解脫道論 頭陀四句與相味起
〈頭陀品〉三千多字，末段只有一百七十字，是全品最短的一段。
它做兩件事。
第一件，是把上一段沒答完的話答完。上一段一口氣問了五件，答了四件；第五件「有是頭陀說頭陀」擱在那裡。本段起手就把那一問重新問一次，然後給出一組四句：
是頭陀而說頭陀——阿羅漢成就頭陀受。 是頭陀而不說頭陀——阿羅漢不成就頭陀受。 非頭陀而說頭陀——學人、凡夫成就頭陀受。 非頭陀而不說頭陀——學人、凡夫不成就頭陀受。
四句用兩個判準交叉：「是不是頭陀」判的是人——阿羅漢，還是學人凡夫；「說不說頭陀」判的是行——有沒有成就頭陀受。
所以一個人行十三頭陀，不等於他「是頭陀」；而一個阿羅漢不行頭陀，也仍然「是頭陀」。
論主不解釋為什麼這樣分。就這樣放著。
第二件，是問頭陀的相、味、起。
答：少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起。
而〈頭陀品〉開卷第一段，論主答「為什麼要受頭陀功德」時排的八個「為」，頭三個正是：為於少欲、為於知足、為於無疑。
同樣三個詞，同樣的次序。
不止兩處。本品中間第五段引佛語，說「若糞掃衣比丘，依少欲知足，樂靜無疑，依於解脫」——三個詞又連在一起，次序仍舊。
於是這三個詞在本品的三個關節上齊出：開卷的總說、中間的佛語、品末的相味起。
其中「無疑」二字更值得記住：它在整部《解脫道論》出現十九次，一次也不出這一品。第一次就是品首的「為於無疑」，最後一次就是品末的「無疑為起」。
論主不把這三處接起來，本編也不代他接。
只把它放在這裡供讀者自己看：開卷問的是為什麼要受，品末答的是受成了是什麼相——而說的是同樣三個詞。
末了一句是全品的收尾：受為初，修行為中，歡喜為後。
寫完這七個字，這一品就結束了。下一行是「分別定品第四」。
The Chapter on the Ascetic Practices contains more than three thousand Chinese characters. Its final passage contains only 170, making it the shortest passage in the chapter.
It does two things.
The first is to finish answering what the preceding passage left unanswered. The preceding passage asked five things in a single breath and answered four; the fifth, “Is there something that is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice?”, was left there. The present passage begins by asking that question again, then gives a set of four cases:
What is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice—an arahant who accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices. What is an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice—an arahant who does not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices. What is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice—trainees and ordinary people who accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices. What is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice—trainees, ordinary people who do not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices.
The four cases cross two criteria: “is or is not an ascetic practice” judges the person—an arahant, or trainees and ordinary people; “is or is not spoken of as an ascetic practice” judges the practice—whether the undertaking of ascetic practices is accomplished.
Thus, a person’s carrying out the thirteen ascetic practices does not mean that person “is an ascetic practice”; and an arahant who does not carry them out still “is an ascetic practice.”
The author does not explain why he divides them this way. He simply leaves them there.
The second thing is to ask about the characteristic, function, and arising of the ascetic practices.
The answer: few desires are the characteristic, contentment is the function, and free of doubt is the arising.
At the opening of the Chapter on the Ascetic Practices, when the author answers “Why undertake the qualities of the ascetic practices?”, the first three of his eight statements beginning with “for” are precisely: for few desires, for contentment, for being free of doubt.
The same three terms, in the same order.
There are not only two places. In the chapter’s fifth passage, the words of the Buddha are quoted: “if a rag-robe bhikkhu depends on few desires and contentment, delights in quiet, is free of doubt, and depends on freedom”—the three terms are once again joined, and the order remains the same.
Thus, the three terms occur together at three joints in this chapter: the opening general account, the words of the Buddha in the middle, and the account of characteristic, function, and arising at the end.
The expression “free of doubt” deserves particular remembrance: it occurs nineteen times in the entire Path of Freedom and not once outside this chapter. Its first occurrence is “for being free of doubt” at the chapter’s beginning, and its last is “free of doubt is the arising” at the chapter’s end.
The author does not connect the three places, and this edition does not connect them on his behalf.
They are only placed here for readers to see for themselves: the opening asks why the practices should be undertaken, while the end answers what their characteristic is once undertaken—and both speak in the same three terms.
The final sentence closes the whole chapter: undertaking is the beginning, practice is the middle, and joy is the end.
When those seven Chinese characters are finished, the chapter ends. The next line is “Chapter Four: Analysis of Concentration.”
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Four Cases of the Ascetic Practices and Their Characteristic, Function, and Arising · Doorway · Summer 2026
阿羅漢優波底沙造，梁扶南三藏僧伽婆羅譯《解脫道論》〈頭陀品〉「頭陀四句與相味起」· 大正藏 T32n1648〔起 T32 0406c〕。段首〔T32 …〕＝大正藏頁·欄錨。
〔T32 0406c〕
問：云何是頭陀說頭陀？答：亦有頭陀說頭陀，有頭陀不說頭陀，有非頭陀說有頭陀，有非頭陀不說頭陀。云何有頭陀說頭陀？謂阿羅漢成就頭陀受。云何有頭陀不說頭陀？謂阿羅漢不成就頭陀受。云何有非頭陀說頭陀？謂學人及凡夫成就頭陀受。云何非頭陀不說頭陀？謂學人凡夫不成就頭陀受。
問：頭陀何相？何味？何起？答：少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起。復次無所著為相，無過為味，不退為起。云何初中後？謂受為初，修行為中，歡喜為後。
The canonical text stands in Chinese only. This edition renders the essence, the plain reading, the exposition and the apparatus into English — never the sūtra itself. Switch to 漢讀本 or 並行雙語 above to read it.
