解脫道論 三行因緣與辨識總綱

At the beginning of one passage, the author asks three questions in one breath.

What are the causes of these three temperaments? How can one recognize which person is a practitioner of desirous temperament, which a practitioner of angry temperament, and which a practitioner of deluded temperament? According to temperament, how should one receive robes, go for alms, sit and lie down, and handle one’s place of activity and deportment?

The three questions stand together, so a reader naturally expects their answers to stand together as well.

They do not.

The first question is answered immediately—initially performed action, elements, and drawbacks, three kinds of cause exhausted in three sections. The answer to the second begins only halfway through this passage and continues to the end of the next unit. The third? It is answered neither here nor in the next unit; only in the fourth unit of this chapter does it appear—and there the author repeats the question almost word for word.

The three questions form the lines of division for the three remaining units of this chapter.

One small matter in the passage can serve as a small craft for reading this treatise.

Where the treatise discusses the three temperaments, section after section uses the same set of three names. Each time a section ends, write beside it the order in which the three names appeared. The record here is: in the section on initially performed action, desire, anger, delusion; in the section on elements, delusion, anger, desire; in the section on drawbacks, desire, anger, delusion; in the section on things, desire, anger, delusion.

Among the four sections, only the section on elements reverses the entire order. Even after the reversal, anger remains in the middle—all four times.

A reversed sequence is a place to pause. Pausing does not necessarily yield an answer. This passage gives none: the author does not say why the section on elements counts in reverse. But the pause at least ensures that the order one has read is the treatise’s own order.

Another place to pause is in the section on drawbacks.

The author first says: one with the greatest amount of 淡 (“phlegm”) becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament, one with the greatest amount of 瞻 (no English gloss determined) becomes a practitioner of angry temperament, and one with the greatest amount of 風 (“wind”) becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament. Immediately afterward comes “another statement says”: one with the greatest amount of 淡 (“phlegm”) becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament, and one with the greatest amount of 風 (“wind”) becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament.

The two statements exactly reverse the items concerning 淡 and 風. It is not supplementation and not subdivision, but exchange. Moreover, the later statement gives only two items; the middle pairing of 瞻 with anger is not mentioned again.

The author preserves both statements and gives not a single word of judgment before the section closes.

The three-character formula “another statement says” occurs five times in the whole treatise, and this occurrence is the only one in this chapter. The preceding unit cites not a single sentence, and from here to the end of the chapter no second alternate statement appears. The author rarely cites someone else’s statement; here the statement cited is contrary to his own—and after citing it, he gives no judgment.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Causes of the Three Temperaments and General Framework for Discernment · Doorway · Summer 2026

Three questions in one breath

Question: What are the causes of these three temperaments? How can one know that this is a practitioner of desirous temperament, this is a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人), and this is a practitioner of deluded temperament? How, according to temperament, should one receive robes, go for alms, sit and lie down, and handle one’s place of activity and deportment?

Answer to the first question: three kinds of cause

Answer: first, initially performed action as cause; second, elements as cause for the temperaments; and third, drawbacks as cause.

Initially performed action as cause

What is initially performed action as cause for the temperaments?

Because, at first, one applied means toward what was lovely and performed many wholesome actions, one becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament; one also falls from heaven and is born here.

One who repeatedly produces hostile actions of killing, cutting, stocks and fetters becomes a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人); covered by unlovely action, one falls from hell or from among dragons and is born here.

One who, at first, often drinks alcohol and causes division becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament; one falls from animal birth and is born here.

Thus: initial action as cause for temperament.

Elements as cause

What is meant by elements as cause?

Because two elements are nearest, one becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament—namely, the earth element and the water element.

Because two elements are nearest, one becomes a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人)—namely, the fire element and the wind element.

Because the four elements are equal, one becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament.

Thus, for the temperaments: elements as cause.

Drawbacks as cause

What is meant by drawbacks as cause?

One with the greatest amount of 淡 (“phlegm”) becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament; one with the greatest amount of 瞻 (no English gloss determined) becomes a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人); and one with the greatest amount of 風 (“wind”) becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament.

Another statement says: one with the greatest amount of 淡 (“phlegm”) becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament, and one with the greatest amount of 風 (“wind”) becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament.

