解脫道論 三種戒諸門
〈分別戒品〉講完十組二分，接著講八組三分。
八組彼此不推出，也拼不成一張大表。有的按受戒的時序分，有的按將護的對象分，有的按動機分，有的按人位分，有的按煩惱的粗細分。共用的只有「三」這個數目。
其中最耐看的是第七組：畏戒、憂戒、癡戒。
畏戒是怕罪，所以不敢為惡。憂戒是想到要離開親友，暫時愁苦，因為愁苦所以不起諸惡。癡戒是受牛戒、狗戒。
三個動機沒有一個是善的。而論主仍然把它們叫作戒。
理由在措辭裡：畏罪的人「不敢為惡」，愁苦的人「不起諸惡」——惡確實止住了。戒這個字最素樸的意思就是止惡；止住了就算戒，動機好不好是另一件事。
但第三目不同。論主給了一句極重的判語：癡戒若修成，就變成牛狗；若沒修成，就墮地獄。
兩頭都壞。
三個目連起來看，這一組要說的是：止惡本身不決定去向，動機才決定。畏與憂雖不是善根，至少所止的是真惡；癡卻連所止的都認錯了，於是修與不修都沒有出路。
往前數兩組，正好是「所願不等、所願等、無所願」——也是純按動機分的。兩組遙相呼應：一組說動機的正邪，一組說動機錯到底會怎樣。
所以遇到本論把一個不像好事的東西也收進名目底下，先別以為是分類鬆散。收進來，往往正是為了在同一張表上把界線劃出來——不收進來，就沒地方說「這一種修了也沒用」。
八組之中，只有最後一組（下、中、上）給三個目各配了一個去處：人、天、解脫。前七組都只切分，不說果。切到最後，才把切分接上去處。
After explaining ten twofold groups, the Chapter on the Analysis of Virtue turns to eight threefold groups.
The eight are not derived from one another and cannot be assembled into a larger table. Some are divided by the chronology of undertaking the precepts, some by what is protected, some by motivation, some by the person's standing, and some by the coarseness or subtlety of the afflictions. The only thing shared is the number “three.”
The most arresting is the seventh group: virtue of fear, virtue of worry, and virtue of delusion.
Virtue of fear means fearing wrongdoing and therefore not daring to do evil. Virtue of worry means thinking of separation from relatives and friends, briefly becoming sorrowful, and therefore not giving rise to evils. Virtue of delusion means undertaking the ox observance and dog observance.
Not one of the three motivations is wholesome. Yet the author still calls them virtue.
The reason lies in the wording. The person who fears wrongdoing “does not dare to do evil”; the sorrowful person “does not give rise to evils”—the evil truly has stopped. The most elementary meaning of virtue is stopping evil. If it has stopped, it counts as virtue; whether the motivation is good is another matter.
But the third item is different. The author delivers an extremely severe judgment: if the virtue of delusion succeeds, one becomes an ox or a dog; if it does not succeed, one falls into hell.
Both ends are bad.
Read the three items together and the group says this: stopping evil does not itself determine the destination; motivation determines it. Fear and worry are not wholesome roots, but at least what they stop is truly evil. Delusion mistakes even what is to be stopped, so whether the practice succeeds or fails, there is no way out.
Count back two groups and one finds “unequal aspiration, equal aspiration, and no aspiration”—another division made solely by motivation. The two groups answer one another at a distance: one shows whether motivation is right or wrong, and the other what happens when it is wrong all the way down.
So when the treatise includes within a category something that does not look good, do not first assume that the classification is loose. It is often included precisely so that the boundary can be drawn on a common table—without including it, there would be nowhere to say, “this kind of practice is useless even when completed.”
Among the eight groups, only the last—lower, middle, and higher—matches each of its three items with a destination: human, heavenly, liberation. The first seven only divide and do not state a result. Only at the end does division meet destination.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Threefold Classifications of Virtue · Doorway · Summer 2026
阿羅漢優波底沙造，梁扶南三藏僧伽婆羅譯《解脫道論》〈分別戒品〉「三種戒諸門」· 大正藏 T32n1648〔起 T32 0401c〕。段首〔T32 …〕＝大正藏頁·欄錨。
〔T32 0401c〕
何者為三？謂止惡不犯、受不犯、斷不犯。云何止惡不犯？雖未受受至，非所行處，心不生犯，是謂止惡不犯。云何受不犯？從受受已，終不復犯，是謂受不犯。云何斷不犯？聖人以聖道斷諸惡因，是謂斷不犯。復次戒有三種，謂觸戒、不觸戒、猗戒。云何為觸？有為相初見愛為觸。是凡夫善戒，資用入道，是謂無觸戒。云何猗戒？謂阿羅漢戒。復次有三種，謂依世戒、依身戒、依法戒。何者依世戒？若人有恐怖，將護世意除諸惡法，是名依世。何者依身戒？若人有恐懼，將護於身命除諸惡法，是名依身。何者依法戒？若人驚畏，將護於正法除諸不善，是名依法。復次戒有三種，謂所願不等、所願等、無所願。云何所願不等？惱他受戒，此謂所願不等。云何所願等？戒受戒為現有樂及未來解脫樂，是謂所願等。云何無所願？戒受戒不悔，為饒益他，此謂無所願。復次戒有三種，謂清淨戒、不清淨戒、有疑戒。云何清淨戒？以二因緣戒成清淨：一不犯、二犯已能悔，此謂清淨戒。以二因緣成不清淨：一自故犯、二犯不悔，此謂不清淨。云何有疑戒？以三因故成就有疑：一以不分別處、二不分別犯、三不分別不正行，此謂有疑戒。若坐禪人戒不清淨，深生慚悔成清淨樂。又有疑惑，令現知罪得成安樂。復次戒有三種，謂學，無學，非學非無學。云何為學？七學人戒。云何無學？阿羅漢戒。云何非學非無學？凡夫人戒。復次戒有三種，謂畏戒、憂戒、癡戒。云何為畏？有人畏罪不敢為惡，斯謂畏戒。云何為憂？若人念離親友暫生愁苦，以愁苦故不起諸惡，斯謂憂戒。云何癡戒？有人受牛戒狗戒，斯謂癡戒。癡戒若成則為牛狗，若復不成則墮地獄。復次戒有三種，謂下、中、上。云何為下？謂上煩惱、上上煩惱、大煩惱所觸，不知足所染，此謂下戒。云何為中？細煩惱所觸，知足所染，此謂中戒。云何為上？無所觸，知足所染，此謂上戒。下戒成滿令人具足，中戒成滿令天具足，上戒成滿令得解脫。
The canonical text stands in Chinese only. This edition renders the essence, the plain reading, the exposition and the apparatus into English — never the sūtra itself. Switch to 漢讀本 or 並行雙語 above to read it.
