大智度論 摩訶衍品之一Dazhidulun — Mahāprajñāpāramitā-upadeśa · Mahāyāna, Part 1 of 2

In this chapter the Buddha spreads the whole of ‘Mahāyāna’, the Great Vehicle, open for you to see. Subhūti ought to have asked about prajñā, yet he changes the name and asks about Mahāyāna; the treatise-author comes to his rescue, saying 「般若波羅蜜、摩訶衍一義，但名字異」 tr. "prajñāpāramitā and Mahāyāna are one in meaning; only the names differ": what prajñā and Mahāyāna point to is from the first one thing, only the names are different, and since among the six perfections prajñā is the greatest, to speak of Mahāyāna is already to have spoken prajñā to the full. What, then, is Mahāyāna after all? The Buddha first answers in one sentence, ‘the six perfections are the bodhisattva-mahāsattva's Mahāyāna’: the body of the Great Vehicle is these six perfections, giving, morality, patience, vigour, meditation, and prajñā. The treatise-author then points out that the six perfections are the very body of Mahāyāna, and that the eighteen emptinesses and the hundred and eight samādhi opened up afterward are only a finer distinguishing of its meaning upon this body. So the rest of the chapter spreads out along two roads. One road is the eighteen emptinesses, inner emptiness, outer emptiness, up to the emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas, of each of which it is said ‘because it is neither permanent nor destroyed; why? because its nature is so of itself’; the treatise-author explains the purpose of this closing sentence: if a person does not practise this emptiness, he falls either into ‘permanence’ or into ‘destruction’, so one must leave these two extremes and practise the eighteen emptinesses by the middle way, breaking ‘existence’ without clinging to ‘emptiness’, and further deliver beings with a mind of great compassion. This road uses the eighteen emptinesses to explain prajñāpāramitā. The other road, past the fascicle boundary, is the hundred and eight samādhi: śūraṃgama, jewel seal, lion's play, wondrous moon, all the way down to free of attachment, undefiled as space; the Buddha first lists all one hundred and eight names in one breath, then himself explains them very briefly; the treatise-author, afraid they will not be easily understood, again explains the meaning of each name one by one, 「首楞嚴三昧者，秦言健相」 tr. "the śūraṃgama samādhi, in the language of Qin, ‘the mark of valour’", like a great general able to know and distinguish the strength of all his troops, how many and how deep; the jewel seal can seal and settle all samādhi; the lion's play can enter and leave all samādhi at will; each is a simile set up upon the thing itself, and this is where the teaching lifeline of the whole chapter shows most. The treatise-author himself marks the place of this road: 「上以十八空釋般若波羅蜜，今以百八三昧釋禪波羅蜜」 tr. "above, the eighteen emptinesses explained the perfection of prajñā; now the hundred and eight samādhi explain the perfection of meditation": the eighteen emptinesses are matched to the perfection of prajñā, the hundred and eight samādhi to the perfection of meditation. Yet the hundred and eight samādhi of the perfection of meditation are in the end not outside prajñā: at the very end the treatise gives its charge, 「是諸三昧末後，皆應言用無所得，以同般若故」 tr. "at the end of each of these samādhi one should say ‘used with nothing to be attained’, because they are the same as prajñā": the closing of every samādhi must have this sentence ‘used with nothing to be attained’ added, because they are of one taste with prajñā. This is what the Chapter on Mahāyāna wants you to grasp: the greatness of the Great Vehicle lies not in the multitude of names and marks, but in the six perfections, the eighteen emptinesses, the hundred and eight samādhi, and every kind of good dharma each taking nothing to be attained as its home, and joining together to form one body of the Great Vehicle: 「如是等無量無邊三昧和合，名為摩訶衍」 tr. "measureless, boundless samādhi such as these, joined together, are named Mahāyāna".

Six Questions Open the Teaching, and the Buddha First Answers the First: The Six Perfections Are the Mahāyāna

At that time Subhūti asked the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One! What is the Mahāyāna (the Great Vehicle) of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva? How is one to know that a bodhisattva-mahāsattva has rightly aroused the mind and is heading toward the Great Vehicle? From where does this vehicle set out? Where does this vehicle arrive? Where should it abide? And who is it that rides this vehicle and goes forth from birth and death?’