Thus: drawbacks as cause.

Answer to the second question: can be known through seven approaches

How can one know that this person is of desirous temperament, this person is of angry temperament, and this person is of deluded temperament?

Answer: it can be known through seven approaches—through things, through defilements, through conduct, through taking up, through food, through action, and through lying down.

Can be known through things

How can it be known through things?

A practitioner of desirous temperament sees whatever things there are. What has never before been seen is seen, and once seen, is looked at again. Such a person constantly fails to attend to the genuine drawbacks while observing; even a small good quality does not seem difficult, and the person is unwilling to seek release from this. Having observed, the person cannot relinquish that conduct and goes on to know other things. Through conduct such as this, desirous temperament can be known.

As for a practitioner of angry temperament (嗔行人者), on seeing any such thing, the person seems weary and cannot look for long; readily taking up drawbacks, the person often disparages others, and with respect to many good qualities does not find them not difficult. The person does not relinquish this, but gains facility only through drawbacks; knowing and doing other things is likewise so. In this way, angry temperament (瞋行) can be known.

A practitioner of deluded temperament sees any such thing and, with respect to both good qualities and drawbacks, comes to trust others: hearing another disparage it, the person also disparages it; hearing another praise it, the person also praises it, because the person does not know for themself. Through conduct such as this toward external things, deluded temperament can be known.

Thus, through things.

Several points to note

The passage opens with three questions in one breath. The first question, “What are the causes of these three temperaments?”, is answered immediately below. The answer to the second, “How can one know that this is a practitioner of desirous temperament, this is a practitioner of angry temperament, and this is a practitioner of deluded temperament?”, begins with “can be known through seven approaches” and continues through the end of the next unit. The third question—“How, according to temperament, should one receive robes, go for alms, sit and lie down, and handle one’s place of activity and deportment?”—is answered neither in this passage nor in the next unit. It is not answered until the fourth unit of this chapter, where the question is stated again in almost the same words. This edition records the placement as it stands.

The three sections on causes all use the same three persons, but the order of the three names is reversed in one place: the section on initially performed action proceeds desire, anger, delusion; the section on elements proceeds delusion, anger, desire; and the section on drawbacks returns to desire, anger, delusion. Only the section on elements is reversed, while anger remains in the middle. This edition records the order as it stands.

In the section on initially performed action, each of the three persons has two matters—action done and the place of birth from which the person comes. Yet the punctuation of the base places the place of birth of a practitioner of desirous temperament and the action of a practitioner of angry temperament in the same sentence; the place of birth of a practitioner of angry temperament forms a sentence by itself; and only the action and place of birth of a practitioner of deluded temperament occur in the same sentence. This edition retains that punctuation and does not divide it anew.

In the section on elements, the first two items both say “because two elements are nearest,” while the third says “because the four elements are equal.” The first two name two elements each; the third speaks of all four. The three items do not have the same form. This edition records them as they stand.

The section on drawbacks contains “another statement says.” The first statement has 淡 (“phlegm”) producing desire, 瞻 (no English gloss determined) producing anger, and 風 (“wind”) producing delusion; the later statement has 淡 (“phlegm”) producing delusion and 風 (“wind”) producing desire. The two statements exactly reverse the items concerning 淡 and 風, while the middle item, 瞻 together with anger, is not mentioned again in the later statement. The author preserves both statements without saying which is correct. This edition records both without adjudication.

In the section on things, the three persons have three different closing statements: for a practitioner of desirous temperament, “Through conduct such as this, desirous temperament can be known”; for a practitioner of angry temperament, “Knowing and doing other things is likewise so; angry temperament can be known through such conduct”; and for a practitioner of deluded temperament, “Through conduct such as this toward external things, deluded temperament can be known.” The entire section closes with “Thus, through things,” not “Thus, it can be known through things.” This edition records the forms as they stand.

Among the three persons, only the second carries the character 者, in the form 嗔行人者, “as for a practitioner of angry temperament.” This edition records it as written.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Causes of the Three Temperaments and General Framework for Discernment · Vernacular · Summer 2026

The preceding passage closes with three persons: “At this point, through the root defilements, the seven persons become three: a practitioner of desirous temperament, a practitioner of angry temperament (嗔恚行人), and a practitioner of deluded temperament” 〔T32 410a09–10〕.