第一組：止惡不犯、受不犯、斷不犯
哪三個？就是止惡不犯、受不犯、斷不犯。
什麼是止惡不犯？雖然還沒受戒，受戒之處已至；不是所應行的地方，心不生犯——這叫止惡不犯。
什麼是受不犯？從受戒受了以後，終究不再犯——這叫受不犯。
什麼是斷不犯？聖人以聖道斷除諸惡因——這叫斷不犯。
第二組：觸戒、不觸戒、猗戒
復次，戒有三種，就是觸戒、不觸戒、猗戒。
什麼叫觸？有為相，初見愛為觸。
這是凡夫善戒，資助入道，這叫無觸戒。
什麼是猗戒？就是阿羅漢戒。
這裡照論文原樣記一件事：標的三目是「觸戒、不觸戒、猗戒」，而釋文中作「無觸戒」，與標的「不觸戒」字面不同。這裡不代為正。
第三組：依世戒、依身戒、依法戒
復次有三種，就是依世戒、依身戒、依法戒。
什麼是依世戒？若人有恐怖，將護世間的心意而除諸惡法，這叫依世。
什麼是依身戒？若人有恐懼，將護於身命而除諸惡法，這叫依身。
什麼是依法戒？若人驚畏，將護於正法而除諸不善，這叫依法。
第四組：所願不等、所願等、無所願
復次，戒有三種，就是所願不等、所願等、無所願。
什麼是所願不等？惱害他人而受戒，這叫所願不等。
什麼是所願等？受戒是為了現有的樂以及未來的解脫樂，這叫所願等。
什麼是無所願？受戒不悔，為饒益他人，這叫無所願。
第五組：清淨戒、不清淨戒、有疑戒
復次，戒有三種，就是清淨戒、不清淨戒、有疑戒。
什麼是清淨戒？以二因緣，戒成清淨：一是不犯，二是犯了能悔——這叫清淨戒。
以二因緣成不清淨：一是自己故意犯，二是犯了不悔——這叫不清淨。
什麼是有疑戒？以三個因，成就有疑：一是不分別處，二是不分別犯，三是不分別不正行——這叫有疑戒。
若坐禪人戒不清淨，深深生起慚悔，就成清淨樂。又有疑惑的，令他現前知罪，就得成安樂。
第六組：學、無學、非學非無學
復次，戒有三種，就是學、無學、非學非無學。
什麼是學？七學人的戒。什麼是無學？阿羅漢的戒。什麼是非學非無學？凡夫人的戒。
第七組：畏戒、憂戒、癡戒
復次，戒有三種，就是畏戒、憂戒、癡戒。
什麼是畏？有人畏懼罪，不敢為惡——這叫畏戒。
什麼是憂？若人念及離開親友，暫時生起愁苦；因為愁苦的緣故不起諸惡——這叫憂戒。
什麼是癡戒？有人受牛戒、狗戒——這叫癡戒。癡戒若成就，就成為牛狗；若不成就，則墮地獄。
這一組三個目都不是善的動機，而論文仍以「戒」名之。這裡照原樣錄，不代為判。
第八組：下、中、上
復次，戒有三種，就是下、中、上。
什麼是下？就是上煩惱、上上煩惱、大煩惱所觸，被不知足所染——這叫下戒。
什麼是中？細煩惱所觸，被知足所染——這叫中戒。
什麼是上？無所觸，被知足所染——這叫上戒。
下戒成滿，令人具足；中戒成滿，令天具足；上戒成滿，令得解脫。
本節之數
三種戒逐組實數共八組。而領起這八組的話用了三種措辭：第一組作「何者為三」，中間六組作「復次戒有三種」，第三組作「復次有三種」。這裡照原樣錄，不代為齊。
四種戒不在本節，下一節接著說。
First Group: Non-transgression by Abstaining from Evil, after Undertaking, and by Cutting Off
What are the three? Non-transgression by abstaining from evil, non-transgression after undertaking, and non-transgression by cutting off.
What is non-transgression by abstaining from evil? Although the precepts have not yet been undertaken, the occasion for undertaking them has arrived; when one comes to a place where one ought not act, the mind does not give rise to transgression—this is called non-transgression by abstaining from evil.
What is non-transgression after undertaking? From the time one has undertaken the precepts, one never transgresses again—this is called non-transgression after undertaking.
What is non-transgression by cutting off? A noble person uses the noble path to cut off the causes of evil—this is called non-transgression by cutting off.
Second Group: Contact Virtue, Non-contact Virtue, and Virtue of Ease
Further, virtue is of three kinds: contact virtue, non-contact virtue, and virtue of ease.
What is called contact? A conditioned mark, first seeing craving, is contact.
This is the wholesome virtue of an ordinary person, serving as support for entering the path; this is called contactless virtue.
What is virtue of ease? The virtue of an arahant.
One feature is recorded here just as it stands in the treatise: the three items announced are “contact virtue, non-contact virtue, and virtue of ease,” while the explanation reads “contactless virtue,” which differs in wording from the announced “non-contact virtue.” It is not corrected here on the treatise's behalf.
Third Group: Virtue Dependent on the World, the Body, and the Dhamma
Further, there are three kinds: virtue dependent on the world, virtue dependent on the body, and virtue dependent on the Dhamma.
What is virtue dependent on the world? If a person is afraid and removes evil qualities in order to guard the world's regard, this is called dependence on the world.
What is virtue dependent on the body? If a person is fearful and removes evil qualities in order to protect one's body and life, this is called dependence on the body.
What is virtue dependent on the Dhamma? If a person is alarmed and afraid and removes unwholesome qualities in order to protect the true Dhamma, this is called dependence on the Dhamma.
Fourth Group: Unequal Aspiration, Equal Aspiration, and No Aspiration
Further, virtue is of three kinds: unequal aspiration, equal aspiration, and no aspiration.
What is unequal aspiration? Undertaking virtue in order to trouble another—this is called unequal aspiration.
What is equal aspiration? Undertaking virtue for present happiness and the future happiness of liberation—this is called equal aspiration.
What is no aspiration? Undertaking virtue without regret, for the benefit of others—this is called no aspiration.
Fifth Group: Pure Virtue, Impure Virtue, and Doubtful Virtue
Further, virtue is of three kinds: pure virtue, impure virtue, and doubtful virtue.
What is pure virtue? Through two causes virtue becomes pure: first, not transgressing; second, being able to repent after transgressing—this is called pure virtue.
Through two causes virtue becomes impure: first, intentionally transgressing oneself; second, not repenting after transgressing—this is called impure virtue.
What is doubtful virtue? Through three causes doubt is established: first, not discerning the occasion; second, not discerning the transgression; third, not discerning improper conduct—this is called doubtful virtue.
If a meditator's virtue is impure, deeply giving rise to shame and repentance brings the joy of purity. If there is doubt, bringing the person to know the offence directly brings the happiness of ease.
Sixth Group: Trainee, Beyond Training, and Neither Trainee nor Beyond Training
Further, virtue is of three kinds: that of a trainee, that of one beyond training, and that of one who is neither a trainee nor beyond training.
What belongs to a trainee? The virtue of the seven kinds of trainees. What belongs to one beyond training? The virtue of an arahant. What belongs to one who is neither a trainee nor beyond training? The virtue of an ordinary person.