The Buddha told Subhūti: ‘What you have asked is what the Mahāyāna of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva is. Subhūti! The six perfections are the Mahāyāna of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva. Which six? They are dānapāramitā (giving), śīlapāramitā (morality), kṣāntipāramitā (patience), vīryapāramitā (vigour), dhyānapāramitā (meditation), and prajñāpāramitā (wisdom).’

The Six Perfections One by One: From Giving to Prajñā, All Practised with a Mind in Accord with Sarvajñā and Accomplished Through Nothing to Be Attained

‘What is called the perfection of giving? Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with a mind in accord with sarvajñā (omniscience), gives away everything he has, his own body within and his possessions without, shares it in common with all beings, and dedicates it to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi (unsurpassed, right, and complete awakening); and he practises this because there is nothing to be attained. Subhūti! This is called the perfection of giving of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.

‘What is called the perfection of morality? Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with a mind in accord with sarvajñā, himself practises the ten wholesome paths and also teaches others to practise the ten wholesome paths; and he practises this because there is nothing to be attained. This is called the unclinging perfection of morality of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.

‘What is called the perfection of patience? Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with a mind in accord with sarvajñā, is himself complete in patience and also teaches others to practise patience; and he practises this because there is nothing to be attained. This is called the perfection of patience of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.

‘What is called the perfection of vigour? Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with a mind in accord with sarvajñā, practises the other five perfections, cultivating them diligently without ceasing, and also establishes all beings in these five perfections; and he practises this because there is nothing to be attained. This is called the perfection of vigour of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.

‘What is called the perfection of meditation? Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with a mind in accord with sarvajñā, himself enters the various meditative absorptions by skilful means, yet is not reborn in accordance with those absorptions, and also teaches others and brings them to enter the various meditative absorptions; and he practises this because there is nothing to be attained. This is called the perfection of meditation of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.

‘What is called the perfection of prajñā? Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva, with a mind in accord with sarvajñā, does not cling to any dharmas and also contemplates the nature of all dharmas, practising this because there is nothing to be attained; and he also teaches others not to cling to any dharmas and to contemplate the nature of all dharmas, practising this because there is nothing to be attained. This is called the perfection of prajñā of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.

‘Subhūti! This is the Mahāyāna of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.’

The Mahāyāna Is Also Called the Eighteen Emptinesses (First Part): Inner Emptiness, Outer Emptiness, Inner-and-Outer Emptiness, the Emptiness of Emptiness, Great Emptiness, the Emptiness of the Highest Meaning

The Buddha said further: ‘Furthermore, Subhūti! The bodhisattva-mahāsattva has another Mahāyāna, namely inner emptiness, outer emptiness, inner-and-outer emptiness, the emptiness of emptiness, great emptiness, the emptiness of the highest meaning, the emptiness of the conditioned, the emptiness of the unconditioned, ultimate emptiness, the emptiness of the beginningless, the emptiness of dispersal, the emptiness of nature, the emptiness of specific marks, the emptiness of all dharmas, the emptiness of the unfindable, the emptiness of non-existent dharmas, the emptiness of existent dharmas, and the emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas.’

Subhūti asked the Buddha: ‘What is inner emptiness?’ The Buddha said: ‘Inner dharmas are the six faculties: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. The eye is empty of eye, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. The ear is empty of ear, the nose is empty of nose, the tongue is empty of tongue, the body is empty of body, the mind is empty of mind, all because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called inner emptiness.’

‘What is outer emptiness?’ ‘Outer dharmas are the six sense-objects: forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles, and mental objects. Form is empty of form, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. Sound is empty of sound, smell is empty of smell, taste is empty of taste, the tangible is empty of the tangible, the mental object is empty of the mental object, all because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called outer emptiness.’

‘What is inner-and-outer emptiness?’ ‘Inner and outer dharmas are the six inner sense-fields and the six outer sense-fields. Inner dharmas are empty of inner dharmas, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. Outer dharmas are empty of outer dharmas, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called inner-and-outer emptiness.’

‘What is the emptiness of emptiness?’ ‘All dharmas are empty, and this emptiness that empties is itself also empty, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of emptiness.’

‘What is great emptiness?’ ‘The east is empty of the east, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. The south, the west, the north, the four intermediate directions, the zenith, and the nadir—these directions too are empty of direction, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called great emptiness.’

‘What is the emptiness of the highest meaning?’ ‘The highest meaning is nirvāṇa. Nirvāṇa is empty of nirvāṇa, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of the highest meaning.’