問：什麼叫「是頭陀而說頭陀」？
問：什麼是「是頭陀而說頭陀」？
答：也有「是頭陀而說頭陀」，有「是頭陀而不說頭陀」，有「非頭陀而說有頭陀」，有「非頭陀而不說頭陀」。
四句逐一
什麼是「有頭陀而說頭陀」？就是阿羅漢成就了頭陀受。
什麼是「有頭陀而不說頭陀」？就是阿羅漢不成就頭陀受。
什麼是「有非頭陀而說頭陀」？就是學人以及凡夫成就了頭陀受。
什麼是「非頭陀而不說頭陀」？就是學人、凡夫不成就頭陀受。
問：頭陀的相、味、起是什麼？
問：頭陀是什麼相？什麼味？什麼起？
答：少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起。
再說一遍：無所著為相，無過為味，不退為起。
初、中、後
什麼是初、中、後？就是受為初，修行為中，歡喜為後。
幾處該記的
四句在列名的時候，第三句作「有非頭陀說有頭陀」，比其餘三句多一個「有」字；到逐句解釋時作「云何有非頭陀說頭陀」，那個「有」字沒有了。而第四句列名作「有非頭陀不說頭陀」，逐句解釋時作「云何非頭陀不說頭陀」，反而少了句首的「有」字。這裡照錄，不代為齊。
第三句的答作「學人及凡夫」，第四句的答作「學人凡夫」——少一個「及」字。這裡照錄。
「相、味、起」答了兩遍：先是少欲、知足、無疑，再是無所著、無過、不退。論主不說兩遍有何分別。這裡照錄。
而第一遍的三個詞——少欲、知足、無疑——與本品開卷總說的「為於少欲、為於知足、為於無疑」是同樣三個詞、同樣的次序。論主不作聯繫，這裡也只並列著記。
「歡喜為後」的「後」字，校本作「後分」。這裡照錄底本。
Question: How Is What Is an Ascetic Practice Spoken of as an Ascetic Practice?
Question: How is what is an ascetic practice spoken of as an ascetic practice?
Answer: There is also what is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as having an ascetic practice; and there is what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice.
The Four Cases, One by One
What is “there is what is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice”? It is an arahant who accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices.
What is “there is what is an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice”? It is an arahant who does not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices.
What is “there is what is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice”? It is trainees and ordinary people who accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices.
What is “what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice”? It is trainees, ordinary people who do not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices.
Question: What Are the Characteristic, Function, and Arising of the Ascetic Practices?
Question: What is the characteristic of the ascetic practices? What is their function? What is their arising?
Answer: Few desires are the characteristic, contentment is the function, and free of doubt is the arising.
Further: non-attachment is the characteristic, freedom from fault is the function, and non-regression is the arising.
Beginning, Middle, and End
What are the beginning, middle, and end? Undertaking is the beginning, practice is the middle, and joy is the end.
Several Points to Retain
When the four cases are listed, the third reads “there is what is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as having an ascetic practice”: compared with the other three cases, it has an additional 有, rendered “having.” In the item-by-item explanation it reads “what is there that is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice,” and that 有 is gone. The fourth case in the list reads “there is what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice,” while its item-by-item explanation reads “what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice,” losing the opening 有, rendered “there is.” These forms are recorded as they stand and are not made uniform.
The third answer reads “trainees and ordinary people,” while the fourth reads “trainees, ordinary people”—one occurrence of “and” is absent. This is recorded as it stands.
The question concerning “characteristic, function, and arising” is answered twice: first with few desires, contentment, and free of doubt, and then with non-attachment, freedom from fault, and non-regression. The author does not say how the two answers differ. They are recorded as they stand.
The three terms in the first answer—few desires, contentment, and free of doubt—are the same three terms, in the same order, as “for few desires, for contentment, for being free of doubt” in the chapter’s opening general account. The author does not connect them; they are only placed side by side here.
For the character 後 in “joy is the end,” the collated editions read 後分, “final portion.” The base text is recorded here.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Four Cases of the Ascetic Practices and Their Characteristic, Function, and Arising · Vernacular · Summer 2026
〈頭陀品〉三千餘字，末段只有一百七十字，是全品最短的一段。
而它做的兩件事，一件是接上一段沒答完的問，一件是把整品收回原處。
先接上一段：那個沒答的第五問
前一段開口問了五件事，答只走了四件〔406b16–18〕。第五件是「有是頭陀說頭陀」。
本段起手：「問：云何是頭陀說頭陀？」〔T32 406c09–10〕。
同一問重新問一次，然後才答。兩段之間的那一條線，在這裡接上。
答是一組四句：「答：亦有頭陀說頭陀，有頭陀不說頭陀，有非頭陀說有頭陀，有非頭陀不說頭陀」〔T32 406c10–12〕。
四句所分的，是「是不是頭陀」與「說不說頭陀」兩件事的四種配法。
而四句的所指，只用兩種人來派：阿羅漢，與學人凡夫。
「云何有頭陀說頭陀？謂阿羅漢成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c12–13〕；「云何有頭陀不說頭陀？謂阿羅漢不成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c13–14〕；「云何有非頭陀說頭陀？謂學人及凡夫成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c14–15〕；「云何非頭陀不說頭陀？謂學人凡夫不成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c15–16〕。
於是「是頭陀」與「不是頭陀」，判的不是他行不行頭陀，是他是不是阿羅漢。行不行頭陀，另由「成就頭陀受」與否來說。
論主不解釋為什麼這樣派。本編也不代釋——只指出這一組四句所用的兩個判準是分開的：一個判人，一個判行。
「阿羅漢成就」全論一見〔406c12〕。「頭陀受」全論六見（406c03·c13·c14·c15·c16·406c21），其四在本段，第六見在品四之首「已行頭陀受」〔406c21〕。