Seventh Group: Virtue of Fear, Worry, and Delusion
Further, virtue is of three kinds: virtue of fear, virtue of worry, and virtue of delusion.
What is fear? A person fears wrongdoing and does not dare to do evil—this is called virtue of fear.
What is worry? If a person thinks of being separated from relatives and friends and briefly gives rise to sorrow, and because of that sorrow does not give rise to evils—this is called virtue of worry.
What is delusion? A person undertakes the ox observance and the dog observance—this is called virtue of delusion. If the virtue of delusion succeeds, one becomes an ox or a dog; if it does not succeed, one falls into hell.
None of the three items in this group has a wholesome motivation, yet the treatise still calls each one “virtue.” They are recorded here as they stand, without adjudicating them on the treatise's behalf.
Eighth Group: Lower, Middle, and Higher
Further, virtue is of three kinds: lower, middle, and higher.
What is lower? Touched by high, higher, and great afflictions, and tainted by discontent—this is called lower virtue.
What is middle? Touched by subtle afflictions and tainted by contentment—this is called middle virtue.
What is higher? Untouched and tainted by contentment—this is called higher virtue.
Lower virtue brought to completion brings human fulfilment; middle virtue brought to completion brings heavenly fulfilment; higher virtue brought to completion brings the attainment of liberation.
The Numbers in This Unit
Counted group by group, there are eight groups of threefold virtue. The phrases that introduce these eight groups take three forms: the first group says “what are the three,” six groups say “further, virtue is of three kinds,” and the third group says “further, there are three kinds.” They are recorded here as they stand, without making them uniform on the treatise's behalf.
Fourfold virtue does not occur in this unit; the next unit continues with it.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Threefold Classifications of Virtue · Vernacular · Summer 2026
八組三分，一組也不推出另一組
上一節開了十組二分，這一節開八組三分。
止惡不犯／受不犯／斷不犯〔T32 401c17–18〕。觸戒／不觸戒／猗戒〔T32 401c21–22〕。依世／依身／依法〔T32 401c24–25〕。所願不等／所願等／無所願〔T32 402a01〕。清淨／不清淨／有疑〔T32 402a05–06〕。學／無學／非學非無學〔T32 402a12–13〕。畏／憂／癡〔T32 402a15–16〕。下／中／上〔T32 402a20〕。
八組。
而這八組跟上一節的十組一樣，彼此不推出、也拼不成一張更大的表。第一組按受戒的時序分（未受之前、受了之後、聖道斷後），第三組按所將護的對象分，第四組按動機分，第六組按人位分，第八組按煩惱的粗細分。
共用的只有「三」這個數目。
所以「三種戒」在這裡也不是一個分類，是一個粒度。 論主拿同一塊料，換八把刀各切一次；而每一刀的著力點都不同。上一節十刀，這一節八刀，下一節四刀——刀數在減，而每一節的體例是同一個。
領起的話也是三種寫法
上一節十組，領起之語有三式：「云何二種」一次、「復次戒有二種」八次、「復次有二種戒」一次。
這一節八組，也是三式：「何者為三」一次、「復次戒有三種」六次、「復次有三種」一次〔T32 401c24–25〕。
第一組用一種、絕大多數用另一種、中間夾一個例外——兩節的參差形狀幾乎一樣。
這就把上一節那個觀察坐實了：本論的句式從來不是逐字齊整的模板。連續兩節、十八個組，領起之語各有一個落單的例外——這不是偶然的手滑，是這部書寫作時本來的樣子。
讀時要做的是數，不是校齊。 數出組數與式數，就知道自己讀完了；若因為一處不齊而懷疑脫文，反而會把好好的文本讀壞。
幾處小小的不齊，順手記下
八組之中，還有幾處值得記一筆。
第二組標作「不觸戒」，而釋文卻作「無觸戒」——標與釋差一個字。這種事上一節已經見過（標三個目而收四個），照錄不代正。
第五組更明顯：清淨戒以二因緣、不清淨戒以二因緣，而有疑戒卻以三因〔T32 402a06·402a09〕。同一組三個目，所立的因數是二、二、三。 論文不說為什麼第三個要多一個，也不把三個補齊成一致。
第六組的「學、無學」，字面與〈因緣品〉那句「學可學、學增上學、學無學名學」〔T32 400b04〕一樣，但那裡分的是學的三種動作，這裡分的是持戒者的三種人位——同字而所分之面全不相同。第二組的「猗戒」也是：「猗」字在〈因緣品〉的五解脫裡是「猗解脫」〔T32 400a01〕，指得果時的心猗；這裡「猗戒」指的是阿羅漢戒。
論文從不把這些同字之處連起來說。所以讀的時候要按各處的上下文各記一份，不要拿前面的定義去套後面的同名詞。
三組值得逐一看的
八組之中，有三組的分法特別能看出論主的著眼點。
第一組是按時間分的。 止惡不犯是「雖未受受至」〔T32 401c18〕——還沒受戒，但受戒之處已經到了；不是所應行的地方，心就不生犯。受不犯是「從受受已」〔T32 401c20〕，受了以後終究不再犯。斷不犯是「聖人以聖道斷諸惡因」〔T32 401c21〕。
三個目落在三個時間點上：受戒之前、受戒之後、聖道斷惑之後。
這一組放在八組之首，等於先給讀者一條時間軸。而它有一個很值得注意的含意：第一目說的是還沒受戒的人。 心不生犯，就已經算一種戒了。戒不是從受戒那一刻才開始存在的——受戒是把它固定下來，不是把它創造出來。
第三組是按所將護的對象分的。 依世戒是「將護世意」，依身戒是「將護於身命」，依法戒是「將護於正法」。
三個目的動詞完全一樣——都是「將護」。差別只在護的是什麼：世間的看法、自己的身命、正法。
而三個目的起因也排成一列：有恐怖、有恐懼、驚畏。三個詞意思相近，論主沒有把它們統一。同一個心理狀態，因為所護的對象不同，就成了三種戒。 這一組要說的不是三件事，是同一件事的三個落點。
第五組是按確定性分的。 清淨戒以二因緣成：一不犯、二犯已能悔〔T32 402a06〕。不清淨也以二因緣：一自故犯、二犯不悔。有疑戒則以三因：不分別處、不分別犯、不分別不正行〔T32 402a09〕。
這裡有一件事很要緊：清淨戒不等於沒犯過。 論主把「犯已能悔」與「不犯」並列，同樣算清淨；把「犯不悔」與「自故犯」並列，同樣算不清淨。分界不在犯與不犯，在悔與不悔。
而第三目「有疑」是另一回事：那三個「不分別」說的是，這人根本不知道自己犯了沒有——不知道哪裡是犯處、不知道那算不算犯、不知道那算不算不正行。所以他既不能說自己清淨，也不能說自己不清淨。
論主接著給了出路：「若坐禪人戒不清淨，深生慚悔成清淨樂」，有疑惑的則「令現知罪得成安樂」。不清淨的靠悔，有疑的靠先弄清楚。
兩種病，兩帖藥；而兩帖藥都不是「重新受一次戒」。 這一組因此不只是分類，它在回答一個實際的問題：戒出了問題怎麼辦。
順帶記一筆：第六組把凡夫也算進來了——學是七學人戒、無學是阿羅漢戒、非學非無學是凡夫人戒〔T32 402a13–14〕。凡夫的戒也是戒，只是它既不在學位、也不在無學位。這與第一組「還沒受戒也可以有止惡不犯」是同一個口徑：本論在數戒的時候，從不把門檻設在聖位上。