The Mahāyāna Is Also Called the Eighteen Emptinesses (Middle Part): The Emptiness of the Conditioned, the Emptiness of the Unconditioned, Ultimate Emptiness, the Emptiness of the Beginningless, the Emptiness of Dispersal, the Emptiness of Nature

‘What is the emptiness of the conditioned?’ ‘Conditioned dharmas are the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm. The desire realm is empty of the desire realm; the form realm is empty of the form realm; the formless realm is empty of the formless realm; all because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of the conditioned.’

‘What is the emptiness of the unconditioned?’ ‘Unconditioned dharmas are the mark of non-arising, the mark of non-abiding, and the mark of non-ceasing. Unconditioned dharmas are empty of unconditioned dharmas, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of the unconditioned.’

‘What is ultimate emptiness?’ ‘Ultimate means that dharmas, at their very end, are all unfindable, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called ultimate emptiness.’

‘What is the emptiness of the beginningless?’ ‘If the first place from which dharmas come is unfindable, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of the beginningless.’

‘What is the emptiness of dispersal?’ ‘Dispersal means that dharmas in the end scatter and break apart, and have no real substance that could be destroyed, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of dispersal.’

‘What is the emptiness of nature?’ ‘The nature of all dharmas, whether the nature of conditioned dharmas or the nature of unconditioned dharmas—this nature is not made by śrāvakas or pratyekabuddhas, not made by the Buddha, nor made by anyone else at all. This nature is empty of nature, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of nature.’

The Mahāyāna Is Also Called the Eighteen Emptinesses (Last Part): The Emptiness of Specific Marks, the Emptiness of All Dharmas, the Emptiness of the Unfindable, the Emptiness of Non-existent Dharmas, the Emptiness of Existent Dharmas, the Emptiness of Non-existent and Existent Dharmas

‘What is the emptiness of specific marks?’ ‘Specific marks means this: form has deterioration as its mark, feeling has experiencing as its mark, perception has grasping images as its mark, constructions have fabricating as their mark, consciousness has discerning as its mark; the specific marks of each of such various dharmas—conditioned dharmas and even unconditioned dharmas—are all empty, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of specific marks.’

‘What is the emptiness of all dharmas?’ ‘All dharmas are the five aggregates of form, feeling, perception, constructions, and consciousness; the six faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind; the six sense-objects of forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles, and mental objects; and the eighteen elements—the eye-element, the form-element, the eye-consciousness-element, up to the mind-element, the mental-object-element, and the mind-consciousness-element. All these dharmas are empty of all dharmas, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is the emptiness of all dharmas.’

‘What is the emptiness of the unfindable?’ ‘Dharmas are sought and are not found. This unfindability is itself the emptiness of the unfindable, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of the unfindable.’

‘What is the emptiness of non-existent dharmas?’ ‘If a dharma is non-existent (non-existent because already ceased, or not yet arisen), this non-existence too is empty, because it is neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Its nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of non-existent dharmas.’

‘What is the emptiness of existent dharmas?’ ‘Existent dharmas means that within the coming together of dharmas there is a mark of each one's own nature. These existent dharmas are empty, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of existent dharmas.’

‘What is the emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas?’ ‘The non-existence within dharmas, and the existence—with a mark of own-nature—within the coming together of dharmas: this non-existence and this existence taken together are both empty, because they are neither permanent nor annihilated. Why? Their nature is so of itself. This is called the emptiness of non-existent and existent dharmas.’

Four Emptinesses of Marks Are Spoken of Again: the emptiness of dharmas and the mark of dharmas, the emptiness of non-existent dharmas and the mark of non-existent dharmas, the emptiness of own-dharmas in own-dharmas, the emptiness of other-dharmas in other-dharmas

The Buddha said further: ‘Furthermore, Subhūti! There are also the emptiness of dharmas and the mark of dharmas, the emptiness of non-existent dharmas and the mark of non-existent dharmas, own-dharma-own-dharma-mark emptiness, and other-dharma-other-dharma-mark emptiness.’

‘What is called the emptiness of dharmas and the mark of dharmas?’ ‘Dharma means the five aggregates; the five aggregates are empty. This is called the emptiness of dharmas and the mark of dharmas.’

‘What is called the emptiness of non-existent dharmas and the mark of non-existent dharmas?’ ‘Non-dharma means unconditioned dharmas (unconditioned dharmas have no arising, ceasing, or fabrication, and so they are called non-dharma). This is called the emptiness of non-existent dharmas and the mark of non-existent dharmas.’