Once the three have been established, this passage begins from the three. What begins here, however, is not one question, but three.

“Question: What are the causes of these three temperaments?” 〔T32 410a10〕—the first question.

“How can one know that this is a practitioner of desirous temperament, this is a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人), and this is a practitioner of deluded temperament?” 〔T32 410a10–11〕—the second question.

“How, according to temperament, should one receive robes, go for alms, sit and lie down, and handle one’s place of activity and deportment?” 〔T32 410a11–12〕—the third question.

State the observation first: the answers to these three questions are neither in one place nor consecutive. The first question is answered immediately; the answer to the second runs across this passage and continues to the end of the next unit; and the answer to the third crosses two units and appears only in the fourth unit of this chapter—where the author repeats this question almost word for word.

These three questions form the lines of division for the three remaining units of this chapter.

The first question: three kinds of cause, one in each section

The first question receives the most direct answer: “Answer: initially performed action as cause, elements as cause for the temperaments, and drawbacks as cause” 〔T32 410a12–13〕. Three names are given, and the next three sections follow those names.

Initially performed action as cause 〔T32 410a13–14〕 concerns previous action and the place from which one comes. For a practitioner of desirous temperament, “because, at first, means were applied toward what was lovely, many wholesome actions make a practitioner of desirous temperament” 〔T32 410a14〕. Next comes “then falling from heaven, one is born here; repeatedly producing hostile actions of killing, cutting, stocks and fetters, one becomes a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人)” 〔T32 410a15–16〕, then “covered by unlovely action, one falls from hell or from among dragons and is born here” 〔T32 410a16–17〕, and finally “one who at first often drinks alcohol and causes division becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament and falls from animal birth to be born here” 〔T32 410a17–18〕.

The full stop falls in a strange place here. Each of the three persons has two matters—the action performed and the place of birth from which the person comes. Yet the punctuation of the base places the place of birth of a practitioner of desirous temperament together with the action of a practitioner of angry temperament in one sentence, makes the place of birth of a practitioner of angry temperament a sentence by itself, and places only the action and place of birth of a practitioner of deluded temperament in the same sentence. The item boundaries and sentence boundaries do not agree. This edition records the punctuation as it stands and does not divide it anew.

The section closes with “Thus, temperament: initial action as cause” 〔T32 410a18〕—here the closing drops the word represented by 所 from the general heading “initially performed action as cause.” Within the same section, the opening has “initially performed” and the close has “initial.” In each of the following two sections, the general heading, opening question, and close use the same wording; only this first section is uneven.

The section on elements as cause 〔T32 410a18〕 is the shortest: “Because two elements are nearest, one becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament—namely, the earth element and the water element” 〔T32 410a18–19〕; “because two elements are nearest, one becomes a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人)—namely, the fire element and the wind element” 〔T32 410a19–20〕; and “because the four elements are equal, one becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament” 〔T32 410a20–21〕.

The first two items each take two elements as cause and name them; the third does not give the names and says only “the four elements are equal” 〔T32 410a20〕. Three items, two forms. The first two items use the four elements two at a time, exhausting them without repetition; the third uses all four once more, now through their “equality.”

The section on drawbacks as cause 〔T32 410a21–22〕 contains this chapter’s only alternative statement; it is considered separately below.

Reading practice: record the order of the three names section by section

The reading practice given by this passage is small and readily usable.

Where this treatise discusses the three temperaments, section after section uses the same three names—desire, anger, and delusion. While reading, each time a section ends, write beside it the order in which the three names appeared in that section.

For this passage, the record is as follows:

In the section on initially performed action: desire 〔T32 410a14〕, anger (瞋) 〔T32 410a16〕, delusion 〔T32 410a17〕.

In the section on elements: delusion 〔T32 410a19〕, anger (瞋) 〔T32 410a20〕, desire 〔T32 410a21〕.

In the section on drawbacks: desire 〔T32 410a22〕, anger (瞋) 〔T32 410a22〕, delusion 〔T32 410a23〕.

In the section on things: desire 〔T32 410a27〕, anger (嗔) 〔T32 410b01〕, delusion 〔T32 410b05〕.