為什麼壞的動機也叫「戒」
現在停下來問一句。
第七組是畏戒、憂戒、癡戒〔T32 402a15–16〕。
畏戒是「有人畏罪不敢為惡」；憂戒是想到要離開親友，暫時生起愁苦，因為愁苦所以不起諸惡；癡戒是「有人受牛戒狗戒」〔T32 402a18–19〕。
三個目，動機沒有一個是善的。怕、愁、癡。
一部書在講「戒有幾種」，為什麼要把這三樣也列進來，還都叫「戒」？
論文自己給了線索，就在這一組的措辭裡。
看它怎麼描述前兩目：畏罪的人「不敢為惡」，愁苦的人「不起諸惡」。惡確實止住了。 論主用的是「戒」這個字最素樸的意思——止惡。既然止了惡，就算戒；動機好不好，是另一件事。
那第三目呢？受牛戒、狗戒，是模仿牛狗的作息飲食以求生天的外道行。論主對它下了一句極重的判語：「癡戒若成則為牛狗，若復不成則墮地獄」〔T32 402a19–20〕。
修成了，變成牛狗；沒修成，墮地獄。兩頭都是壞的。
把三目連起來看，這一組的意思就出來了：止惡本身不決定戒的去向，動機才決定。 畏與憂雖然不是善根，至少所止的是真惡，所以還算戒；癡卻連所止的都認錯了，於是修與不修都無出路。
而這一組並不孤立。往前數兩組，第四組正是「所願不等、所願等、無所願」〔T32 402a01〕——惱他而受戒的、為現樂與未來解脫而受戒的、為饒益他而受戒的。那一組也是純按動機分的。
兩組隔著一組遙相呼應：一組說動機的正邪，一組說動機錯到底會怎樣。 論主沒有把它們連起來說，但把八組排開看，這條線是清楚的。
所以這裡有一件可以帶走的事：遇到本論把一個不像好事的東西也收進某個名目底下，先不要以為是分類鬆散，去看它給那一目的釋文與判語。 收進來，往往是為了在同一張表上把界線劃出來——不收進來，就沒地方說「這一種修了也沒用」。
最後一組，唯一配了果位的
第八組是下、中、上〔T32 402a20〕。
分法是兩件事合看：所觸的煩惱有多粗（上煩惱、上上煩惱、大煩惱／細煩惱／無所觸），以及有沒有被知足所染。
而它的收句與前七組都不同：「下戒成滿令人具足，中戒成滿令天具足，上戒成滿令得解脫」〔T32 402a24–25〕。
八組之中，只有這一組把三個目各配了一個去處——人、天、解脫。其餘七組說完就止，不說果。
這是論主給這一節的收尾方式：前七組都在切分，最後一組把切分接上了去處。而三個去處恰好也是一條上行的線，與〈因緣品〉末尾那句「以戒除惡趣，以定除欲界，以慧除一切有」〔T32 400b25–26〕的方向一致——雖然論文一樣沒有把兩處連起來說。
這一節留下的
「四種」在上一節就已標出，本節只做完三種。下一節第一句是「復次戒有四種，謂退分、住分、勝分、達分」〔T32 402a25–26〕。
又是標在前、釋在後。這已經是〈分別戒品〉連續第三次用這個切法了。
把八組放在一起看
最後把八組排開，可以看見一件〈分別戒品〉一直在做而從不明說的事。
這八組，沒有一組在講「怎麼持戒」。它們全部在講「怎麼分辨手上這個戒是哪一種」。
按時序分，是要你知道自己站在受戒前、受戒後，還是斷惑後。按將護的對象分，是要你知道自己在護什麼。按動機分，是要你知道自己為什麼受。按悔與不悔分，是要你知道犯了以後還有沒有路。按人位分，是要你知道自己在不在學位。按煩惱粗細分，是要你知道自己走到哪裡。
八把刀，切的都是同一個問題：你現在持的，是哪一種戒。
而這正是〈分別戒品〉這個品名的意思——「分別」不是分類學的興趣，是要讀者能對自己手上的東西下判斷。上一節十組二分、這一節八組三分、下一節四組四分，加起來二十二把刀，全是為了這一件事。
所以讀這幾節時，最不該做的就是把二十二組背下來。該做的是拿其中任何一組去問自己一次。 論主把刀遞給你，不是要你收藏刀。
Eight Threefold Groups, None Derived from Another
The previous unit opened ten twofold groups. This one opens eight threefold groups.
Non-transgression by abstaining from evil / after undertaking / by cutting off 〔T32 401c17–18〕. Contact virtue / non-contact virtue / virtue of ease 〔T32 401c21–22〕. Dependent on the world / the body / the Dhamma 〔T32 401c24–25〕. Unequal aspiration / equal aspiration / no aspiration 〔T32 402a01〕. Pure / impure / doubtful 〔T32 402a05–06〕. Trainee / beyond training / neither trainee nor beyond training 〔T32 402a12–13〕. Fear / worry / delusion 〔T32 402a15–16〕. Lower / middle / higher 〔T32 402a20〕.
Eight groups.
Like the ten groups of the previous unit, these eight are not derived from one another and cannot be assembled into a larger table. The first group is divided by the chronology of undertaking virtue—before undertaking it, after undertaking it, and after cutting off through the noble path. The third is divided by what one protects, the fourth by motivation, the sixth by the person's standing, and the eighth by the coarseness or subtlety of the afflictions.
The only thing shared is the number “three.”
So “threefold virtue” is not a classification here either; it is a granularity. The author takes the same material and cuts it once with each of eight blades, each blade pressing at a different point. The previous unit has ten blades, this one eight, the next one four—the number of blades decreases while the form of the units remains the same.
The Introductory Phrases Also Take Three Forms
In the ten groups of the previous unit, the introductory phrase takes three forms: “what are the two kinds” once, “further, virtue is of two kinds” eight times, and “further, there are two kinds of virtue” once.
The eight groups here likewise have three forms: “what are the three” once, “further, virtue is of three kinds” six times, and “further, there are three kinds” once. 〔T32 401c24–25〕
The first group uses one form, the great majority another, and one exception is inserted in the middle—the uneven shape of the two units is almost identical.
This confirms the observation made in the preceding unit: the sentence forms of this treatise are never templates made uniform word for word. Across two consecutive units and eighteen groups, each set of introductory phrases has one isolated exception. This is not an accidental slip; it is how the book was written.
The task in reading is to count, not to regularise. Count the groups and the forms and one knows that the passage is complete. If one suspects lost text merely because one place is irregular, one instead damages a text that is sound as it stands.