‘What is called the emptiness of own-dharmas in own-dharmas?’ ‘The own-dharma of dharmas is empty; this emptiness is not made by wisdom, nor made by views; it is empty in itself from the start. This is called the emptiness of own-dharmas in own-dharmas.’

‘What is called the emptiness of other-dharmas in other-dharmas?’ ‘Whether a Buddha appears in the world or a Buddha has not yet appeared in the world, these ever-abiding principles—the abiding of dharmas, the mark of dharmas, the position of dharmas, dharma-nature, suchness, and the reality-limit—are there; yet all dharmas beyond these are also empty. This is called the emptiness of other-dharmas in other-dharmas.’

‘This is called the Mahāyāna of the bodhisattva-mahāsattva.’

The Treatise-Author Resolves a Doubt: Prajñā and the Mahāyāna Differ Only in Name

What follows is the treatise's explanation.

Question: This sūtra is named prajñāpāramitā, and the Buddha commanded Subhūti to expound prajñāpāramitā for the bodhisattvas; so Subhūti ought to have asked about prajñāpāramitā, and the Buddha ought to have answered about prajñāpāramitā. Why, then, does Subhūti now ask about the Mahāyāna, and the Buddha also answer about the Mahāyāna?

Answer: Prajñāpāramitā and the Mahāyāna are fundamentally one meaning; only their names differ. Whether one speaks of prajñāpāramitā or speaks of the Mahāyāna, there is no fault. Mahāyāna is a name for the Buddha path; practising this dharma one is able to reach the ground of Buddhahood, and this dharma is the six perfections; and of the six perfections the foremost in breadth is precisely prajñāpāramitā. It is like the great causes and conditions that the Buddha proclaims in various ways in later chapters. If one speaks of prajñāpāramitā, it gathers in the six perfections; if one speaks of the six perfections, it states in full the bodhisattva path, that is, from the first arousing of the mind all the way to becoming a Buddha. It is like a king going out on a journey: he is certain to have a retinue and guards, and even if the retinue is not mentioned, one knows it must be there. The Mahāyāna is also like this—everything the bodhisattva cultivates from the first arousing of the mind is all for the sake of seeking the Buddha path; therefore he accumulates all kinds of wholesome dharmas, and, according to the beings who are to be ferried across, he expounds all kinds of dharma-gates, namely the Sūtra of the Original Arising, the Sūtra on Cutting Off the Doubts of All Beings, the Flower-Hand Sūtra, the Lotus Sūtra, the Cloud Sūtra, the Great Cloud Sūtra, the Dharma Cloud Sūtra, the Sūtra of Maitreya's Questions, the Sūtra of the Six Perfections, and the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra—sūtras as many as these, measureless, boundless, asaṃkhyeya in number: some spoken by the Buddha himself, some spoken by transformation Buddhas, some spoken by great bodhisattvas, some spoken by śrāvakas, some spoken by gods and humans who have attained the path. All of these, taken together, are called the Mahāyāna. Among these many sūtras prajñāpāramitā is the broadest, so as soon as the Mahāyāna is spoken of, one knows that prajñāpāramitā has already been spoken of. The other various dharmas that assist the path, if prajñāpāramitā is not joined with them, cannot reach the ground of Buddhahood; therefore all dharmas that assist the path are prajñāpāramitā, just as in a later chapter the Buddha says to Subhūti: The Mahāyāna you speak of is no different from prajñāpāramitā.

Why the Mahāyāna Was Not Spoken of First: Prajñā Is the Greatest and So Is Spoken of First; the Origin in the Emitted Light and the Teaching

Question: If that is so, why was the Mahāyāna not spoken of first at the beginning?

Answer: I have already said above that prajñāpāramitā is the broadest, so it ought to be spoken of first. Furthermore, the Buddha's original intention was to proclaim the Mahāprajñāpāramitā, and so he emitted a great light; the bodhisattvas of the worlds of the ten directions each asked their Buddha: Why is there such a light now? The Buddhas each answered: In the Sahā world there is a Buddha named Śākyamuni who is about to proclaim prajñāpāramitā. Those bodhisattvas and the assemblies of gods and humans then came together. Śāriputra, moreover, asked the Buddha: World-Honored One! If a bodhisattva-mahāsattva wishes to know all dharmas completely, how should he cultivate prajñāpāramitā? Furthermore, in the very first chapter the Buddha also praised the merits of prajñāpāramitā in various ways: whoever wishes to obtain these merits should train in prajñāpāramitā. Because of causes and conditions of all these kinds, prajñāpāramitā ought to have been spoken of at the very beginning.