四句的字面處處不齊
這一組四句短短八十字，字面上有三處不齊，值得一併記下。
第一，列名之第三句多一個「有」字。列名作「有非頭陀說有頭陀」〔T32 406c11〕——「說」下多一「有」字，而其餘三句都沒有這個多出來的「有」。
第二，逐句標目時那個字又沒了，而第四句反而少了句首的「有」。列名之第四句作「有非頭陀不說頭陀」〔406c11–12〕，標目作「云何非頭陀不說頭陀」〔406c15–16〕——句首的「有」脫落。
於是四句在列名時的形是：有／有／有…有／有；標目時的形是：有／有／有／（無）。列名與標目，四句之中有兩句對不齊。
第三，答文之稱謂不齊。第三句作「學人及凡夫」〔406c14–15〕，第四句作「學人凡夫」〔406c16〕——少一個「及」字。「學人及凡夫」全論三見（406c14–15·407b22·444c01–02），「學人凡夫」全論二見（406c16·407b23）；而這兩形在本論之中恰恰總是相鄰出現——本段是一處，品四〔407b22·407b23〕是另一處。
三處都照錄，不代為齊。
相、味、起：同一問答了兩遍
第二段轉問體相：「問：頭陀何相？何味？何起」〔T32 406c16–17〕。
「何相？何味？何起」是本論的一個定式，全論十九見（400c01·406c16·406c22·415c02·415c23·416a13·418b21·418b27·419b07·419b16·419b22·420b13·422b20·435a11·437a24·437b21·437c11·438b25·444c05）。首見在品一〔400c01〕問戒，本段是第二見；而第三見就在品四之首〔406c22〕問定。論主每立一法，多以此三字問其體。
答是：「答：少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起」〔T32 406c17〕。
然後——「復次無所著為相，無過為味，不退為起」〔T32 406c18〕。
同一問，答了兩遍。論主不說第二遍與第一遍有何分別、何者為正。「無所著」全論九見（406c18·419b08·437c14·438b14·b15·b16·b21·439a07·444a22），本段是其首見。
照錄不代擇一。
末了一句是本段最短的一節：「云何初中後？謂受為初，修行為中，歡喜為後」〔T32 406c18–19〕——「云何初中後」全論一見〔406c18〕。
受、修行、歡喜。十三頭陀從立願受持起，經過修行，末了是歡喜。這一句說完，〈頭陀品〉就結束了；下一行就是「分別定品第四」〔T32 406c20〕。
停一停：品末的三個詞，就是品首的三個詞
這裡值得停下來。
本段答相味起的第一遍是：少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起〔406c17〕。
而〈頭陀品〉開卷第一段，論主答「何故受此頭陀功德」時所排的八個「為」，頭三個是：為於少欲、為於知足、為於無疑〔T32 404b23–24〕。
同樣三個詞，同樣的次序。
不止兩處。本品第五段引佛語，作「若糞掃衣比丘，依少欲知足，樂靜無疑，依於解脫」〔T32 406b22–23〕——三個詞又一次連在一起，次序仍舊。
於是本品之中，這三個詞在三個關節上齊出：品首的總說、中間的引佛語、品末的相味起。
而其中的「無疑」二字更值得注意：它在全論十九見，一見不出本品〔404b24 至 406c17〕。首見是品首總說的「為於無疑」，末見就是本段的「無疑為起」。
論主為什麼要這樣安排？
本段答不了。可核的只有三件事：其一，三詞三處，字面與次序全同；其二，「無疑」一詞的首見與末見，恰是本品的第一段與最後一段；其三，中間那一處不是論主自己的話，是他所引的佛語。
論主不把這三處接起來，本編也不代接。只把三個錨並排放著：〔404b23–24〕·〔406b22–23〕·〔406c17〕。
讀法：一品讀完，回頭看它的末段還了什麼
本段交出的讀法，是一個收尾的動作。
讀完一品，多數人就往下一品去了。而本論的品末往往極短——本品末段只有一百七十字。短，容易略過。
可是短的那一段，常常是把整品收回原處的地方。
作法很簡單：讀完末段，回頭掃一眼品首。看末段用的詞，品首用過沒有；若用過，次序一樣不一樣。
用在本品：末段的「少欲、知足、無疑」，品首一字不差地用過，次序也同。於是這一品的頭尾就箍住了——開卷說為什麼要受，品末說受成了是什麼相；而說的是同三個詞。
這個方法還可以往回推一層：那個在品首與品末都出現的詞，多半就是本品的字眼。掃一遍它在全論的分布，如果它只在本品出現，那就更確定了——本品的「無疑」正是如此，十九見一見不出本品。
帶走三件：一個所見——品末的相味起與品首的八為，用的是同樣三個詞、同樣的次序：本段作「少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起」〔406c17〕，品首作「為於少欲、為於知足、為於無疑」〔404b23–24〕，中間第五段引佛語復作「依少欲知足，樂靜無疑」〔406b22–23〕——三處齊出；而「無疑」全論十九見一見不出本品，其首見在品首、末見即本段。一個讀法——一品讀完，回頭看它的末段還了什麼：品末多短而易略，而短的那一段常是把整品收回原處之處；末段之詞若品首用過且次序相同，即該品之頭尾已箍住，那個詞多半就是本品的字眼。一處停問——四句所判者二事而其判準分開〔406c10–16〕：是頭陀／非頭陀以人判（阿羅漢／學人凡夫），說／不說頭陀以行判（成就頭陀受與否）；論主不釋其所以，本編不代釋。
還有三件小事該記著：四句之列名與標目不齊——列名第三句多一「有」字〔406c11〕、標目第四句脫句首之「有」〔406c15–16〕；答文之稱謂不齊——「學人及凡夫」〔406c14–15〕與「學人凡夫」〔406c16〕，二形在本論恒相鄰而出（另一處在品四〔407b22·407b23〕）；相味起答了兩遍〔406c17·406c18〕而論主不言何者為正，照錄不代擇一。
The Chapter on the Ascetic Practices contains more than three thousand Chinese characters, while its final passage contains only 170—the shortest passage in the whole chapter.
It does two things: one takes up the question left unanswered in the preceding passage, and the other returns the whole chapter to where it began.
First Taking Up the Preceding Passage: The Fifth Question That Was Not Answered
The preceding passage opens by asking five things, but the answer proceeds through only four〔406b16–18〕. The fifth is “Is there something that is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice?”
The present passage opens: “Question: How is what is an ascetic practice spoken of as an ascetic practice?” 〔T32 406c09–10〕.
The same question is asked again, and only then answered. The line between the two passages is joined here.
The answer is a set of four cases: “Answer: There is also what is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as having an ascetic practice; and there is what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice” 〔T32 406c10–12〕.
What the four cases divide are two matters—“whether it is an ascetic practice” and “whether it is spoken of as an ascetic practice”—in their four possible combinations.
The referents of the four cases are assigned using only two kinds of people: arahants, and trainees and ordinary people.
“What is there that is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice? It is an arahant who accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c12–13〕; “What is there that is an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice? It is an arahant who does not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c13–14〕; “What is there that is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice? It is trainees and ordinary people who accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c14–15〕; “What is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice? It is trainees, ordinary people who do not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c15–16〕.
Thus “is an ascetic practice” and “is not an ascetic practice” judge not whether someone carries out the ascetic practices, but whether that person is an arahant. Whether the person carries them out is stated separately by whether the undertaking of ascetic practices is accomplished.