A Few Small Mismatches Worth Recording
Several places among the eight groups deserve a brief record.
The second group announces “non-contact virtue,” while the explanation reads “contactless virtue”—one word differs between announcement and explanation. The previous unit has already shown this kind of thing, with three items announced and four concluded. It is recorded without correcting the treatise on its behalf.
The fifth group is more conspicuous: pure virtue has two causes, impure virtue has two causes, but doubtful virtue has three. 〔T32 402a06·402a09〕 Within a single group of three items, the numbers of causes established are two, two, and three. The treatise does not say why the third requires an additional cause, and it does not supplement the three to make them uniform.
The wording “trainee, beyond training” in the sixth group is the same as the sentence in the Chapter on Causes and Conditions, “learning what can be learned, learning the higher training, and learning beyond training are called learning” 〔T32 400b04〕, but there the division concerns three activities of learning, while here it concerns three standings of those who possess virtue—the same words divide entirely different dimensions. So too with the second group's “virtue of ease”: in the five freedoms of the Chapter on Causes and Conditions, the same word appears in “freedom by ease” 〔T32 400a01〕, referring to the ease of mind when the fruit is attained; here “virtue of ease” means the virtue of an arahant.
The treatise never links these places merely because the words are the same. Each must therefore be recorded according to its own context: do not apply an earlier definition to a later term that happens to bear the same name.
Three Groups Worth Examining One by One
Among the eight, three groups show the author's point of attention with particular clarity.
The first group is divided by time. Non-transgression by abstaining from evil begins “although the precepts have not yet been undertaken, the occasion for undertaking them has arrived” 〔T32 401c18〕—the precepts have not yet been undertaken, but when one comes to a place where one ought not act, the mind does not give rise to transgression. Non-transgression after undertaking begins “from the time one has undertaken the precepts” 〔T32 401c20〕, after which one never transgresses again. Non-transgression by cutting off is “a noble person uses the noble path to cut off the causes of evil.” 〔T32 401c21〕
The three items fall at three points in time: before undertaking the precepts, after undertaking them, and after the noble path has cut off affliction.
Placed first among the eight, this group gives the reader a timeline. It also has an implication worth attending to: the first item concerns someone who has not yet undertaken the precepts. If the mind does not give rise to transgression, that already counts as a kind of virtue. Virtue does not begin to exist only at the moment the precepts are undertaken—undertaking fixes it in place; it does not create it.
The third group is divided by what is protected. Virtue dependent on the world is “guarding the world's regard,” virtue dependent on the body is “protecting one's body and life,” and virtue dependent on the Dhamma is “protecting the true Dhamma.”
The verb is identical in all three items—each is “protecting.” Only the object protected differs: the world's view, one's own body and life, or the true Dhamma.
The causes of the three items also form a row: being afraid, being fearful, being alarmed and afraid. The three expressions have similar meanings, but the author does not make them uniform. The same mental state becomes three kinds of virtue because the object protected is different. The group does not describe three acts, but three places where the same act lands.
The fifth group is divided by certainty. Pure virtue is established through two causes: first, not transgressing; second, being able to repent after transgressing. 〔T32 402a06〕 Impure virtue likewise has two causes: intentionally transgressing oneself and not repenting after transgressing. Doubtful virtue has three: not discerning the occasion, not discerning the transgression, and not discerning improper conduct. 〔T32 402a09〕
One point here is crucial: pure virtue does not mean never having transgressed. The author places “being able to repent after transgressing” beside “not transgressing” and counts both as pure. He places “not repenting after transgressing” beside “intentionally transgressing oneself” and counts both as impure. The boundary is not between transgression and non-transgression, but between repentance and non-repentance.
The third item, “doubtful,” is different again. Its three failures to discern mean that the person simply does not know whether a transgression has occurred—does not know where the occasion of transgression lies, whether the act counts as a transgression, or whether it counts as improper conduct. Such a person can say neither that their virtue is pure nor that it is impure.
The author then provides a way out: “if a meditator's virtue is impure, deeply giving rise to shame and repentance brings the joy of purity,” while one who doubts is to be “brought to know the offence directly and so attain the happiness of ease.” Impurity depends on repentance; doubt depends first on becoming clear.
Two illnesses, two medicines—and neither medicine is ‘undertake the precepts all over again.’ This group is therefore more than a classification. It answers a practical question: what is to be done when virtue has gone wrong?
One further point: the sixth group includes ordinary people. A trainee has the virtue of the seven kinds of trainees, one beyond training has the virtue of an arahant, and one who is neither a trainee nor beyond training has the virtue of an ordinary person. 〔T32 402a13–14〕 The virtue of an ordinary person is still virtue; it is simply neither at the stage of training nor beyond training. This follows the same scope as the first group's statement that someone who has not yet undertaken the precepts can possess non-transgression by abstaining from evil: when this treatise counts virtue, it never sets noble attainment as the threshold.
Why Is a Bad Motivation Also Called “Virtue”?
Now stop and ask a question.
The seventh group is virtue of fear, virtue of worry, and virtue of delusion. 〔T32 402a15–16〕
Virtue of fear is “a person fears wrongdoing and does not dare to do evil.” Virtue of worry means thinking of separation from relatives and friends, briefly giving rise to sorrow, and therefore not giving rise to evils. Virtue of delusion is “a person undertakes the ox observance and dog observance.” 〔T32 402a18–19〕
Not one of the three motivations is wholesome: fear, sorrow, delusion.
Why would a book explaining “how many classifications of virtue are there” include all three and call each one “virtue”?
The treatise itself gives a clue in the wording of this group.
Look at how it describes the first two. The person who fears wrongdoing “does not dare to do evil”; the sorrowful person “does not give rise to evils.” The evil truly has stopped. The author is using the most elementary meaning of “virtue”—stopping evil. If evil has stopped, it counts as virtue; whether the motivation is good is a different question.
What of the third? Undertaking the ox observance and dog observance is a non-Buddhist practice that imitates the routines and diet of oxen and dogs in the hope of rebirth in heaven. The author passes an extremely severe judgment on it: “If the virtue of delusion succeeds, one becomes an ox or a dog; if it does not succeed, one falls into hell.” 〔T32 402a19–20〕
If it succeeds, one becomes an ox or dog; if it fails, one falls into hell. Both ends are bad.
Read the three items together and the point of the group emerges: stopping evil does not by itself determine where virtue leads; motivation determines that. Fear and worry are not wholesome roots, but at least what they stop is truly evil, so they still count as virtue. Delusion mistakes even what is to be stopped, and so whether the practice succeeds or fails, there is no way out.
Nor does this group stand alone. Count back two groups and the fourth is precisely “unequal aspiration, equal aspiration, and no aspiration” 〔T32 402a01〕—undertaking virtue to trouble others, undertaking it for present happiness and the future happiness of liberation, and undertaking it for the benefit of others. That group too is divided solely by motivation.