The Buddha commanded Subhūti: Expound prajñāpāramitā for the bodhisattvas! Subhūti deferred, saying: A bodhisattva is only an empty name. Later he said again: To understand and clearly comprehend the mark of the bodhisattva in this way is to practise prajñāpāramitā. Having come to know this, he went on to ask about the meaning of the phrase ‘bodhisattva’, and after that came the meaning of mahāsattva; and within the meaning of mahāsattva are contained the great adornment and the Mahāyāna. It is like a brave warrior: although he has all kinds of weapons and adornments, if he does not mount a fine horse, he can accomplish nothing. This Great Vehicle is called Mahāyāna in the language of India. Because the Buddhas have already cut off craving for dharmas, and because the meaning of prajñāpāramitā is not two, the Buddha did not rebuke him. Therefore Subhūti set up another name, and with it asked about the Mahāyāna.

Why the Mahāyāna Is Said to Be Only the Six Perfections: All Wholesome Dharmas Are Gathered in Them, and the Eighteen Emptinesses and the Hundred and Eight Samādhi Display Their Meaning at Length

Question: As is said in the preface on the Mahāyāna, from the first arousing of the mind all the way to accomplishing the Buddha path, all the wholesome dharmas accumulated for the sake of the Buddha path are called the Mahāyāna; why, then, is it now said only that the six perfections are the Mahāyāna?

Answer: As was said before, to speak of prajñāpāramitā is already to speak of the six perfections, and to speak of the six perfections is to gather in all wholesome dharmas. Therefore one should not ask in this way: Wholesome dharmas are so many; why speak only of the six perfections? Furthermore, the Mahāyāna, from the first arousing of the mind and making of vows through to all the later skilful means, is equally contained within the six perfections; although these dharma-gates are not called perfections, their meaning is all within the six perfections. For example, the first arousing of the mind and making of vows, great compassion, and so on, because the power of the mind is vast, are called the perfection of vigour; relinquishing small benefit and taking up the Great Vehicle is called the perfection of prajñā; skilful means is itself wisdom, and because the wisdom is pure it is renamed skilful means. Teaching and transforming beings, purifying Buddha-worlds, and so on, are also all within the six perfections, each gathered in according to its meaning.

Question: If that is so, why is it said later that the eighteen emptinesses, the hundred and eight samādhi, and so on are also called the Mahāyāna?

Answer: The six perfections are the substance of the Mahāyāna; it is only that later their meaning is further distinguished at length. For example, the eighteen emptinesses, the forty-two letters, and so on are the meaning of the perfection of prajñā; the hundred and eight samādhi and so on are the meaning of the perfection of meditation. Precisely because of this, the six perfections are spoken of first.

Why Exactly Six Perfections Are Taught, No More and No Fewer: To Extinguish the Suffering of the Beings of the Six Paths

Question: Why are exactly six perfections spoken of, no more and no fewer?

Answer: The Buddha, as king of the Dharma, according to the degree to which beings' capacities can be ferried across, sometimes speaks briefly of one, two, three, or four; sometimes he speaks at length, as the Sūtra of the Worthy Kalpa says there are eighty-four thousand perfections. Furthermore, the beings of the six paths all undergo the suffering and affliction of body and mind—the beings of the hells undergo the suffering of beating and flogging; in the path of animals they undergo the suffering of harming one another; in the path of hungry ghosts they undergo the suffering of hunger; in the human path they undergo the suffering of craving and seeking sensual pleasure; in the heavens they undergo the suffering of parting, at the end of life, from the objects of desire they love; in the path of the asuras they undergo the suffering of fighting. The bodhisattva gives rise to the mind of great compassion and wishes to extinguish the suffering of the beings of the six paths, and so he gives rise to the six perfections. Precisely because of this, six perfections are spoken of, no more and no fewer.

Why the Perfection of Giving Is Described by Only Five Marks: The Five Marks Already Gather in All Giving

Question: Giving (the perfection of giving) has all kinds of marks; why does the Buddha here speak of only five marks—namely, with a mind in accord with sarvajñā, relinquishing inner and outer things, sharing this merit in common with all beings, dedicating it to anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, and because there is nothing to be attained? Why does he not speak of the mind of great kindness and compassion, making offerings to the Buddhas, and also the supernormal powers, giving, and so on?