The author does not explain why the assignments are made in this way. This edition does not explain on his behalf—it only points out that the four cases use two separate criteria: one judges the person and one judges the practice.
“An arahant accomplishes” occurs once in the entire treatise〔406c12〕. “Undertaking of ascetic practices” occurs six times in the entire treatise (406c03·c13·c14·c15·c16·406c21), four of them in the present passage; the sixth occurs at the beginning of chapter four in “having carried out the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔406c21〕.
The Wording of the Four Cases Is Uneven at Every Turn
Within the eighty Chinese characters of these four cases, the wording is uneven in three places. They should be recorded together.
First, the third case in the list has one additional 有. The list reads “there is what is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as having an ascetic practice” 〔T32 406c11〕—after “spoken of” there is an additional 有, rendered “having”—while none of the other three cases has this additional character.
Second, in the item-by-item labels that character is gone, while the fourth case instead lacks its opening 有. The fourth case in the list reads “there is what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice” 〔406c11–12〕, while its label reads “what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice” 〔406c15–16〕—the opening 有, rendered “there is,” has dropped out.
Thus the form of the four cases in the list is 有 / 有 / 有…有 / 有; in the labels it is 有 / 有 / 有 / (absent). Of the four cases, two do not align between the list and the labels.
Third, the designations in the answers are uneven. The third case reads “trainees and ordinary people” 〔406c14–15〕, while the fourth reads “trainees, ordinary people” 〔406c16〕—one occurrence of “and” is absent. “Trainees and ordinary people” occurs three times in the entire treatise (406c14–15·407b22·444c01–02), while “trainees, ordinary people” occurs twice (406c16·407b23); and in this treatise the two forms always occur next to each other—once in this passage and once in chapter four〔407b22·407b23〕.
All three are recorded as they stand and are not made uniform.
Characteristic, Function, and Arising: One Question Answered Twice
The second paragraph turns to ask about its defining aspects: “Question: What is the characteristic of the ascetic practices? What is their function? What is their arising?” 〔T32 406c16–17〕.
“What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its arising?” is a fixed formula in this treatise and occurs nineteen times in all (400c01·406c16·406c22·415c02·415c23·416a13·418b21·418b27·419b07·419b16·419b22·420b13·422b20·435a11·437a24·437b21·437c11·438b25·444c05). Its first occurrence, in chapter one〔400c01〕, asks about virtue; the present passage is the second; and the third is at the very beginning of chapter four〔406c22〕, asking about concentration. When the author establishes a dhamma, he often asks about its defining aspects with these three terms.
The answer is: “Answer: Few desires are the characteristic, contentment is the function, and free of doubt is the arising” 〔T32 406c17〕.
Then comes: “Further: non-attachment is the characteristic, freedom from fault is the function, and non-regression is the arising” 〔T32 406c18〕.
The same question is answered twice. The author does not state how the second answer differs from the first or which is primary. “Non-attachment” occurs nine times in the entire treatise (406c18·419b08·437c14·438b14·b15·b16·b21·439a07·444a22), and this is its first occurrence.
They are recorded as they stand, without choosing one on the author’s behalf.
The last sentence is the shortest section of the passage: “What are the beginning, middle, and end? Undertaking is the beginning, practice is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 406c18–19〕—“What are the beginning, middle, and end?” occurs once in the entire treatise〔406c18〕.
Undertaking, practice, and joy. The thirteen ascetic practices begin with undertaking them as a commitment, proceed through practice, and end in joy. When this sentence is finished, the Chapter on the Ascetic Practices ends; the next line is “Chapter Four: Analysis of Concentration” 〔T32 406c20〕.
Pause Here: The Three Terms at the Chapter’s End Are the Three Terms at Its Beginning
This is worth pausing over.
The first answer concerning characteristic, function, and arising in this passage is: few desires are the characteristic, contentment is the function, and free of doubt is the arising〔406c17〕.
At the opening of the Chapter on the Ascetic Practices, when the author answers “Why undertake the qualities of the ascetic practices?”, the first three of his eight statements beginning with “for” are: for few desires, for contentment, for being free of doubt〔T32 404b23–24〕.
The same three terms, in the same order.
There are not only two places. In the chapter’s fifth passage, the words of the Buddha are quoted: “if a rag-robe bhikkhu depends on few desires and contentment, delights in quiet, is free of doubt, and depends on freedom” 〔T32 406b22–23〕—the three terms are once again joined together, and the order remains the same.
Thus, in this chapter the three terms occur together at three joints: the general account at the beginning, the quoted words of the Buddha in the middle, and the account of characteristic, function, and arising at the end.
The two Chinese characters 無疑, “free of doubt,” deserve particular notice: the expression occurs nineteen times in the entire treatise and not once outside this chapter〔404b24 至 406c17〕. Its first occurrence is “for being free of doubt” in the opening general account, and its last is “free of doubt is the arising” in the present passage.
Why did the author arrange it in this way?
This passage cannot answer. Only three things can be verified: first, the three terms occur at three places with their wording and order unchanged; second, the first and last occurrences of “free of doubt” are precisely in the first and final passages of this chapter; third, the middle occurrence is not the author’s own statement but words of the Buddha quoted by him.
The author does not connect the three places, and this edition does not connect them on his behalf. It only places the three anchors side by side:〔404b23–24〕·〔406b22–23〕·〔406c17〕.
A Way of Reading: After Finishing a Chapter, Look Back at What Its Final Passage Returned
The way of reading offered by this passage is an action performed at the close.
After finishing a chapter, most readers move on to the next. Yet the final passages of this treatise are often extremely short—the final passage of this chapter contains only 170 Chinese characters. Because it is short, it is easy to pass over.
But that short passage is often where the whole chapter is returned to its starting point.
The method is simple: after reading the final passage, look back at the chapter’s beginning. See whether the terms used at the end were used at the beginning and, if so, whether their order is the same.
Applied to the present chapter: the terms at the end—“few desires, contentment, and free of doubt”—were used without the difference of a single word at the beginning, and in the same order. The chapter’s beginning and end are thereby bound together—the opening says why one should undertake the practices, while the end says what their characteristic is once undertaken; and both speak in the same three terms.
This method can be taken one step further: a term that appears at both the beginning and the end is very likely one of the chapter’s own words. Scan its distribution across the whole treatise; if it occurs only in this chapter, the point becomes still clearer—this is exactly the case with “free of doubt,” all nineteen occurrences of which are within the present chapter.