Separated by one group, the two answer one another at a distance: one speaks of whether motivation is right or wrong, the other of what happens when motivation is wrong all the way down. The author does not connect them in words, but the line is clear when the eight groups are laid out.
So one point can be carried away from here: when the treatise includes within a category something that does not look good, do not first assume that its classification is loose. Look at the explanation and judgment attached to that item. Inclusion often serves precisely to draw a boundary on a common table—without including it, there would be nowhere to say, “this kind of practice is useless even when completed.”
The Final Group, the Only One Matched with Destinations
The eighth group is lower, middle, and higher. 〔T32 402a20〕
Its division considers two things together: how coarse are the afflictions that touch it—high, higher, and great afflictions / subtle afflictions / no contact—and whether it is tainted by contentment or discontent.
Its concluding formula differs from those of the preceding seven groups: “Lower virtue brought to completion brings human fulfilment; middle virtue brought to completion brings heavenly fulfilment; higher virtue brought to completion brings the attainment of liberation.” 〔T32 402a24–25〕
Among the eight groups, only this one matches each of its three items with a destination—human, heavenly, liberation. The other seven stop after making their divisions and do not state a result.
This is how the author brings the unit to a close: the first seven groups only divide; the last joins division to destination. The three destinations also form an ascending line, pointing in the same direction as the final sentence of the Chapter on Causes and Conditions: “by virtue one removes the bad destinations, by concentration one removes the sensual realm, and by wisdom one removes all existence.” 〔T32 400b25–26〕 The treatise, as before, does not itself connect the two places.
What This Unit Leaves Behind
“Fourfold” was announced in the preceding unit, while the present unit completes only the threefold classifications. The next unit begins, “Further, virtue is of four kinds: tending to decline, tending to remain, tending to distinction, and tending to penetration.” 〔T32 402a25–26〕
Again, the announcement comes first and the explanation later. This is the third consecutive time the Chapter on the Analysis of Virtue has used this cut.
Looking at the Eight Groups Together
Lay out the eight groups at the end and one can see something the Chapter on the Analysis of Virtue keeps doing without ever stating explicitly.
Not one of the eight groups explains “how to keep virtue.” All explain “how to discern which kind of virtue the one in hand is.”
Division by time tells one whether one stands before undertaking the precepts, after undertaking them, or after cutting off affliction. Division by what is protected tells one what one is protecting. Division by motivation tells one why one undertakes. Division by repentance and non-repentance tells one whether a path remains after transgression. Division by standing tells one whether one is at the stage of training. Division by the coarseness of affliction tells one how far one has gone.
Eight blades cut the same question: what kind is the virtue you are keeping now?
That is precisely what the title Chapter on the Analysis of Virtue means. “Analysis” is not an interest in classification for its own sake, but a means for the reader to judge what is in their hands. The preceding unit has ten twofold groups, this one eight threefold groups, and the next four fourfold groups—twenty-two blades in all, each serving this one purpose.
So the last thing one should do when reading these units is memorise the twenty-two groups. One should take any one of them and ask oneself its question once. The author hands the reader a blade, not an object to collect.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Threefold Classifications of Virtue · Exposition · Summer 2026
考據Apparatus
全段定位 本段出自《解脫道論》卷第一〈分別戒品〉，承前單元所標而未釋之「三種」：起於「何者為三？謂止惡不犯、受不犯、斷不犯」〔T32 401c17–18〕，訖於「下戒成滿令人具足，中戒成滿令天具足，上戒成滿令得解脫」〔T32 402a24–25〕。底本一段〔T32 401c17–402a25〕。
一、科判定位
底本一段不分，三分八組逐組疊起：
| 組 | 三目 | 領起之語與錨 |
|---|---|---|
| 一 | 止惡不犯·受不犯·斷不犯 | 「何者為三」〔T32 401c17〕 |
| 二 | 觸戒·不觸戒·猗戒 | 「復次戒有三種」〔T32 401c21–22〕 |
| 三 | 依世戒·依身戒·依法戒 | 「復次有三種」〔T32 401c24–25〕 |
| 四 | 所願不等·所願等·無所願 | 「復次戒有三種」〔T32 401c29–402a01〕 |
| 五 | 清淨戒·不清淨戒·有疑戒 | 「復次戒有三種，謂清淨戒」〔T32 402a05〕 |
| 六 | 學·無學·非學非無學 | 「復次戒有三種」〔T32 402a12–13〕 |
| 七 | 畏戒·憂戒·癡戒 | 「復次戒有三種，謂畏戒」〔T32 402a15〕 |
| 八 | 下·中·上 | 「復次戒有三種」〔T32 402a20〕 |
單元界與問答界之相合：起於前單元所標「三種」之釋，訖於第八組之收；其下即「復次戒有四種，謂退分、住分、勝分、達分」〔T32 402a25–26〕，為次單元之始。前單元標「二種、三種、四種」而本段唯釋其三種——標與釋跨節，與前二單元同其式。段內無自答文中間切斷者。
領起三式：「何者為三」一見·「復次戒有三種」之語六見·「復次有三種」一見〔T32 401c24–25〕。誌其實，不代齊。
全段定位錨
〔T32, 401c17–402a25〕
二、詞義與譯語（逐字各繫其錨）
| 名相 | 本段用法 | 章內接點（可核） |