Answer: Within these five marks all giving is already gathered in. As for ‘giving with a mind in accord with sarvajñā’: this is taking the Buddha path as one's object and relying on the Buddha path. As for ‘relinquishing inner and outer’: this is relinquishing all afflictions. As for ‘in common with beings’: this is the mind of great compassion. As for ‘dedicating’: it is that with this giving one seeks only the Buddha path and does not seek any other recompense. As for ‘because there is nothing to be attained’: it is that one has obtained a share of the real mark of all dharmas, prajñāpāramitā, so this giving is not deceptive, not inverted, and also without end.

Would Speaking Only of the Mind in Accord with Sarvajñā Not Suffice? The Meaning of Giving Is Distinguished by Four Matters

Question: If that is so, then five marks are not needed; it would be enough to speak only of the mind in accord with sarvajñā!

Answer: It is acceptable to say so! It is only because beings do not understand the meaning of how to practise giving with a mind in accord with sarvajñā that four matters are used to explain its meaning distinctly.

As for ‘a mind in accord with sarvajñā’: it is with the mind of a bodhisattva to aspire to the Buddha's sarvajñā, taking it as the object, taking it as the thought, binding the mind to it. Holding to this giving, one seeks to obtain the fruit of sarvajñā, and does not seek the causes and conditions of this present life, fame, favour and affection, and so on, nor seek in later lives a place of wealth and honour as a wheel-turning sage king or a heavenly king; for the sake of ferrying beings across one does not seek even nirvāṇa, but wishes only to be complete in the Buddha-dharmas such as omniscience, so as to extinguish entirely the suffering of all beings; this is called a mind in accord with sarvajñā. As for ‘inner and outer things’: inner means the head, brain, bones, marrow, blood, flesh, and so on, which are spoken of first because they are hard to relinquish; outer things are lands, wife and children, the seven jewels, food and drink, and so on. As for ‘in common with all beings’: it means that the meritorious recompense of this giving is enjoyed in common with all beings; it is like a great household that plants grain and eats it together with everyone. The meritorious recompense of the bodhisattva is something all beings come to rely on; it is like a fine fruit tree, on which the many birds all gather. As for ‘dedicating’: it is said with regard to this merit, that one does not seek any other recompense but seeks only anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi.

Question: First ‘a mind in accord with sarvajñā’ was spoken of, and later ‘dedicating’ is spoken of; what is the difference between the two?

Answer: ‘A mind in accord with sarvajñā’ is for producing the causes and conditions of all kinds of merit; ‘dedicating’ is not seeking any other recompense and seeking only the Buddha path. Furthermore, the mind in accord with sarvajñā practises giving in order to be in accord with anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; just as was said in the meaning explained before: sarvajñā is the master, and all merits are for the sake of sarvajñā. In praising the Buddha's wisdom there are two kinds: the first is unsurpassed right knowledge, called anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; the second is the omniscience of all kinds, called sarvajñā. As for ‘using nothing to be attained’: it is practising giving with the mind of prajñāpāramitā, according with the real mark of all dharmas and not deceptive. Explanations of all these kinds explain the meaning of giving (the perfection of giving).

Why the Perfection of Morality Is Described Only as the Ten Wholesome Paths: The Ten Wholesome Are the Precepts in Their General Mark

Question: Morality (the perfection of morality) gathers in all the precepts, just as the great ocean gathers in all streams. Matters such as not drinking alcohol, not eating after midday, and not harming beings with a stick are not included within the ten wholesome paths; why, then, are only the ten wholesome paths spoken of?

Answer: The Buddha speaks of the six perfections in terms of their general mark; the ten wholesome paths are precepts in their general mark, and in their particular marks there are measureless precepts. Not drinking alcohol and not eating after midday are included within non-greed; not harming beings with a stick and so on are included within non-hatred; the other precepts likewise follow according to their meaning. Precepts concern bodily action and verbal action, and are gathered in by the seven wholesome paths. As for the ten wholesome paths together with their preliminary and subsequent stages—for example, when one resolves to kill, the means used at that time, such as harsh speech, whipping, binding, cutting and stabbing, up to bringing the victim to the point of death, all belong to the beginning; after death, flaying, eating, and cutting up the body with delight are all called the subsequent; taking the life is the substance itself; these three things taken together are called, in sum, the unwholesome path of killing. From this one knows that to speak of the ten wholesome paths is to gather in all the precepts.