Among the four sections, only the section on elements reverses the entire order. Even after the reversal, anger remains in the middle—four sections, four occurrences, and anger never leaves the middle position. In the section on things the source writes 嗔, while the preceding three sections write 瞋; this is a difference of written character.

What is the use of recording the order? It is this: when an order reverses, that is a place to pause. Pausing does not necessarily yield an answer—this passage gives none, and the author does not say why the section on elements counts in reverse. But the pause ensures at least one thing: the order one has read is the treatise’s own order, not an order one has arranged automatically.

This method can be carried into any passage of this treatise where a fixed set of names repeatedly appears.

A pause: the two statements are opposite, and the middle item disappears

The section on drawbacks says: “One with the greatest amount of 淡 (‘phlegm’) becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament; one with the greatest amount of 瞻 (no English gloss determined) becomes a practitioner of angry temperament (瞋行人); and one with the greatest amount of 風 (‘wind’) becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament” 〔T32 410a22–23〕.

Three items and three pairings: 淡 (“phlegm”) with desire, 瞻 (no English gloss determined) with anger, and 風 (“wind”) with delusion.

Immediately afterward the author gives another sentence: “another statement says: one with the greatest amount of 淡 (‘phlegm’) becomes a practitioner of deluded temperament, and one with the greatest amount of 風 (‘wind’) becomes a practitioner of desirous temperament” 〔T32 410a23–24〕.

This is worth pausing over.

The first verifiable fact is that the two statements exactly reverse the items concerning 淡 and 風. In the first, 淡 produces desire and 風 produces delusion; in the later, 淡 produces delusion and 風 produces desire. It is not a supplement and not a subdivision, but an exchange.

The second verifiable fact is that the later statement gives only two items, and the middle item disappears. The first statement has 瞻 producing a practitioner of angry temperament; the later statement mentions neither 瞻 nor anger. It answers only two of the three items.

The third verifiable fact is that the author preserves both statements and gives not a single word of judgment. The section simply closes with “Thus: drawbacks as cause” 〔T32 410a24〕, as though nothing had happened.

The three-character formula “another statement says” occurs five times in the whole treatise, and this occurrence is the only one in this chapter—the preceding unit has zero citations, and from this point to the end of the chapter no second alternate statement appears. The author rarely cites another statement in the entire work; here the statement cited is contrary to his own, and after citing it he gives no judgment.

One small related matter remains. The character 淡 has a critical note: four witnesses read 痰, and the note is duplicated, with two points of attachment in this passage—one in the first statement and one in the later statement 〔T32 410a22·410a23〕. The two places have the same base reading and the same variant, so any change would affect both. The character 瞻 has no critical note at all. The present text follows the Taishō base; the variant is recorded without adjudication.

The second question: can be known through seven approaches, but two names do not correspond

After answering the three causes, the author takes up the second question: “How can one know that this person is of desirous temperament, this person is of angry temperament, and this person is of deluded temperament?” 〔T32 410a24–25〕

“Answer: can be known through seven approaches” 〔T32 410a25–26〕. The seven items are “thus, through things, through defilements, through conduct, through taking up, through food, through action, and through lying down” 〔T32 410a26–27〕.

The seven items are listed, but when they are answered one by one below, two headings do not correspond to the names here. The fourth item here is “through taking up,” while the next unit opens it as “How through wearing robes—a practitioner of desirous temperament?” 〔T32 410b18〕. The sixth item here is “through action,” while the next unit opens it as “How through things is it known?” 〔T32 410c01–02〕—and “things” is precisely the name of the first item.

For now, keep these two places in view. Whether the names correspond is a matter for the next unit; this passage can only record the seven items as they stand, without changing them.

The first item: through things

The first of the seven items is answered in full within this passage. Each of the three persons receives one short section.

For a practitioner of desirous temperament: “A practitioner of desirous temperament sees whatever things there are” 〔T32 410a27–28〕; “what has never before been seen is seen, and once seen, is looked at again” 〔T32 410a28〕—what has not been seen is to be seen, and what has been seen is looked at again; “constantly failing to attend to the genuine drawbacks while observing, even a small good quality does not seem difficult, and the person does not seek release from this” 〔T32 410a28–29〕; and “having observed, the person cannot relinquish that conduct and goes on to know other things” 〔T32 410a29–410b01〕. The closing statement is “Through conduct such as this, desirous temperament can be known” 〔T32 410b01〕.