Take away three things. One observation—the account of characteristic, function, and arising at the chapter’s end and the eight “for” statements at its beginning use the same three terms in the same order: the present passage reads “few desires are the characteristic, contentment is the function, and free of doubt is the arising” 〔406c17〕, the opening reads “for few desires, for contentment, for being free of doubt” 〔404b23–24〕, and the Buddha’s words quoted in the fifth passage in the middle again read “depends on few desires and contentment, delights in quiet, is free of doubt” 〔406b22–23〕—the three terms occur together at all three places; “free of doubt” occurs nineteen times in the whole treatise and not once outside this chapter, its first occurrence being at the chapter’s beginning and its last in the present passage. One way of reading—after finishing a chapter, look back at what its final passage returned: a chapter’s final passage is often short and easily passed over, yet the short passage is often where the whole chapter is returned to its starting point; if the terms at the end were used at the beginning in the same order, the chapter’s two ends have been bound together, and a term found in both places is very likely one of the chapter’s own words. One place to pause—the four cases judge two matters by separate criteria〔406c10–16〕: being or not being an ascetic practice is judged by the person (arahant / trainees and ordinary people), while being or not being spoken of as an ascetic practice is judged by the practice (whether the undertaking of ascetic practices is accomplished); the author does not explain why, and this edition does not explain on his behalf.
Three smaller matters should also be retained: the list and labels of the four cases are uneven—the third case in the list has one additional 有〔406c11〕, while the label of the fourth loses its opening 有〔406c15–16〕; the designations in the answers are uneven—“trainees and ordinary people”〔406c14–15〕and “trainees, ordinary people”〔406c16〕, the two forms always occurring next to each other in this treatise (the other place is in chapter four〔407b22·407b23〕); and the question concerning characteristic, function, and arising is answered twice〔406c17·406c18〕, while the author does not say which is primary. They are recorded as they stand, without choosing one on his behalf.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Four Cases of the Ascetic Practices and Their Characteristic, Function, and Arising · Exposition · Summer 2026
考據Apparatus
全段定位 本段為《解脫道論》卷第二〈頭陀品〉之第六單元，亦即本品末段（源文一百七十字，全品最短）。底本二段：前段接前一單元未答之第五問而出四句〔406c09–16〕，後段問相·味·起並初中後〔406c16–19〕。本品訖於「歡喜為後」〔T32 406c19〕，其後即品題行「分別定品第四」〔T32 406c20〕。底本二段〔T32 406c09–406c19〕。
一、科判定位
二段而成四節：
| 節 | 經文起訖逐字（各繫其錨） |
|---|---|
| 第一節·四句列名 | 「問：云何是頭陀說頭陀」〔T32 406c09–10〕…「答：亦有頭陀說頭陀，有頭陀不說頭陀，有非頭陀說有頭陀，有非頭陀不說頭陀」〔T32 406c10–12〕 |
| 第二節·四句逐釋 | 「云何有頭陀說頭陀？謂阿羅漢成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c12–13〕…「云何非頭陀不說頭陀？謂學人凡夫不成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c15–16〕 |
| 第三節·相味起（二遍） | 「問：頭陀何相？何味？何起」〔T32 406c16–17〕…「復次無所著為相，無過為味，不退為起」〔T32 406c18〕 |
| 第四節·初中後 | 「云何初中後？謂受為初，修行為中，歡喜為後」〔T32 406c18–19〕 |
單元界與段界之相合：底本二段，其界與二問相合——前段起於「問：云何是頭陀說頭陀」〔406c09–10〕，後段起於「問：頭陀何相？何味？何起」〔406c16–17〕。全段二問，餘皆答文自設之「云何」。前段之問，即前一單元段首五問之第五問〔T32 406b17–18〕——彼處不答，至此重問而後答。其後即品題行「分別定品第四」〔T32 406c20〕與品四首段「問：爾時淨戒坐禪人，已行頭陀受」〔T32 406c21〕。
全段定位錨
〔T32, 406c09–19〕
二、詞義與譯語（逐字各繫其錨）
| 名相 | 本段用法 | 章內接點（可核） |
|---|---|---|
| 四句（是頭陀說頭陀等） | 「答：亦有頭陀說頭陀，有頭陀不說頭陀，有非頭陀說有頭陀，有非頭陀不說頭陀」〔T32 406c10–12〕 | 列名與標目不齊二處：①列名第三句作「有非頭陀說有頭陀」〔406c11〕，較餘三句多一「有」字，而標目作「云何有非頭陀說頭陀」〔406c14〕，其字不見；②列名第四句作「有非頭陀不說頭陀」〔406c11–12〕，標目作「云何非頭陀不說頭陀」〔406c15–16〕，句首之「有」脫。照錄不代齊 |
| 頭陀受 | 「謂阿羅漢成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c12–13〕；「謂學人凡夫不成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c16〕 | 「頭陀受」全論六見（406c03·c13·c14·c15·c16·406c21），其四在本段；第一見在前一單元〔406c03〕，第六見在品四首段「已行頭陀受」〔406c21〕。四句以二判準交叉——是頭陀／非頭陀以人判（阿羅漢／學人凡夫），說／不說頭陀以行判（成就頭陀受與否）。論主不釋其所以，本編不代釋 |