The Ten Wholesome Are the Old Precepts and the Rules of Restraint Are Guests: The Differences of Repentance and No Repentance, of a Buddha Present and No Buddha

Furthermore, the bodhisattva gives rise to a mind of kindness and compassion and arouses anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi; with giving he benefits beings, and whatever they need, he gives it to them all in full; keeping the precepts, he does not trouble or harm beings and does not inflict all kinds of suffering, but constantly bestows fearlessness. The ten paths of wholesome action are the root; all the rest are distant causes and conditions of not troubling or harming beings. The rules of discipline are established for realising nirvāṇa in this present life; although sexual desire does not trouble or harm beings, it becomes a grave offence because it binds the mind; therefore within the rules of discipline sexual desire is placed first. For householders in white, the precept against killing comes first; this is for the sake of seeking merit. The bodhisattva does not seek nirvāṇa in this present life; through measureless lifetimes he goes back and forth in birth and death, cultivating all kinds of merit. Therefore the ten wholesome paths are the old precepts, and the other rules of restraint are guest precepts.

Furthermore, if a Buddha appears in a good age, there are none of these rules of discipline; as with Śākyamuni Buddha, who, although he appeared in an evil age, for the first twelve years still did not have these precepts; from this one knows that the rules of restraint are guests. Furthermore, precepts are of two kinds: when there is a Buddha, they may be present or absent; but the ten wholesome, whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, are always present. Furthermore, a precept within the rules of discipline, though subtle, is purified once there is repentance; but if one breaks the precepts of the ten wholesome, even if one repents, the offence leading to the three evil paths still cannot be removed. It is like a bhikṣu who kills an animal: although he repents, the retribution for the offence still cannot be removed. For causes and conditions of all these kinds, only the ten paths of wholesome action are spoken of. Both practising them oneself and teaching others is called the perfection of morality. Of the ten wholesome paths, seven matters are precepts, and three matters are for the sake of guarding them, so together they are called the perfection of morality. The other perfections are likewise distinguished according to their meaning; as in the discussion of the six perfections in the very first chapter, they have already been explained at length.

Prajñā Is Named Relinquishing Marks: All Dharmas Are Practised Through Nothing to Be Attained, and the Mind Neither Weakens Nor Regrets

This sūtra is named Prajñāpāramitā, and the name prajñāpāramitā is precisely the relinquishing of all marks; therefore in all dharmas one practises through nothing to be attained.

Question: To accumulate all kinds of wholesome dharmas with a mind that has something to be attained is not easy even so; how much less with a mind that has nothing to be attained!

Answer: If one has already obtained this wisdom of nothing to be attained, then at that point it could instead obstruct wholesome practice or give rise to wrong doubts; if one has not yet obtained this wisdom of nothing to be attained, then at that point there is nothing to obstruct and no wrong doubts arise! The Buddha too does not approve of cultivating the various wholesome paths with a clinging mind or a mind that grasps at marks. Why? Because deceptive dharmas that abide in the world are in the end exhausted. If one cultivates wholesome dharmas with a clinging mind, it is easy to destroy; if, clinging to emptiness, one gives rise to retreat and regret, one instead loses this path! It is like a fire that arises among grass: when it meets water it goes out; but if a fire arises within water, nothing can put it out. The merit cultivated by a bodhisattva who is a beginner in practice and clings to and grasps at marks is like fire among grass, easily extinguished; but if it is a bodhisattva who has realised the real mark, cultivating the various practices with the mind of great compassion, it is hard to destroy, like fire arising in water, which nothing can put out. Therefore, although he cultivates the various practices with a mind of nothing to be attained, his mind is not timid or weak and gives rise to no doubt or regret. This is a brief explanation of the meaning of the six perfections. If it is explained at length, then, as in the very first chapter, each and every perfection is complete in itself.

After Each of the Eighteen Emptinesses It Is Said Neither Permanent Nor Annihilated: The Middle Way Departs from the Two Extremes of Permanence and Annihilation

As for the eighteen emptinesses: within the six perfections they are spoken in terms of the meaning of the perfection of prajñā—not clinging to dharmas. Why? Precisely because there are the eighteen emptinesses. The discussion of the eighteen emptinesses is as in the very first chapter, where the Buddha told Śāriputra: A bodhisattva-mahāsattva who wishes to abide in the eighteen emptinesses should train in prajñāpāramitā. The meaning there should be explained at length here.