|---|---|---|
| 止惡不犯·受不犯·斷不犯 | 「云何止惡不犯？雖未受受至」〔T32 401c18〕·「云何受不犯？從受受已」〔T32 401c19–20〕·「云何斷不犯？聖人以聖道斷諸惡因」〔T32 401c20–21〕 | 三目以受戒之前·後·聖道為序，逐一有釋 |
| 觸戒之標釋不一 | 標作「觸戒、不觸戒、猗戒」〔T32 401c22〕；釋中作「是謂無觸戒」 | 標作「不觸」而釋作「無觸」——照錄不代正。「猗」字有校記（見目三，覆出＊條） |
| 猗戒 | 「云何猗戒？謂阿羅漢戒」〔T32 401c24〕 | 一句而止，不更釋。「猗」與前品〈因緣品〉五解脫之「猗解脫」〔T32 400a01〕同字而所指異——論文不自繫 |
| 依世·依身·依法 | 〔T32 401c24–25〕以下 | 三目皆以「將護」為樞（將護世意·將護身命·將護正法），所除者亦三分（諸惡法·諸惡法·諸不善） |
| 所願三目 | 〔T32 401c29–402a01〕以下 | 三目皆以受戒之動機為別：惱他·為現樂與未來解脫樂·為饒益他 |
| 清淨·不清淨·有疑 | 〔T32 402a05–06〕以下 | 清淨與不清淨各以二因緣〔T32 402a06〕，有疑以三因〔T32 402a09〕——同組三目而所立之因數不齊（二·二·三）。照錄不代齊 |
| 學·無學·非學非無學 | 「云何為學？七學人戒」〔T32 402a13–14〕以下 | 三目各一句；與前品〈因緣品〉之「學可學、學增上學、學無學名學」〔T32 400b04〕同用「學」「無學」而所分之面全異——論文不自繫 |
| 畏·憂·癡 | 「有人受牛戒狗戒，斯謂癡戒」〔T32 402a18–19〕·「癡戒若成則為牛狗，若復不成則墮地獄」〔T32 402a19–20〕 | 三目之動機皆非善（畏罪·愁苦·癡）而論文仍以「戒」名之；癡戒一目更明言其兩端俱壞。照錄不代判 |
| 下·中·上 | 〔T32 402a20〕以下 | 三目皆以所觸之煩惱與所染之知足二事為別；收作「下戒成滿令人具足，中戒成滿令天具足，上戒成滿令得解脫」〔T32 402a24–25〕——唯此組之收句配以果位 |
三、校記與異讀
本段範圍內大正藏校記二處，均誌而不改；本文之讀依碑面：
| 錨 | 底本 | 異讀 | 見證 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 401c22 | 猗（觸戒、不觸戒、猗戒） | 犯 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】（覆出＊） |
| 402a12 | 惑（又有疑惑） | 戒 | 【宮】 |
誌錄不判二事：
- 401c22「猗」四本作「犯」——此字一易則本組之第三目全異（「猗戒」為阿羅漢戒，「犯戒」則反是）；而下文釋文作「云何猗戒？謂阿羅漢戒」〔T32 401c24〕，與碑面之「猗」相貫。並錄不判，本文從碑面。此條為覆出＊條，其本條同繫此讀。
- 402a12「惑」宮本作「戒」——「又有疑惑」與「又有疑戒」二讀；上文正立「有疑戒」之目，二讀皆可通。並錄不判，本文從碑面。
校本零命中三項：本段缺字（造字）零命中；行內夾註零命中；訂正之讀零命中——本段無【CB】／【麗-CB】訂正之條。
四、論主引據
本段引據零命中：全段無「如佛說」「如世尊說」「如阿毘曇說」等引式。八組三分皆論主自出，不繫他文。查而無獲，如實記之。
五、譬喻·修辭
- 本段無譬：全段一喻不立。牛戒狗戒〔T32 402a18–19〕為所受之戒名，非取譬——誌此以免誤計。
- 八組之疊起〔T32 401c17–402a25〕：每組各立三目，組間不相推出、不相攝；與前單元二分十組同其體例。
- 領起三式：「何者為三」一·「復次戒有三種」六·「復次有三種」一——與前單元之三式（云何二種一·復次戒有二種八·復次有二種戒一）同其參差。
- 所立之因數不齊〔T32 402a06·402a09〕：第五組之三目，二目各以二因緣、一目以三因。
- 收句唯一組配果位〔T32 402a24–25〕：八組之中唯第八組（下中上）以人·天·解脫為收，餘七組不配果。
六、章內互讀
- 前指：本段所釋之「三種」，即前單元「戒有幾種者？謂有二種、三種、四種」〔T32 401b12–13〕所標而未釋者——二單元之切點在標與釋之間。
- 前指：第二組之「猗戒」〔T32 401c24〕與前品五解脫之「猗解脫」〔T32 400a01〕同字；第六組之「學·無學」與前品「學可學、學增上學、學無學名學」〔T32 400b04〕同字。二處皆同字而所分之面全異，論文不自繫——誌其實，不代判。
- 前指：第八組「上煩惱、上上煩惱、大煩惱」與品首總問之「幾法障礙戒道」〔T32 400c03〕所列三十四法不相繫；論文不自繫。
- 後指：「四種」〔T32 401b13〕之釋在次單元以下，自「復次戒有四種，謂退分、住分、勝分、達分」〔T32 402a25–26〕起。
- 後指：第四組之「所願」三目與品八以下諸門之發心諸說不相繫；本段唯立其名。
七、傳本
作者、譯者與傳本諸問題，本編不於考據內立說。
Location of the whole passage This passage comes from fascicle one, the Chapter on the Analysis of Virtue, of the Path of Freedom, continuing the preceding unit's announced but unexplained “threefold”: it begins with “What are the three? Non-transgression by abstaining from evil, non-transgression after undertaking, and non-transgression by cutting off.” 〔T32 401c17–18〕 It ends with “Lower virtue brought to completion brings human fulfilment; middle virtue brought to completion brings heavenly fulfilment; higher virtue brought to completion brings the attainment of liberation.” 〔T32 402a24–25〕 The base text is one paragraph 〔T32 401c17–402a25〕.
1. Structural Location
The base text is one undivided paragraph, in which eight groups of threefold divisions are stacked one after another:
| Group | Three items | Introductory phrase and anchor |
|---|---|---|
| One | Non-transgression by abstaining from evil · after undertaking · by cutting off | “What are the three?” 〔T32 401c17〕 |
| Two | Contact virtue · non-contact virtue · virtue of ease | “Further, virtue is of three kinds.” 〔T32 401c21–22〕 |
| Three | Dependent on the world · the body · the Dhamma | “Further, there are three kinds.” 〔T32 401c24–25〕 |
| Four | Unequal aspiration · equal aspiration · no aspiration | “Further, virtue is of three kinds.” 〔T32 401c29–402a01〕 |
| Five | Pure virtue · impure virtue · doubtful virtue | “Further, virtue is of three kinds: pure virtue…” 〔T32 402a05〕 |
| Six | Trainee · beyond training · neither trainee nor beyond training | “Further, virtue is of three kinds.” 〔T32 402a12–13〕 |
| Seven | Fear · worry · delusion | “Further, virtue is of three kinds: virtue of fear…” 〔T32 402a15〕 |
| Eight | Lower · middle · higher | “Further, virtue is of three kinds.” 〔T32 402a20〕 |
The unit boundary coincides with the question-and-answer boundary: it begins with the explanation of the “threefold” announced in the preceding unit and ends with the conclusion of the eighth group. Immediately below comes “Further, virtue is of four kinds: tending to decline, tending to remain, tending to distinction, and tending to penetration.” 〔T32 402a25–26〕, the beginning of the next unit. The preceding unit announces “twofold, threefold, and fourfold,” but this passage explains only the threefold—announcement and explanation cross unit boundaries in the same pattern as the two preceding units. No answer is cut in the middle.
Three forms of introduction: “what are the three” occurs once; the phrase “further, virtue is of three kinds” occurs six times; “further, there are three kinds” occurs once 〔T32 401c24–25〕. The facts are recorded without making the forms uniform on the treatise's behalf.