| 阿羅漢／學人及凡夫／學人凡夫 | 「謂阿羅漢成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c12–13〕；「謂學人及凡夫成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c14–15〕；「謂學人凡夫不成就頭陀受」〔T32 406c16〕 | 「阿羅漢成就」全論一見〔406c12〕。「學人及凡夫」全論三見（406c14–15·407b22·444c01–02）／「學人凡夫」全論二見（406c16·407b23）——二形恒相鄰而出：本段一處，品四〔407b22·407b23〕另一處。第三句作「及」而第四句無，照錄不代齊 |
| 相·味·起 | 「問：頭陀何相？何味？何起」〔T32 406c16–17〕；「答：少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起」〔T32 406c17〕；「復次無所著為相，無過為味，不退為起」〔T32 406c18〕 | 「何相？何味？何起」為本論定式，全論十九見（400c01·406c16·406c22·415c02·415c23·416a13·418b21·418b27·419b07·419b16·419b22·420b13·422b20·435a11·437a24·437b21·437c11·438b25·444c05）——首見在品一問戒〔400c01〕，本段第二見，第三見即品四之首問定〔406c22〕。同一問答二遍而論主不言何者為正，照錄不代擇一。「無所著」全論九見（406c18·419b08·437c14·438b14·b15·b16·b21·439a07·444a22），本段為其首見 |
| 少欲·知足·無疑 | 「答：少欲為相，知足為味，無疑為起」〔T32 406c17〕 | 三名同序連舉，本品三見——品首總說「為於少欲、為於知足、為於無疑」〔T32 404b23–24〕、第五段引佛語「依少欲知足，樂靜無疑」〔T32 406b22–23〕、本段〔406c17〕。字面與次序全同；其一非論主自語而為所引之佛語。「無疑」全論十九見，一見不出本品（404b24 至 406c17），其首見在品首總說、末見即本段。論主不作聯繫，本編不代接，僅並列三錨 |
| 初中後 | 「云何初中後？謂受為初，修行為中，歡喜為後」〔T32 406c18–19〕 | 「云何初中後」全論一見〔406c18〕。受·修行·歡喜三者，即十三頭陀自立願受持至成就之全程。校記正落末字〔406c19〕：後【大】，後分【宋】【元】【明】【宮】（見目三） |
三、校記與異讀
本段範圍內大正藏校記二處，誌而不改，本文一律依大正本：
| 錨 | 底本 | 異讀 | 見證 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 406c13 | 受（謂阿羅漢成就頭陀受） | 〔－〕 | 【宋】【元】【明】 |
| 406c19 | 後（歡喜為後） | 後分 | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
誌錄不判二事：
- 406c13「謂阿羅漢成就頭陀受」之末「受」字，三本作〔－〕——即三本無此字（作「成就頭陀」），非二讀之異；且【宮】不與，與本段另一條之四本見證不齊。四句之其餘三句皆作「頭陀受」（406c14·c15·c16），本文從底本。並錄不判。
- 406c19「歡喜為後」之「後」，四本作「後分」——若從校本則三者作初·中·後分，其名不齊（前二作「初」「中」而第三作「後分」）；從底本則三名皆一字。並錄不判，本文從底本。此為本品之末字。
校本零命中三項：本段缺字零命中；夾註零命中；範圍內無校本已改正文者。
四、論主引據
本段引據零命中：全段無「如佛所說」「如經中說」「如毘曇說」「如阿毘曇說」等引式，亦無稱引尊者之語，亦無異說（「復有說」「復說」零命中）。「復次」一處〔406c18〕為論主自出之第二說，非引他人。
本品之引據見於他段：第四段引論作「如毘曇中說八頭陀」〔T32 406b07–08〕、引佛語作「故佛為難陀說」〔T32 406b14〕，第五段引佛語作「如佛所說：若糞掃衣比丘，依少欲知足，樂靜無疑，依於解脫」〔T32 406b22–23〕。皆不在本段之內，記其所在以供互讀，不入本段之引據數。
五、譬喻·修辭
- 本段譬零命中：全段無譬式（本品六段之中，第一至第三段各一譬——如鳥飛空〔404c29〕·如月希現〔405a19〕·猶如野鹿〔405c15–16〕，第五段一譬——如痰病者〔406c05–06〕，第四段與本段無）。
- 四句之式〔T32 406c10–16〕：以「是頭陀／非頭陀」與「說／不說頭陀」二事交叉成四；列名一節、逐釋一節，二節之字面不齊二處（見目二）。
- 二判準分行之式〔T32 406c12–16〕：前項以人判（阿羅漢／學人凡夫），後項以行判（成就頭陀受與否）。論主不釋其所以。
- 同問二答之式〔T32 406c17·406c18〕：相味起先答少欲·知足·無疑，復次答無所著·無過·不退。不言何者為正，照錄不代擇一。
- 首尾相應之式〔T32 404b23–24 對 406c17〕：品首八為之首三（為於少欲·為於知足·為於無疑）與本段相味起之三（少欲為相·知足為味·無疑為起），字面與次序全同；中間復有第五段所引佛語之「依少欲知足，樂靜無疑」〔406b22–23〕。三處齊出，論主不作聯繫。
- 本品之末〔T32 406c19〕：全品訖於「歡喜為後」四字；下一行即品題行「分別定品第四」〔406c20〕。
六、章內互讀
- 前指：本段之問即前一單元段首五問之第五問〔T32 406b17–18〕——彼處問而不答，至此重問而後答。「頭陀受」之第一見在前一單元〔T32 406c03〕。「少欲」「知足」「無疑」三名之另二處在品首總說〔T32 404b23–24〕與第五段引佛語〔T32 406b22–23〕；「無疑」之首見在品首〔404b24〕、末見即本段〔406c17〕。
- 後指（跨品）：本品訖於〔T32 406c19〕，品四品題行在〔T32 406c20〕，品四首段作「問：爾時淨戒坐禪人，已行頭陀受，成就勝善處，當何所作」〔T32 406c21–22〕——「頭陀受」之第六見即在此，且「何相？何味？何起」之第三見亦在品四之首〔T32 406c22〕。「學人及凡夫」／「學人凡夫」二形之另一處相鄰見在品四〔T32 407b22·407b23〕。「無所著」之其餘八見散在品八以下（419b08·437c14·438b14·b15·b16·b21·439a07·444a22）。
- 卷／品次：本段在卷第二〈頭陀品〉（卷二首題〔404b16〕、品題行〔404b20〕；卷第二收於〔T32 409b17〕）。本品全在卷第二之內，而卷第二即開於本品（正文起〔404b21〕）——本品之起與卷第二之起相接，本品之訖〔406c19〕則在卷第二之中。
七、傳本
作者、譯者與傳本諸問題，本編不於考據內立說。
Location of the whole passage This is the sixth unit of the Chapter on the Ascetic Practices in fascicle two of the Path of Freedom and is also the chapter’s final passage (the source contains 170 Chinese characters, the shortest passage in the chapter). The base text has two paragraphs: the first takes up the fifth question left unanswered in the preceding unit and gives the four cases〔406c09–16〕; the second asks about characteristic, function, and arising, followed by beginning, middle, and end〔406c16–19〕. The chapter ends with “joy is the end”〔T32 406c19〕; immediately afterward comes the chapter-heading line “Chapter Four: Analysis of Concentration”〔T32 406c20〕. The two paragraphs of the base text span〔T32 406c09–406c19〕.