For a practitioner of angry temperament (嗔行人): “As for a practitioner of angry temperament (嗔行人者), on seeing any such thing” 〔T32 410b01–02〕—only this one of the three carries the character 者; “like one who is weary and cannot look for long” 〔T32 410b02〕, the only simile in this passage and the sole occurrence in the whole treatise; “readily taking up drawbacks, the person often disparages others, and with respect to many good qualities does not find them not difficult” 〔T32 410b02–03〕; and “the person does not relinquish this, but gains facility only through drawbacks” 〔T32 410b03–04〕. The closing statement is “Knowing and doing other things is likewise so; angry temperament (瞋行) can be known through such conduct” 〔T32 410b04–05〕. The 嗔 of 嗔行人者 and the 瞋 of 瞋行 are a difference of written character.

For a practitioner of deluded temperament: “A practitioner of deluded temperament sees any such thing and, with respect to both good qualities and drawbacks, comes to trust others” 〔T32 410b05–06〕; “hearing another disparage it, the person also disparages it; hearing another praise it, the person also praises it, because the person does not know for themself” 〔T32 410b06–07〕. The closing statement is “Through conduct such as this toward external things, deluded temperament can be known” 〔T32 410b07–08〕.

Three closing statements, three forms. One has “through conduct such as this”; one has “knowing and doing other things is likewise so” and adds another word rendered “conduct”; and one has “through conduct such as this toward external things.” The author does not make their forms uniform, and this edition records them as they stand.

The statements concerning a practitioner of desirous temperament and a practitioner of angry temperament can also be read side by side. One has “even a small good quality does not seem difficult” 〔T32 410a29〕, while the other has “with respect to many good qualities does not find them not difficult” 〔T32 410b03〕—small against many, and an affirmative form against a negative one. The two sentences plainly invite comparison, yet their forms are not fully uniform.

The entire section closes with “Thus, through things” 〔T32 410b08〕, not “Thus, it can be known through things.” The fifth item in the next unit is reversed: it opens with “How through things is it known?” 〔T32 410c01–02〕 and closes with “Thus, it can be known through things” 〔T32 410c08〕. The words used for opening and closing are interlaced between the two sections.

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Carry away three things. One observation: the passage opens with three questions in one breath, and their answers fall in three places: the first question is answered immediately 〔410a12–410a24〕; the answer to the second begins at 〔410a24–25〕 and runs through the whole of the next unit; and the third question, “How, according to temperament, should one receive robes, go for alms, sit and lie down, and handle one’s place of activity and deportment?” 〔410a11–12〕, is answered only after two intervening units. The answering question is nearly the same as this one—the expression “receive robes, go for alms, sit and lie down, and place of activity” occurs twice in the whole treatise, once here and once there 〔410c15–16〕. The three questions are therefore the lines of division for the three remaining units of this chapter. One reading practice: record the order of the three names section by section. The four sections here read desire-anger-delusion, delusion-anger-desire, desire-anger-delusion, and desire-anger-delusion; only the section on elements reverses the order, while anger remains in the middle. A reversed sequence is a place to pause. One place to pause: “another statement says” in the section on drawbacks 〔410a23〕. The two statements exactly reverse 淡 (“phlegm”) and 風 (“wind”); the later gives only two items and omits the first statement’s middle pairing, 瞻 (no English gloss determined) with anger; and the author preserves both without adjudication. This is the only alternate statement in this chapter.

Four smaller matters should also be retained: the section opens with “initially performed action as cause” but closes with “initial action as cause” 〔410a13–14·410a18〕, while the openings and closes of the next two sections use the same wording; the elements section has three items in two forms—the first two each take two elements as cause and name them, while the third says only “the four elements are equal” and does not name them; two of the seven listed items do not correspond to the headings of their answers—“through taking up” 〔410a26〕 is answered under “How through wearing robes—a practitioner of desirous temperament?” 〔410b18〕, and “through action” 〔410a27〕 under “How through things is it known?” 〔410c01–02〕; and the critical note on 淡 is a duplicated＊ note with two attachments in this passage 〔410a22·410a23〕, while 瞻 has no critical note.

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Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · Causes of the Three Temperaments and General Framework for Discernment · Exposition · Summer 2026