Question: For the eighteen emptinesses, inner emptiness and the rest, it is said after each ‘neither permanent nor annihilated’; what is the meaning of this?

Answer: If a person does not cultivate this emptiness, he will certainly fall into the two extremes of permanence and annihilation. Why? If dharmas really existed, there would be no sense in which they could cease, and so one falls into the view of permanence. It is like a person who comes out of one house and enters another: although the eye does not see him, one cannot say that he no longer exists; dharmas are also like this, entering the present from the future and entering the past from the present; seeing it this way is not-ceasing, and falls into permanence. The practitioner regards existence as a misfortune and so uses emptiness to break existence; yet his mind in turn comes to prize emptiness, and one who clings to emptiness falls into annihilation. Therefore one uses this emptiness to break existence, yet does not cling to emptiness either; departing from these two extremes of permanence and annihilation, one cultivates these eighteen emptinesses by the middle way, and with the mind of great compassion ferries beings across; therefore after each of the eighteen emptinesses it is said ‘neither permanent nor annihilated’, and this is called the Mahāyāna. If one goes against this, one becomes a madman of idle discourse, gaining nothing at all within the Buddha-dharma; it is like a person among a heap of treasures who takes a crystal bead, which looks fine to the eye but in fact has no value at all.

Why Four More Emptinesses Are Taught Beyond the Eighteen: From the emptiness of dharmas and the mark of dharmas to the emptiness of other-dharmas in other-dharmas

Question: If the eighteen emptinesses already gather in all emptinesses, why are four more emptinesses spoken of?

Answer: Within the eighteen emptinesses, the emptinesses at hand are already all gathered in. The Buddhas have two ways of teaching: either first briefly and then at length, or first at length and then briefly. First briefly and then at length is for explaining the meaning; first at length and then briefly is for ease of receiving and upholding. Sometimes, for beings who arrived later at the gathering, the essentials are spoken briefly; sometimes they are proclaimed in verse. Now the Buddha first spoke at length of the eighteen emptinesses, and afterward spoke briefly of the four emptinesses of marks.

As for ‘the emptiness of dharmas and the mark of dharmas’: in all dharmas the mark of a dharma is unfindable; for example, in form the mark of form is unfindable. Furthermore, a dharma cannot be produced from within a dharma, so it is called ‘the emptiness of dharmas in dharmas’.

As for ‘the emptiness of non-existent dharmas in non-existent dharmas’: unconditioned dharmas are called ‘non-dharma’. Why? Because their mark is unfindable.

Question: The Buddha speaks of unconditioned dharmas by way of the three marks of arising, abiding, and ceasing; how can he also say that they have no mark?

Answer: It is not so! To break arising, ‘non-arising’ is spoken of; to break abiding, ‘non-abiding’ is spoken of; to break ceasing, ‘non-ceasing’ is spoken of; all these names exist from the side of arising, abiding, and ceasing, and apart from this there is no other dharma of non-arising or non-ceasing. This is called ‘the emptiness of non-existent dharmas in non-existent dharmas’. This meaning is as spoken of under ‘the emptiness of the unconditioned’.

As for ‘the emptiness of own-dharmas in own-dharmas’: own-dharma means the own-nature of dharmas. Own-nature is of two kinds: the first is like worldly dharmas, such as the solid nature of earth and so on; the second is the suchness, dharma-nature, and reality-limit known by the sages. This dharma is empty. Why? It is not that the emptiness of these two kinds of nature exists only because they are known by wisdom and views—it is empty in nature from the beginning, as was said before.

Question: Suchness, dharma-nature, and the reality-limit are already gathered in among unconditioned dharmas; why speak of them again?

Answer: This speaks of the real mark of the five aggregates—dharma-nature, suchness, and the reality-limit—in terms of the distinctions made at the time of contemplation; and further, it is not that they are made empty by contemplating them with the wisdom of emptiness; rather, their nature is so of itself.

Question: For example, form is own-dharma, and consciousness is other-dharma. Why is it said here that ‘suchness, dharma-nature, and the reality-limit’ always abide whether there is a Buddha or no Buddha, and that what is beyond these is called other-dharma emptiness?

Answer: Because some people have not yet skilfully cut off the fetter of views, they give rise to clinging everywhere. Such people, hearing of suchness, dharma-nature, and the reality-limit, think that beyond these there are other dharmas besides; therefore it is said that what goes beyond ‘suchness, dharma-nature, and the reality-limit’ is also still empty.