1. Structural Location
Four sections in two paragraphs:
| Section | Verbatim span of the source, each tied to its anchor |
|---|---|
| 1 · Listing the four cases | “Question: How is what is an ascetic practice spoken of as an ascetic practice?” 〔T32 406c09–10〕 … “Answer: There is also what is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as having an ascetic practice; and there is what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice” 〔T32 406c10–12〕 |
| 2 · Explaining the four cases one by one | “What is there that is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice? It is an arahant who accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c12–13〕 … “What is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice? It is trainees, ordinary people who do not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c15–16〕 |
| 3 · Characteristic, function, and arising, stated twice | “Question: What is the characteristic of the ascetic practices? What is their function? What is their arising?” 〔T32 406c16–17〕 … “Further: non-attachment is the characteristic, freedom from fault is the function, and non-regression is the arising” 〔T32 406c18〕 |
| 4 · Beginning, middle, and end | “What are the beginning, middle, and end? Undertaking is the beginning, practice is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 406c18–19〕 |
Agreement of unit and paragraph boundaries: the base text has two paragraphs, whose boundary coincides with the two questions—the first begins “Question: How is what is an ascetic practice spoken of as an ascetic practice?”〔406c09–10〕, and the second begins “Question: What is the characteristic of the ascetic practices? What is their function? What is their arising?”〔406c16–17〕. There are two questions in the whole passage; all the remaining question forms are the answer-text’s own “what is” formulations. The question in the first paragraph is the fifth question at the beginning of the preceding unit〔T32 406b17–18〕—it is not answered there but is asked again and then answered here. What follows is the chapter-heading line “Chapter Four: Analysis of Concentration”〔T32 406c20〕 and the opening of chapter four, “Question: At that time, the person practising seated meditation whose virtue is pure, having carried out the undertaking of ascetic practices”〔T32 406c21〕.
Locator for the whole passage
〔T32, 406c09–19〕
2. Terminology and Renderings, Each Tied Verbatim to Its Anchor
| Term | Use in this passage | Intra-treatise connection |
|---|---|---|
| Four cases 四句—what is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice, and so forth | “Answer: There is also what is an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice; there is what is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as having an ascetic practice; and there is what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice” 〔T32 406c10–12〕 | The list and the item labels are uneven in two places: (1) the third case in the list has 有 after “spoken of”〔406c11〕, one more 有 than the other three cases, while its label reads “what is there that is not an ascetic practice and is spoken of as an ascetic practice”〔406c14〕, where that character is absent; (2) the fourth case in the list begins with 有〔406c11–12〕, while its label, “what is not an ascetic practice and is not spoken of as an ascetic practice”〔406c15–16〕, loses the opening 有. Recorded without making the forms uniform |
| Undertaking of ascetic practices 頭陀受 | “It is an arahant who accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c12–13〕; “It is trainees, ordinary people who do not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c16〕 | “Undertaking of ascetic practices” occurs six times in the entire treatise (406c03·c13·c14·c15·c16·406c21), four of them in this passage; the first occurs in the preceding unit〔406c03〕 and the sixth in the opening passage of chapter four, “having carried out the undertaking of ascetic practices”〔406c21〕. The four cases cross two criteria—being or not being an ascetic practice is judged by the person (arahant / trainees and ordinary people), while being or not being spoken of as an ascetic practice is judged by the practice (whether the undertaking of ascetic practices is accomplished). The author does not explain why, and this edition does not explain on his behalf |
| Arahant 阿羅漢 / trainees and ordinary people 學人及凡夫 / trainees, ordinary people 學人凡夫 | “It is an arahant who accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c12–13〕; “It is trainees and ordinary people who accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c14–15〕; “It is trainees, ordinary people who do not accomplish the undertaking of ascetic practices” 〔T32 406c16〕 | “An arahant accomplishes” occurs once in the entire treatise〔406c12〕. “Trainees and ordinary people” occurs three times in the entire treatise (406c14–15·407b22·444c01–02), while “trainees, ordinary people” occurs twice (406c16·407b23)—the two forms always occur next to each other: once in this passage and once in chapter four〔407b22·407b23〕. The third case has “and,” while the fourth does not; recorded without making them uniform |
| Characteristic · function · arising 相·味·起 | “Question: What is the characteristic of the ascetic practices? What is their function? What is their arising?” 〔T32 406c16–17〕; “Answer: Few desires are the characteristic, contentment is the function, and free of doubt is the arising” 〔T32 406c17〕; “Further: non-attachment is the characteristic, freedom from fault is the function, and non-regression is the arising” 〔T32 406c18〕 | “What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its arising?” is a fixed formula in this treatise and occurs nineteen times (400c01·406c16·406c22·415c02·415c23·416a13·418b21·418b27·419b07·419b16·419b22·420b13·422b20·435a11·437a24·437b21·437c11·438b25·444c05)—its first occurrence asks about virtue in chapter one〔400c01〕, the present passage is the second, and the third asks about concentration at the very beginning of chapter four〔406c22〕. The same question is answered twice, and the author does not state which answer is primary; both are recorded without choosing one. “Non-attachment” occurs nine times in the entire treatise (406c18·419b08·437c14·438b14·b15·b16·b21·439a07·444a22), the present passage being its first occurrence |
| Few desires 少欲 · contentment 知足 · free of doubt 無疑 | “Answer: Few desires are the characteristic, contentment is the function, and free of doubt is the arising” 〔T32 406c17〕 | The three terms occur together in the same order at three places in this chapter—the opening general account, “for few desires, for contentment, for being free of doubt”〔T32 404b23–24〕; the words of the Buddha quoted in the fifth passage, “depends on few desires and contentment, delights in quiet, is free of doubt”〔T32 406b22–23〕; and the present passage〔406c17〕. The wording and order are the same; one of the three occurrences is in words of the Buddha quoted by the author. “Free of doubt” occurs nineteen times in the entire treatise, not once outside this chapter (404b24 to 406c17), its first occurrence being in the opening general account and its last in the present passage. The author does not connect the passages, and this edition does not connect them on his behalf; it only places the three anchors side by side |
| Beginning · middle · end 初中後 | “What are the beginning, middle, and end? Undertaking is the beginning, practice is the middle, and joy is the end” 〔T32 406c18–19〕 | “What are the beginning, middle, and end?” occurs once in the entire treatise〔406c18〕. Undertaking, practice, and joy are the full course of the thirteen ascetic practices, from undertaking them as a commitment through practice to their accomplishment. The critical note falls on the final character〔406c19〕: 後【大】, 後分【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 (see section 3) |
3. Textual Notes and Variant Readings
Within this passage the Taishō apparatus has two notes. Both are recorded without emending the text, which follows the Taishō base throughout:
| Anchor | Base text | Variant | Witnesses |
|---|---|---|---|
| 406c13 | 受, “undertaking,” in “an arahant accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices” | 〔－〕 | 【宋】【元】【明】 |
| 406c19 | 後, “end,” in “joy is the end” | 後分, “final portion” | 【宋】【元】【明】【宮】 |
Two matters are recorded without decision:
- At 406c13, the final character 受 in “an arahant accomplishes the undertaking of ascetic practices” is absent from three witnesses—that is, the three witnesses omit this character and read “accomplishes the ascetic practices,” rather than offering a second wording; the 【宮】 witness does not join them, unlike the four-witness support for the other note in this passage. The other three cases all read “undertaking of ascetic practices” (406c14·c15·c16). This text follows the base; the two readings are recorded without decision.