Anchor for the whole passage
〔T32, 401c17–402a25〕
2. Terms and Translation (Every Citation Anchored)
| Term | Use in this passage | Checkable connection within the chapter |
|---|---|---|
| Non-transgression by abstaining from evil · after undertaking · by cutting off | “What is non-transgression by abstaining from evil? Although the precepts have not yet been undertaken, the occasion for undertaking them has arrived.” 〔T32 401c18〕 · “What is non-transgression after undertaking? From the time one has undertaken the precepts…” 〔T32 401c19–20〕 · “What is non-transgression by cutting off? A noble person uses the noble path to cut off the causes of evil.” 〔T32 401c20–21〕 | The three items proceed through before undertaking the precepts · after undertaking them · the noble path, and each is explained |
| Contact virtue: announcement and explanation differ | The announcement reads “contact virtue, non-contact virtue, and virtue of ease.” 〔T32 401c22〕 The explanation concludes, “This is called contactless virtue.” | The announcement says “non-contact,” while the explanation says “contactless”—recorded without correcting it on the treatise's behalf. The term rendered “ease” carries a textual note (see section 3, repeated entry) |
| Virtue of ease | “What is virtue of ease? The virtue of an arahant.” 〔T32 401c24〕 | One sentence only, without further explanation. The word rendered “ease” also occurs in “freedom by ease” among the five freedoms of the preceding Chapter on Causes and Conditions 〔T32 400a01〕, but the referent differs; the treatise does not itself connect them |
| Dependent on the world · the body · the Dhamma | 〔T32 401c24–25〕 and below | All three turn on “protecting”—guarding the world's regard, protecting one's body and life, protecting the true Dhamma. What is removed is likewise stated in three forms: evil qualities · evil qualities · unwholesome qualities |
| Three kinds of aspiration | 〔T32 401c29–402a01〕 and below | All three differ by the motivation for undertaking virtue: troubling another · present happiness and the future happiness of liberation · benefiting others |
| Pure · impure · doubtful | 〔T32 402a05–06〕 and below | Pure and impure virtue are established through two causes each 〔T32 402a06〕, while doubtful virtue is established through three causes 〔T32 402a09〕—within one group of three items, the numbers of causes are uneven (two · two · three). Recorded without making them uniform |
| Trainee · beyond training · neither trainee nor beyond training | “What belongs to a trainee? The virtue of the seven kinds of trainees.” 〔T32 402a13–14〕 and below | One sentence for each item. The same words “trainee” and “beyond training” occur in the preceding chapter's “learning what can be learned, learning the higher training, and learning beyond training are called learning” 〔T32 400b04〕, but the dimensions divided are entirely different; the treatise does not connect them |
| Fear · worry · delusion | “A person undertakes the ox observance and the dog observance; this is called virtue of delusion.” 〔T32 402a18–19〕 · “If the virtue of delusion succeeds, one becomes an ox or a dog; if it does not succeed, one falls into hell.” 〔T32 402a19–20〕 | The motivation of all three is unwholesome—fear of wrongdoing · sorrow · delusion—yet the treatise still calls each “virtue.” The item of delusion states explicitly that both ends are bad. Recorded without adjudicating it on the treatise's behalf |
| Lower · middle · higher | 〔T32 402a20〕 and below | All three are distinguished by both the afflictions that touch them and the contentment that taints them. The conclusion reads “Lower virtue brought to completion brings human fulfilment; middle virtue brought to completion brings heavenly fulfilment; higher virtue brought to completion brings the attainment of liberation.” 〔T32 402a24–25〕—the only group whose conclusion matches its items with destinations |
3. Textual Notes and Divergent Readings
Two textual notes fall within the range of this passage. Both are recorded without emendation; the reading of the text follows the carved text:
| Anchor | Base text | Divergent reading | Witnesses |
|---|---|---|---|
| 401c22 | “ease,” in “contact virtue, non-contact virtue, virtue of ease” | “transgression” | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 (repeated entry) |
| 402a12 | “doubt,” in “again there is doubt” | “virtue” | 【宮】 |
Two matters recorded without adjudication:
- At 401c22 four witnesses read “transgression” for “ease”—changing this one character would make the third item of the group entirely different: “virtue of ease” is the virtue of an arahant, while “virtue of transgression” would be its opposite. The explanation below reads “What is virtue of ease? The virtue of an arahant.” 〔T32 401c24〕, cohering with the carved reading “ease.” Both readings are recorded without adjudication, and this edition follows the carved text. This is a repeated entry, and the primary entry concerns the same reading.
- At 402a12 the Gong witness reads “virtue” for “doubt”—yielding “again there is doubt” and “again there is doubtful virtue.” The preceding text has just established “doubtful virtue” as an item, and both readings are intelligible. Both are recorded without adjudication, and this edition follows the carved text.
Three categories with no occurrence in the corrected edition: no constructed character occurs in this passage; no inline annotation occurs; no corrected reading occurs—there is no entry corrected by 【CB】 or 【麗-CB】.
4. Citations by the Author
No citation occurs in this passage: the whole passage contains no formula such as “as the Buddha said,” “as the Blessed One said,” or “as the Abhidhamma says.” All eight threefold groups are stated by the author, without attachment to another text. A search finds nothing, and that is recorded as found.
5. Simile and Rhetoric
- No simile in this passage: not one simile is established. The ox observance and dog observance 〔T32 402a18–19〕 are names of observances undertaken, not similes—recorded here to prevent miscounting.
- Eight groups stacked in succession 〔T32 401c17–402a25〕: each group establishes three items; the groups are neither derived from nor contained within one another. Their form is the same as the ten twofold groups in the preceding unit.
- Three forms of introduction: “what are the three” once · “further, virtue is of three kinds” six times · “further, there are three kinds” once—the same unevenness as the preceding unit's three forms (“what are the two kinds” once · “further, virtue is of two kinds” eight times · “further, there are two kinds of virtue” once).
- Uneven numbers of causes established 〔T32 402a06·402a09〕: in the fifth group's three items, two have two causes each and one has three.
- Only one concluding formula matches items with destinations 〔T32 402a24–25〕: among the eight groups, only the eighth—lower, middle, and higher—concludes with human · heavenly · liberation. The other seven do not match their items with results.
6. Cross-reading within the Chapter
- Backward: the “threefold” explained here is the one announced but not explained in the preceding unit's “How many classifications of virtue are there? There are twofold, threefold, and fourfold.” 〔T32 401b12–13〕—the cut between the units falls between announcement and explanation.
- Backward: the second group's “virtue of ease” 〔T32 401c24〕 shares a word with “freedom by ease” among the preceding chapter's five freedoms 〔T32 400a01〕; the sixth group's “trainee · beyond training” shares words with “learning what can be learned, learning the higher training, and learning beyond training are called learning.” 〔T32 400b04〕 In both cases the same words divide entirely different dimensions, and the treatise does not connect them—the facts are recorded without adjudication.
- Backward: the eighth group's “high, higher, and great afflictions” is not connected to the thirty-four qualities under the chapter's opening question “how many qualities obstruct the path of virtue.” 〔T32 400c03〕 The treatise itself makes no connection.
- Forward: the explanation of the “fourfold” 〔T32 401b13〕 occurs in the next unit and those that follow, beginning “Further, virtue is of four kinds: tending to decline, tending to remain, tending to distinction, and tending to penetration.” 〔T32 402a25–26〕
- Forward: the fourth group's three kinds of aspiration are not connected to discussions of motivation in the chapters from eight onward. This passage only establishes their names.
7. Transmission
Questions of authorship, translation, and transmission are not argued in this apparatus.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Threefold Classifications of Virtue · Apparatus · Summer 2026