrected reading. This entry affects the meaning: with “two,” two dhammas must obstruct together for virtue not to be fulfilled; with “any single one,” any one is sufficient. The preceding text lists thirty-four items, “any single one” coheres with the list's form, and all the witnesses agree while the original Taishō alone reads “two”—the inclination is to follow the corrected reading (which is already present in the inscribed text).
Three matters recorded without adjudication:
- 401a07, “is wholesome virtue”—the divergent reading recorded in the note has the words in the order “virtue wholesome is,” while the corrected edition's text retains “is wholesome virtue”; recorded but not adopted, and this text follows the inscribed text.
- 401a20, “head as virtue”—likewise, the divergent reading has “virtue as head” but the corrected edition does not adopt it; this text follows the inscribed text, whose word order agrees with “how is a head the meaning of virtue” above 〔T32 401a17〕.
- 401c02, “associated” is absent from four witnesses—if they are followed, the phrase would read “virtue with a characteristic depends on craving,” unlike “virtue associated with appropriating virtue” and “virtue associated with praising oneself and disparaging others” below; both are recorded without adjudication, and this text follows the inscribed text.
Two categories with no occurrence in the corrected edition: no constructed characters occur in this passage; no inline annotation occurs.
4. Citations by the Author
This passage contains one citation: “as the Blessed One told Ānanda: non-regret is the meaning of the benefit of wholesome virtue” 〔T32 401a06–07〕. It occurs only once in the entire treatise; no scripture title is given and no further explanation follows. Its position is before the long series of benefits—first one saying is cited, then the author opens seventeen items of his own. No other formula such as “as the abhidhamma says” occurs in the passage (one does occur in the preceding unit).
5. Simile and Rhetoric
- Two similes side by side, each explaining one meaning: “when a person has no head, none of the faculties any longer takes up its objects” 〔T32 401a17–18〕 explains the meaning of a head; “just as applying the finest cooling sandalwood removes bodily heat and brings joy” 〔T32 401a20–21〕 explains the meaning of coolness. The third meaning, security, uses no simile but is stated directly 〔T32 401a23–24〕. Each of the two similes occurs only once in the entire treatise.
- The same three headings with different assignments in two statements 〔T32 401a03–06〕: flavor · arising · footing receive wholly different assignments in the two statements, the second introduced by “further.”
- A layered series introduced by “it is” 〔T32 401a07–15〕: the seventeen benefits form an unbroken series without intervening explanation, concluded by “such are the boundless benefits of virtue”—listed without stating their number.
- One list used twice 〔T32 401b06–12〕: the thirty-four dhammas as stated are obstructions, and reversed they are causes of virtue; the treatise does not give a separate list of causes but turns the list with the words “if these dhammas are reversed.”
- Successive opening of ten twofold sets 〔T32 401b13–401c17〕: each set establishes a pair, and the sets do not entail or encompass one another; three introductory formulas are used among them.
- A heading stated but not explained, carrying into the next passage 〔T32 401b12–13〕: “threefold and fourfold” are established in this passage and explained in the following passages—the same form as in the preceding unit.
6. Cross-reading within the Chapter
- Backward: the “improper deportment” explained at the opening of this passage is the expression established but not explained in the preceding unit's final sentence, “deportment excluding improper deportment” 〔T32 400c26–27〕—the cut between the two units falls between heading and explanation.
- Backward: “non-regret is the benefit of virtue” 〔T32 401a06〕 shares the expression “joy without fault” with the preceding Chapter on Causes and Conditions 〔T32 400b18–19〕; this passage also makes “it is joy without fault” the first item among the benefits 〔T32 401a07–08〕. The treatise does not connect them itself—recorded without adjudicating the relation.
- Backward: this passage's “undertaking virtue is the beginning, not transgressing is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 401b03–04〕 and the preceding chapter's “with virtue as the beginning, concentration as the middle, and wisdom as the end” 〔T32 400b11–12〕 share beginning, middle, and end as headings but assign wholly different things; the treatise does not connect them itself.
- Forward: the explanations of “threefold and fourfold” 〔T32 401b13〕 are in the next unit (threefold) and the two units after it (fourfold).
- Forward: “the beginning of the holy life” in this passage 〔T32 401c06–07〕 comprises right action, right speech, and right livelihood, the same items as the aggregate of virtue in the preceding chapter 〔T32 400a15–16〕; the treatise does not connect them itself.
7. Transmission
Questions concerning the author, translator, and textual transmission are not argued in this apparatus.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Characteristic and Benefits of Virtue and Its Twofold Classifications · Apparatus · Summer 2026