- At 406c19, where the base reads “joy is the end,” four witnesses read “joy is the final portion”—if the variant is followed, the three terms become beginning · middle · final portion, and their names are uneven (the first two are “beginning” and “middle,” while the third is “final portion”); if the base is followed, all three names contain a single Chinese character. Both are recorded without decision, and the text follows the base. This is the final character of the chapter.
Three zero-occurrence results for the critical apparatus: within this passage there is no missing-character mark; no parenthetical insertion; and no place where a variant reading has already been adopted in the text.
4. Citations by the Author
No citation occurs in this passage: the whole passage contains no formula such as “as the Buddha said,” “as the sutta says,” “as the Abhidhamma says,” or “as a venerable one said,” and it contains no account introduced as another view (“a further account says” or “it is further said”). One occurrence of “further”〔406c18〕introduces the author’s own second formulation; it does not cite another person.
Citations in this chapter occur in other passages: the fourth cites a treatise with “As the Abhidhamma says, there are eight ascetic practices” 〔T32 406b07–08〕 and cites words of the Buddha with “Therefore the Buddha spoke for Nantuo” 〔T32 406b14〕; the fifth quotes the Buddha with “As the Buddha said: if a rag-robe bhikkhu depends on few desires and contentment, delights in quiet, is free of doubt, and depends on freedom” 〔T32 406b22–23〕. None is within the present passage; their locations are recorded for intra-chapter reading and are not included in the citation count of this passage.
5. Simile and Rhetoric
- No simile occurs in this passage: the whole passage contains no simile formula (of the chapter’s six passages, the first three each contain one simile—like a bird flying through the sky〔404c29〕, like the moon appearing rarely〔405a19〕, and like a wild deer〔405c15–16〕—and the fifth contains one—like a person with a phlegm illness〔406c05–06〕; the fourth and the present passage contain none).
- The form of the four cases〔T32 406c10–16〕: the two matters “is / is not an ascetic practice” and “is / is not spoken of as an ascetic practice” are crossed to produce four; they are listed in one section and explained one by one in another, and the wording of the two sections is uneven in two places (see section 2).
- The form of two criteria operating separately〔T32 406c12–16〕: the first matter is judged by the person (arahant / trainees and ordinary people), while the second is judged by the practice (whether the undertaking of ascetic practices is accomplished). The author does not explain why.
- The form of one question with two answers〔T32 406c17·406c18〕: characteristic, function, and arising are first answered with few desires, contentment, and free of doubt, and then with non-attachment, freedom from fault, and non-regression. The author does not state which is primary; both are recorded as they stand.
- The form of correspondence between the beginning and end〔T32 404b23–24 compared with 406c17〕: the first three of the eight “for” statements at the chapter’s beginning (for few desires · for contentment · for being free of doubt) and the three terms in the account of characteristic, function, and arising in the present passage (few desires as characteristic · contentment as function · free of doubt as arising) have the same wording and order; in between comes the Buddha’s quoted statement, “depends on few desires and contentment, delights in quiet, is free of doubt”〔406b22–23〕. The three terms occur together at all three places, and the author does not connect them.
- The end of the chapter〔T32 406c19〕: the chapter ends with the four Chinese characters “joy is the end”; the next line is the chapter-heading line “Chapter Four: Analysis of Concentration”〔406c20〕.
6. Intra-Chapter Connections
- Backward: the question in this passage is the fifth question at the beginning of the preceding unit〔T32 406b17–18〕—it is asked there but not answered, and here it is asked again and then answered. The first occurrence of “undertaking of ascetic practices” is in the preceding unit〔T32 406c03〕. The other two places where few desires, contentment, and free of doubt occur together are the opening general account〔T32 404b23–24〕 and the words of the Buddha quoted in the fifth passage〔T32 406b22–23〕; the first occurrence of “free of doubt” is at the chapter’s beginning〔404b24〕, and its last is in the present passage〔406c17〕.
- Forward across chapters: this chapter ends at〔T32 406c19〕, the chapter-four heading is at〔T32 406c20〕, and the opening passage of chapter four reads “Question: At that time, the person practising seated meditation whose virtue is pure, having carried out the undertaking of ascetic practices and accomplished an excellent wholesome state, what should be done?” 〔T32 406c21–22〕—the sixth occurrence of “undertaking of ascetic practices” is here, and the third occurrence of the formula “What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its arising?” is likewise at the beginning of chapter four〔T32 406c22〕. The other adjacent occurrence of the two forms “trainees and ordinary people” / “trainees, ordinary people” is in chapter four〔T32 407b22·407b23〕. The remaining eight occurrences of “non-attachment” are distributed from chapter eight onward (419b08·437c14·438b14·b15·b16·b21·439a07·444a22).
- Fascicle and chapter order: this passage belongs to the Chapter on the Ascetic Practices in fascicle two (the opening title of fascicle two is at〔404b16〕 and the chapter-heading line at〔404b20〕; fascicle two closes at〔T32 409b17〕). The entire chapter lies within fascicle two, and fascicle two itself opens with this chapter (the text begins at〔404b21〕)—the chapter begins where fascicle two begins, while the chapter’s end〔406c19〕falls within fascicle two.
7. Transmission
This edition takes no position in the apparatus on questions concerning the author, translator, or transmission.
Shi Huijing · Waken · The Path of Freedom · The Four Cases of the Ascetic Practices and Their Characteristic, Function, and Arising · Apparatus · Summer 2026